There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/financial-toll-caused-by-flooding-will-soar-by-mid-century/">Floods</a> and droughts are the main environmental disasters that are driving crop failures worldwide, and they have become increasingly frequent due to climate change. A new study led by <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> has found that wetland plants have a high tolerance against flooding due to their capacity to form “lysigenous aerenchyma” – air channels that transfer gases to the roots. These channels appear to help plants withstand droughts and nutrient deficiency too.&nbsp;



Understanding how lysigenous aerenchyma form could pave the way towards the development of crops that are more resilient to extreme weather events. According to the researchers, lysigenous aerenchyma could be imagined as similar to snorkels used to breath under water.&nbsp;



During flooding, plants roots are cut off from oxygen and other gases crucial for their survival. In response to this, the plants create air pathways connecting the submerged parts of the plant to the regions above water, which, similar to a snorkel, help the plants “breathe” by transporting vital gases to the submerged roots. In addition, by reducing the energy requirements for the breathing process, these channels can also help plants conserve energy during extreme conditions related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-memory-of-drought/">droughts</a> or nutrient deficits.



The scientists discovered that a phytohormone called “auxin” is needed for the formation of aerenchyma during normal root growth, and identified two factors causing the formation of these channels in response to flooding. When the roots are submerged underwater in aerobic conditions, restrictions to gas exchanges cause ethylene to accumulate in the roots, which leads to the production of respiratory burst oxidase homolog (RBOH), an enzyme responsible for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In its turn, released ROS triggers cell death in the plant tissues, forming cavities for the passage of gases.



Although aerenchyma are mostly associated to plants that have adapted to soils rich in water, they can also develop in plants exposed to droughts or suffering from nutrient deficiencies. Low concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous (nutrients that are crucial for plant growth) can increase ethylene sensitivity, stimulating the formation of aerenchyma.&nbsp;



Understanding the formation of these vital pathways could open up the possibility of improving crop resilience and paving the way for increased food security in the wake of climate change. &nbsp;



“If we can genetically control the timing and amount of lysigenous aerenchyma formation in roots of all agronomically important crops, such as maize, wheat and soybean, the global crop production loss could be dramatically reduced,” explained study co-author Dr. Mikio Nakazono, an expert in Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance at Nagoya University.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2021.10.012">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants that “breathe” underwater could improve crop resilience

Floods and droughts are the main environmental disasters that are...

By playing a fundamental role in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, oceans, soils, and forests are important “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a>” that can help mitigate climate change. However, the complex and delicate ecology of these ecosystems is still unpredictable, and it remains quite difficult to properly asses how they are responding to climate change and how much carbon they are actually capable of pulling and sequestering from the atmosphere.&nbsp;



The total of sequestered carbon is traditionally estimated indirectly, by calculating the difference between human-produced emissions, the amount of carbon in the world’s oceans, and the level of atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by the <a href="https://qcnr.usu.edu/wild/">Department of Wildlife Resources</a> from Utah State University and the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>, supplementing this indirect calculation with data from existing and future collections of tree rings could provide a more accurate and detailed record of the carbon gained by individual trees and forests, with the specificity of an annual time stamp. Such information can then be used to better estimate forest-wide and continent-wide carbon saving.



“Tree-ring time series provide long-term, annually resolved information on the growth of trees. When sampled in a systematic context, tree-ring data can be scaled to estimate the forest carbon capture and storage of landscapes, biomes, and – ultimately - the globe,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



Although tree core samples have been collected during several inventories, their continued collection and analysis in various countries is essential and requires a concerted effort. “We need to get organized with a more cohesive, forward-looking approach, nationally, continentally, and globally,” urged study co-author Justin DeRose, an assistant professor of Silviculture and Forest Ecology at Utah State University.&nbsp;



“Adding tree ring data to the carbon equation would provide a much more nuanced, richer perspective about how forests are responding to the changing climate system."



Sampling tree rings in the forest inventories around the world could bring together key data to quantify and understand how forests are changing worldwide, and how much carbon they can hold as partners in humanity’s fight against climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biab119">BioScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tree rings reveal the carbon storage capacity of a forest

By playing a fundamental role in removing carbon dioxide from...

The extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/background-gardens-increase-regional-bird-diversity/">diversity</a> of flowers has always been a mystery to scientists. A research team led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has recently had a breakthrough while investigating the genetic linkages governing the formation of flowers. 



According to the researchers, a process called “programmed cell death” – a genetic mechanism eliminating some cells on purpose that is at work in the carpels of flowers, or the seed-bearing structures located at the heart of flowers – is partly responsible for flowers’ morphological diversity.



“Flowers are amazing. They’re all built of the same component parts, and yet we have such incredible diversity, from corn tassels to orchids. We want to know how the same few parts wind up creating such wildly different forms,” said study senior author Madelaine Bartlett, a professor of Biology at UMass Amherst.



Professor Bartlett and her team focused on maize flowers and used a technique known as “forward genetics” to identify which genes are responsible for suppressing carpel growth in maize. While scientists have already known that the gene GRASSY TILLERS1&nbsp;(GT1) plays a fundamental role in suppressing carpel growth in this plant, they have not be able to identify other genes working in tandem with GT1 to facilitate this process.&nbsp;



By using “forward genetics” – a way of looking backwards from a known flower formation, or phenotype (in this case, a mutated maize flower caused by a genetic alteration in the cell death process) to the specific mutation causing such formation – the researchers discovered that another gene, RAMOSA3&nbsp;(RA3), also plays a fundamental role in maize carpel programmed cell death.&nbsp;This gene was previously thought to structure only the way that plants branch, but it appears to be pleiotropic, meaning that it can influence several different traits.



“Our results highlight the power of forward genetics to reveal unpredictable genetic interactions and hidden pleiotropy of developmental genes. More broadly, our findings illustrate how ancient gene functions are recruited to new developmental contexts in the evolution of plant form,” explained the study authors.



Clarifying the role that genetics play in structuring the wild diversity of plants is another step forward in better understanding the evolution of life on Earth. Moreover, it could also have fundamental implications for the applied science of plant breeding.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/119/2/e2115871119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New secrets of flower diversity revealed

The extraordinary diversity of flowers has always been a mystery...

Using citizen science data stretching back as far as the mid 18th century, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-can-become-too-salty-for-some-resident-plants/">plants</a> in the UK are flowering a month earlier due to a warming climate.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We can use a wide range of environmental datasets to see how climate change is affecting different species, but most records we have only consider one or a handful of species in a relatively small area,” said study lead author Professor Ulf Büntgen. 



“To really understand what climate change is doing to our world, we need much larger datasets that look at whole ecosystems over a long period of time.”



The researchers analyzed 400,000 observations of 406 plant species in Nature’s Calendar, a database maintained by Woodland Trust. The flowering times were compared with temperatures, and the observations were categorized based on elevation and location.



“Anyone in the UK can submit a record to Nature’s Calendar, by logging their observations of plants and wildlife,” said Professor Büntgen. “It’s an incredibly rich and varied data source, and alongside temperature records, we can use it to quantify how climate change is affecting the functioning of various ecosystem components across the UK.”



The results showed a picture of drastic change. When compared to the time when the first blooms emerged each year from 1753 to 1986, plants were flowering a month later from 1987 to 2019.



“The results are truly alarming, because of the ecological risks associated with earlier flowering times,” said Professor Büntgen. “When plants flower too early, a late frost can kill them – a phenomenon that most gardeners will have experienced at some point. But the even bigger risk is ecological mismatch. Plants, insects, birds and other wildlife have co-evolved to a point that they’re synchronised in their development stages."&nbsp;



"A certain plant flowers, it attracts a particular type of insect, which attracts a particular type of bird, and so on. But if one component responds faster than the others, there’s a risk that they’ll be out of synch, which can lead species to collapse if they can’t adapt quickly enough.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

British plants are now flowering a month earlier

Using citizen science data stretching back as far as the...

