There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> is investigating the cause of the "skunky" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-odors-repellent-crops/">odor</a> that is emitted by cannabis production facilities. The experts want to understand how cannabis emissions may affect air quality, workers, and the general public.



Davi de Ferreyro Monticelli, a doctoral student in UBC’s Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences is leading the study. According to Monticelli, knowledge gaps concerning cannabis emissions should be addressed while the industry is still developing.



In a recent interview, Monticelli explained what’s missing in our knowledge about cannabis production emissions, and how their smell compares to other odors.



"One way scientists measure odors is through ‘dynamic olfactometry’ analyses, where people capture a sample of air near a known odorous source and bring it back to the lab so it can be sniffed by trained assessors," said Monticelli.



"The sample is first diluted with clean air and then concentrated further and further until half of the assessment panel can smell it. When this happens, the level of dilution is converted into an odor concentration. This has been performed for many industries and operations, including cannabis facilities, waste and wastewater treatment, and livestock operations."



"We found in the literature that a facility that grows about 1,700 cannabis plants can emit the same odor concentration as a livestock operation with about 30 pigs or about 1,600 chickens. So, although their smells are not the same, one cannabis plant might be equivalent to about one chicken with respect to the intensity of the odors it produces."



Monticelli said that so far, the skunky cannabis smell has been linked to two classes of chemicals that are terpenes and volatile sulphurous compounds, which are volatile organic compounds. "However, we do not really know which type contributes more to the odors, and a better understanding would help the industry and policy makers control odorous emissions more effectively."



The UBC team conducted a review which identified 16 major gaps that need to be addressed, including the monitoring of air quality in and around cannabis facilities. 



"Most of the chemicals that are emitted react quickly in the atmosphere. Some of these can influence the formation of ultrafine particles and ozone at ground level, which are harmful to people and the environment," said Monticelli.



"Because of the fast-changing nature of the chemicals released when cannabis is grown, we need to use real-time sampling instruments that can capture changes in the composition of the air within short periods to properly understand the impact of cannabis facilities on overall air quality."



Monticelli explained that creating and maintaining a database of different cannabis strains and their emissions will improve the accuracy of cannabis cultivation emission inventories over time. "Such inventories provide the basic information needed at the beginning of any air quality assessment."



"This is a relatively new industry which is growing with the rise in cannabis legalization worldwide. Effective emission control practices and environmental policies are needed before new industrial practices become entrenched, and addressing the gaps identified in our review is a first step."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do "skunky" cannabis emissions affect air quality?

A new study from the University of British Columbia is...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-absorb-less-co2-than-previously-thought/">Seagrasses</a> cover shallow coastal regions of temperate and tropical seas worldwide, and form the basis of a crucial ecosystem that is home to many animals, including some endangered species of fish, sea turtles, or seahorses. Moreover, they protect coastal areas from erosion and sequester millions of tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, they also emit greenhouse gases, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-methane-is-the-fastest-way-to-slow-global-warming/">methane</a>, which is even more damaging for the climate than carbon dioxide. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.mpi-bremen.de/en/Home.html">Max Plank Institute for Marine Biology</a> in Germany has recently found that seagrasses emit this gas even decades after they died off.



“In seagrass sediments, methane is formed solely from one class of organic compounds,” said study lead author Sina Schorn, a microbiologist at the Max Plank Institute. “These so-called methylated compounds are produced by the seagrass plant itself. Specialized microorganisms, the methanogenic archaea, then convert these compounds into methane.”



The release of methane into the water column is very fast, since the plant tissue acts as a straw, helping the gas quickly escape from the seabed into the water. Furthermore, because the seagrasses only grow in shallow water, pelagic microorganisms don’t have the opportunity to consume the methane before ending up in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



As part of their study, the researchers also sampled a dead seagrass meadow. To their surprise, the rates of methane production in this meadow were similar to those in intact meadows. “We believe that the reason behind this continuing methane production is that methylated compounds persist in the plant tissue for a very long time,” even up to two decades after the plants die, explained study senior author Jana Milucka, head of the Greenhouse Gases Research Group at the Max Planck Institute.



“Currently, we are seeing a die-off of seagrass meadows worldwide which has a devastating effect on the coastal ecosystems. Our results caution that whereas upon the death of the plant carbon dioxide from the atmosphere will no longer be sequestered and stored in the sediment as 'blue carbon', methane may still continue to be released.” &nbsp;



These results suggest that methane emissions from dead seagrass partially offset the blue carbon effect of living meadows, thus highlighting the ecologic importance of these plants and the urgent need to protect and conserve them.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seagrasses continue to release methane after they die

Seagrasses cover shallow coastal regions of temperate and tropical seas...

The risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-we-save-the-regent-honeyeater-from-extinction/">extinction</a> for specific plants and animals are generally collated in regional, national, and global threat assessments, known as “Red Lists.” These lists help legislators and conservation organizations make decisions about which species need the most urgent protection in order to avoid losing them forever.&nbsp;



Although there are many national lists available, they are often not integrated into the global <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">Red List of Threatened Species</a> compiled by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), particularly when it comes to plants. According to current estimates, the global list lacks threat assessments for almost 90 percent of plant species.



An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> (MLU) in Germany has now managed to address this assessment gap in the case of European vascular plants – which comprise most species of plants, besides mosses, algae, and lichens.&nbsp;



By integrating data streams on the global geographic distribution of vascular plant species and national Red Lists from 37 European countries, spanning a period from 1999 to 2020, the researchers discovered that seven to nine percent of the European vascular plant flora is endangered.&nbsp;



In other words, about 1,800 out of the 20,000 to 25,000 known European vascular plant species are at risk. However, since the national lists generally include only half of all plants occurring in a specific country, these findings are very conservative estimates.



While the IUCN list for the major vertebrate groups was completed decades ago, this has unfortunately not been the case for plants.&nbsp;



“Such data gaps can be disastrous because they lead to uncertainties in priority setting in international conservation policy,” said study lead author Hanna Holz, a Biology MSc student at MLU. “Our findings help update and expand the most important instrument in international conservation policy.”



The <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">United Nations Convention of Biological Diversity</a> (CBD), a multilateral treaty that was signed in 1992, set itself the goal of compiling a full list of endangered plant species by 2020. Unfortunately, this goal is far from being achieved even in 2022.&nbsp;



“Through a comprehensive synthesis of existing national Red Lists with global distribution data, national efforts can be incorporated relatively easily into global risk assessments of plants and, hopefully, accelerate these efforts,” said study senior author Ingmar Staude, a senior scientist at <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en">Leipzig University</a>.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10251">Plants People Planet</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alarming number of European vascular plants are threatened

The risks of extinction for specific plants and animals are...

According to satellite data from Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (<a href="https://landsat.usgs.gov/CUB">INPE</a>), the number of trees cut down in January in the Amazon (by far) exceeds the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-rainforest-hits-new-records/">deforestation</a> for the same month last year.



Brazil’s vast Amazon rainforest absorbs large amounts of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, acting as one of the most powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-reveal-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-a-forest/">carbon sinks</a> on our planet. Thus, protecting it is essential in our fight against climate change. Unfortunately, increasing numbers of trees are being cut both for their wood and to clear spaces to plant crops in order to supply global food companies.&nbsp;



Cutting large numbers of trees at the start of the year is unusual because the rainy season stops loggers from accessing many areas of the forest. However, in January 2022, deforestation totaled 430 square kilometers (166 square miles) – an area more than seven times larger than