Imagine a world in which animals were not farmed for protein and all people consumed only plants. The authors of a new study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford</a> recognize that this would involve a huge change in attitudes, but say their research indicates that a dietary shift away from meat would effectively halt the increase of atmospheric greenhouse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gases-threaten-arctic-ozone-layer/">gases</a> for 30 years while countries phased out the use of fossil fuels.



“We wanted to answer a very simple question: What would be the impact of a global phase-out of animal agriculture on atmospheric greenhouse gases and their global-heating impact?” said study co-author Professor <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/patrick-brown">Patrick Brown</a>.



For their model, the researchers used publicly available data on livestock production and livestock-linked emissions. They examined four dietary scenarios: an immediate replacement of all animal agriculture with plant-only diets; a more gradual and more realistic 15-year transition to a global plant-only diet; and versions of each where only ruminants were replaced with plant-only products.



The authors assumed that all non-agricultural gas emissions would remain constant and that the land formerly used for livestock production would be converted back to grasslands, prairies, forests and scrublands that would absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2).



The experts then used a simple climate model to project how these changes would impact the evolution of atmospheric greenhouse gas levels and warming for the rest of the century.



“The combined effect is both astoundingly large, and – equally important – fast, with much of the benefit realized by 2050,” said Professor Brown. “If animal agriculture were phased out over 15 years and all other greenhouse-gas emissions were to continue unabated, the phase-out would create a 30-year pause in net greenhouse gas emissions and offset almost 70 percent of the heating effect of those emissions through the end of the century.”



The results of the modeling exercise showed that phasing out animal agriculture over the next 15 years would have the same effect as a 68 percent reduction of CO2 emissions through the year 2100. This would provide 52 percent of the net emission reductions necessary to limit global warming to two degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels, which scientists say is the minimum threshold required to avert disastrous climate change.



The changes would stem, the authors say, from the spontaneous decay of the potent greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide, and the recovery of biomass in natural ecosystems on the more than 80 percent of humanity’s land footprint currently devoted to livestock.



“Reducing or eliminating animal agriculture should be at the top of the list of potential climate solutions,” said Professor Brown. “I’m hoping that others, including entrepreneurs, scientists and global policymakers, will recognize that this is our best and most immediate chance to reverse the trajectory of climate change, and seize the opportunity.”



While many other scientists have recognized that emissions from animal agriculture contribute significantly to global warming, what has not been emphasized before is the much more impactful “climate opportunity cost” – the potential to reduce the presence of&nbsp;current greenhouse gases by eliminating livestock.



“As the methane and nitrous oxide emissions from livestock diminish, atmospheric levels of those potent greenhouse gases will actually drop dramatically within decades,” said Professor Brown. “And the CO2 that was released into the atmosphere when forests and wild prairies were replaced by feed crops and grazing lands can be converted back into biomass as livestock are phased out and the forests and prairies recover.”



It would certainly be challenging to get billions of people to change their attitudes towards eating meat, but the model also shows that even phasing out the use of ruminants alone (cattle, sheep) would achieve a 90 percent reduction in the gas emissions from livestock agriculture.&nbsp;



The scientists acknowledge that 15 years is a short time for people to adopt dietary changes, but they point out that many other revolutionary changes have been accepted in shorter time spans. “We went from having no cell phones to cell phones being ubiquitous in less time than that. Electricity, cars, solar panels – all became common in a relatively short period of time,” said study co-author Professor Michael Eisen.



Professor Brown noted that societal attitudes toward food are far from fixed. “Five hundred years ago, nobody in Italy had ever seen a tomato.&nbsp;Sixty years ago, nobody in China had ever drunk a Coke.&nbsp;Mutton was once the most popular meat in America. People around the world readily adopt new foods, especially if they are delicious, nutritious, convenient and affordable.”



The authors acknowledge that the economic and social impacts of a global transition to a plant-based diet would be acute in many regions and locales. They added that substantial global investment will likely be required to ensure that people who make a living from animal agriculture do not suffer when it is reduced or replaced.&nbsp;



However, they write, “in both cases, these investments must be compared to the economic and humanitarian disruptions of significant global warming.”



Professor Brown is the founder and CEO of Impossible Foods, a company that has developed alternatives to using animals in food production, and Professor Eisen is an advisor to the company.&nbsp;



The scientists have made all of the raw data they used, as well as their calculations and the computer code used to carry out the calculations, publicly available so that others can make up their own minds.



“The great thing about science is that, in the end, it all comes down to whether the conclusions are supported by the evidence,” said Professor Brown. “And in this case, they are.”



The study is published today in the open-access journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/">PLoS Climate</a>,



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dietary shift away from meat could prevent climate catastrophe

Imagine a world in which animals were not farmed for...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-01088-5">Nature Plants</a> has found that old and ancient trees provide important ecological services to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperate-rainforests-can-help-fight-climate-change/">forests</a>, sustaining the ability of the entire tree population to adapt to a rapidly changing environment. Thus, instead of being only an awe-inspiring presence, such massive trees contribute evolutionary properties to forests that are vital for their long-term survival.



“We examined the demographic patterns that emerge from old-growth forests over thousands of years, and a very small proportion of trees emerge as life-history ‘lottery winners’ that reach far higher ages that bridge environmental cycles that span centuries,” said study lead author Chuck Cannon, the director of the <a href="https://mortonarb.org/">Morton Arboretum</a>. “In our models, these rare, ancient trees prove to be vital to a forest’s long-term adaptive capacity, substantially broadening the temporal span of the population's overall genetic diversity.”



Together with colleagues from <a href="http://www.unitus.it/">Tuscia University</a> in Italy and the <a href="https://www.ub.edu/web/portal/en/">University of Barcelona</a> in Spain, Dr. Cannon has found that old and ancient trees, which are often 10 to 20 times older than the average trees found in forests, contribute a vitally important amount of genetic and biological diversity to a forest’s overall population, even if they only represent one percent of that population.&nbsp;



Since they have survived countless environmental changes over centuries or even millennia, these trees pass their genetic resilience to their forests. Moreover, they also provide a habitat for endangered species and are capable of sequestering a larger amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-grass-carbon-sink/">carbon</a> than typical mature trees.



Unfortunately, climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">deforestation</a> practices are becoming increasingly damaging to old and ancient trees all over the world.&nbsp;“As the climate changes, it is likely that mortality rates in trees will increase, and it will become increasingly difficult for ancient trees to emerge in forests. Once you cut down old and ancient trees, we lose the genetic and physiological legacy that they contain forever, as well as the unique habitat for nature conservation,”&nbsp;explained Dr. Cannon.



While forest restoration and tree planting efforts are crucial tools for improving local and global environments, ancient trees cannot be recovered or regenerated quickly. They are an emergent property of old-growth forests which are impossible to recreate in newly regenerating forests, and must thus be protected.



According to co-author Gianluca Piovesan, an ecologist at Tuscia University, “this study recalls the urgent need for a global strategy to conserve biodiversity, not only by preserving intact forests, but in particular the small remnant of a few ancient trees that have survived in managed forest landscapes.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient trees are vital to forest survival

A new study published in the journal Nature Plants has...

Super Bowl foods are tradition. Things like nachos, hot wings and other salty, fatty, spicy foods are consumed by the masses and often washed down with cold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peruvian-empire-kept-control-with-beer-and-hallucinogens/">beer</a>. This is how Americans often watch the “big game. ” Traditions can change, however, and <a href="https://www.ciwf.org.uk/">Compassion in World Farming</a> now estimates that over 160 million plant-based “chicken wings” will be consumed by Americans this Super Bowl Sunday.



Chicken wings as a food have a strange history. At one time, they were considered a byproduct that was destined to be wasted. In 1964, a bar owner in Buffalo, New York accidentally received a shipment of wings instead of chicken necks. Instead of letting the chicken parts go to waste, she created the modern day “buffalo wings” dripping with hot sauce, and the rest is history.&nbsp;



Buffalo wings have since grown in popularity, becoming a staple of sports bars and homes across America, where billions of the wings have been eaten. Unfortunately, the popularity of wings is not a good thing for chickens.&nbsp;



With increasing focus on profit at all costs, modern agriculture has created a disaster for the well-being of animals and the environment. But now, it seems that Americans are slowly changing their preference for food.&nbsp;



“But one of the fastest-growing food trends is the increasing popularity of healthy and humane plant-based versions of classic American foods, which taste identical to the animal variety. So, we decided to estimate how many football fans will be eating compassionately next Sunday," said Ben Williamson, US Executive Director, Compassion in World Farming.



The motivation for Americans to shift away from meat is partially facilitated by the profusion of plant-based products available at grocery stores and restaurants across the country today.&nbsp;



“Plant-based meat products are now more widely available than ever before, online and in your local supermarket,” said Williamson, “There’s never been a better time to replace your meat made from animals, with meat made from plants - for your health and for the sake of the planet.”



So, if you’re considering not eating meat on Super Bowl Sunday, you won’t be alone. You will also have more options than ever before to replace those traditional foods with something just as delicious.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Millions of Americans will eat plant-based wings on Super Bowl Sunday

Super Bowl foods are tradition. Things like nachos, hot wings...

A new commentary published in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/ejcn/">European Journal of Clinical Nutrition</a> suggests that people should adopt a plant-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-can-lead-to-longer-life/">diet</a> to help reduce the risk of severe COVID-19 and mortality. The experts refer to several studies which confirm that a "blue zone" (or plant-based) diet can help prevent a dangerous COVID-19 infection.&nbsp;



“It represents the most cost-effective approach and should be largely promoted and incorporated in everyday practice,” wrote Dr. Hana Kahleova and Dr. Neal Barnard of the <a href="https://www.pcrm.org/">Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine</a>. “This is a booster that is needed at this unprecedented time and that may actually work to mitigate COVID-19.”



In Okinawa, the fifth largest island of Japan, the predominant diet is plant-based and rich in sweet potatoes, green leafy vegetables, and soy products. The island is one of the world's “blue zones,” where the population has a life expectancy that is substantially higher than the global average. The experts noted that Okinawa has a much lower COVID-19 mortality rate than Tokyo, which is similar in size.



"In addition to their high life expectancy and low mortality from cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancers, Okinawans have enjoyed a remarkable resistance to Covid-19 mortality," wrote the experts.&nbsp;



"As of June 16, 2021, the Covid-19 mortality in Okinawa, Japan, was 0.08 percent (163 deaths out of 19,782 cases), which is one-sixteenth that of Tokyo (mortality rate 1.3 percent; 2183 deaths out of 167,416 cases."



Dr. Kahleova and Dr Barnard also pointed to the results of a recent study which showed that a healthy, plant-based diet was associated with a 41 percent lower risk of severe COVID-19. A separate study focused on healthcare workers with a high risk of Covid exposure revealed that that those following a plant-based diet had a 73 percent lower risk of developing moderate-to-severe infection.&nbsp;



"The effectiveness of vaccination, as measured by antibody titres, may be significantly reduced by the presence of chronic conditions, particularly central obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and smoking," said the commentary authors.&nbsp;



"Covid-19 deaths are considerably more common in the context of advanced age or chronic diseases, such as excess body weight, coronary heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and chronic lung disease."



"In turn, these conditions are strongly linked to diet and lifestyle choices that can be changed. Indeed, those people who have made lifestyle changes have demonstrable protection against the virus."



In addition to Okinawa, a few other areas of the world have been identified as blue zones: Sardinia, Italy; Nicoya, Costa Rica; and Ikaria, Greece. People in these regions live longer lives, with a greater sense of purpose and well-being, than anywhere else in the world. While the exact foods that are eaten in blue zones vary by culture, the diets are the same in that they are about 95 percent plant-based, including vegetables, fruits, grains, and legumes.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Blue zone" diets reduce the risk of severe COVID-19

A new commentary published in the European Journal of Clinical...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.unibo.it/en">University of Bologna</a> and the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> (GFBI) has estimated that our planet may be home to over 73,000 tree species, among which approximately 9,000 species are yet to be discovered. These results – which are the outcome of a three-year international project involving over 150 researchers – emphasize the richness, but also vulnerability, of terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-extreme-weather-impact-marine-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a>.



“Extensive knowledge of tree richness and diversity&nbsp;is key to preserving the stability and functionality of ecosystems,” explained&nbsp;study lead author Roberto Cazzolla Gatti, a professor in the <a href="https://bigea.unibo.it/en/index.html">Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences</a> at the University of Bologna.&nbsp;



“Until today, our data regarding wide areas of the planet was very limited and based on field-observation and lists of species covering different areas. These limitations were detrimental to a global perspective on the issue.”



In order to address these shortcomings, Professor Cazzolla Gatti and his colleagues had first collected the most extensive database of forest tree species, identifying over 40 million trees belonging to 64,000 species, and then performed complex statistical analyses by using state-of-the-art computers and artificial intelligence algorithms to estimate how many tree species might exist on Earth. According to the calculations, our planet has approximately 73,300 tree species (14 percent more than those already identified). &nbsp;



“We combined individual datasets, coming from someone going out to a forest stand and measuring every single tree, into one massive global dataset of tree-level data. Counting the number of tree species worldwide&nbsp;is like a puzzle with pieces spreading all over the world. We, the Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative (GFBI), solved it together as a team, each sharing our own piece,” said study co-author Jingjing Liang, a researcher at GFBI.



The scientists estimate that 40 percent of the 9,000 currently unknown species could be located in South America, in the two biomes composed of “grasslands, savannas, and shrublands” and “tropical and subtropical forests” of the Amazon and the Andes. Many of these tree species are probably rare and may already be endangered by human activities.



“These results&nbsp;highlight the vulnerability of global forest biodiversity to anthropogenic changes, particularly land use and climate, because the survival of rare taxa is disproportionately threatened by these pressures,” said study co-author Peter B. Reich, a professor of Forestry at the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The better the information, the better we can inform national and international plans for conservation priorities and biodiversity targets and management – potentially saving endangered tree species in the process,” concluded study co-author Andrew Marshall, a conservation scientist at the <a href="https://www.usc.edu.au/">University of the Sunshine Coast</a>.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115329119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Thousands of tree species remain undiscovered

A new study led by the University of Bologna and...

According to most environmental scientists and policy makers, woodland expansion could be one of the most effective strategies to combat climate change. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a> which analyzed the temperate rainforests in Dartmoor, England, has found that protecting and expanding woodland is far from simple, and depends upon a variety of factors.



“The planting of trees and an end to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">deforestation</a> are increasingly being highlighted as low cost and environmentally sensitive mechanisms to combat climate change. These measures have&nbsp;been factored into the net-zero agendas of UK and other governments, with world leaders also pledging to address the issue during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cop26-deal-failure-or-historic-achievement/">COP26</a> in Glasgow last year,” said study lead author Dr. Thomas Murphy, a research fellow in Environmental Sciences at the University of Plymouth.



“Our findings however suggest the expansion of oak woodland into UK upland pasture systems is not a simple process. They may have a critical role to play, but these important temperate rainforests have been historically degraded and are now highly fragmented. Reversing that trend is likely to require strategic planting and informed livestock management."



"Getting this right, however, will warrant a delicate balancing act and close cooperation with a range of stakeholders, including particularly landowners and graziers, at a time when upland farms are facing severe financial pressures and there are ongoing changes in incentives.”



According to Dr. Murphy and his colleagues, natural expansion is insufficient to adequately aid carbon storage, flood mitigation, and biodiversity protection in such forests. Instead, strategically targeted interventions and selective planting of certain vegetation types would be more appropriate strategies to improve forest quality.&nbsp;



The researchers argue that livestock grazing should be encouraged in areas close to native oak trees at the edge of woodlands since they can help reduce dense and competitive vegetation. However, in areas rich in oak seedlings and saplings, livestock should be excluded for at least 12 years to increase sapling survival and growth.&nbsp;



In addition, the scientists suggest that strategic planting and grazing management schemes should be implemented on upland valley slopes where current ecosystem provision is low and soil hydrological recovery is necessary. Finally, older and larger oak samplings (four to seven years) could be planted directly in regions where dense vegetation protects saplings from livestock.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12126">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Temperate rainforests can help fight climate change

According to most environmental scientists and policy makers, woodland expansion...

A new study from <a href="https://www.usu.edu/">Utah State University</a> explains why new strategies must be considered for building resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-are-more-resilient-and-productive/">forests</a>. Researchers in the Department of Wildland Resources say that historical forest conditions are becoming increasingly hard to achieve in a changing world. They found that trees in forests with less crowding have a better chance of bouncing back after a traumatic drought, fire, or disease outbreak.



"In an emerging era of megadisturbance, bolstering forest resilience to wildfire, insects, and drought has become a central objective in many western forests. Climate has received considerable attention as a driver of these disturbances, but few studies have examined the complexities of climate–vegetation–disturbance interactions," wrote the study authors.



"Current strategies for creating resilient forests often rely on retrospective approaches, seeking to impart resilience by restoring historical conditions to contemporary landscapes, but historical conditions are becoming increasingly unattainable amidst modern bioclimatic conditions."



While restoration efforts are often aimed at recreating historical conditions, today's changing environment calls for a new approach. According to the researchers, "social distancing" among trees can increase their chance of survival after fire.



The results of two long-term studies, which involved more than 50,000 individual trees over 23 years, show that chances for long-term tree survival increases when trees have more space. This reduces competition and helps trees recover more quickly after a fire.



The experts analyzed the cause of death among tens of thousands of trees in the Sierra Nevada mountains. They found that trees in crowded forests were less tolerant of fire damage, and were more susceptible to post-fire bark beetle attack.&nbsp;



On the other hand, in forests where trees had more space, there was a greater chance for recovery - even after fires that were associated with extreme drought. Overall, the research showed that lower forest density can greatly reduce the risk of death from fire or beetle attacks. Trees that do not have to compete for water resources have a better chance of fighting back against increasingly challenging conditions. 



“Using historical conditions as an ideal example of a healthy forest may not be practical moving forward,” explained study co-author Furniss. He said that forests from the pre-settlement era had their own problems after all.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19395582">Ecological Applications</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Trees have a better chance of survival in less crowded forests

A new study from Utah State University explains why new...

By analyzing data from 8,671 camera trap stations spanning four continents and 23 countries, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC) has found that protected areas are highly effective at conserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lighted-nets-help-protect-endangered-marine-wildlife/">wildlife</a>. 



According to the examined footage, habitats with protected designation had a significantly higher mammal diversity compared to forests or wilderness areas lacking such a designation. The positive effects on wildlife were even found in protected areas exposes to human disturbances, such as logging or recreational use.



“This is not shocking news in itself, but it is exciting evidence of the critical role that parks and nature reserves play in wildlife conservation,” said study senior author Dr. Cole Burton, a conservation biologist at UBC specializing in mammal populations and human-wildlife interactions. 



“As international discussions continue on new global targets for expanding protected areas, it’s important to be able to measure the benefits of the protections that do currently exist.”



According to Dr. Burton and his colleagues, protected areas are the final stronghold for a large number of endangered mammals, which are difficult to protect since they require large areas for habitats and tend to enter into frequent conflict with human intruders.



“If we want to keep larger mammals around, along with the critical roles they play in ecosystems, we need to continue focusing on the growth of the protected area network. In fact, under the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, the world is currently discussing new targets for how much of the earth’s surface should be covered by parks. We need to have better information to inform these policy discussions. Hopefully this study helps fill the gaps in our knowledge,” he concluded.



According to the researchers, their study provides important evidence of the global effectiveness of protected areas in conserving terrestrial mammals and emphasizes the critical role of area-based conservation in a post-2020 biodiversity framework. The research is published in <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12865">Conservation Letters: A Journal of the Society for Conservation Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Protected areas are highly effective for wildlife conservation

By analyzing data from 8,671 camera trap stations spanning four...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...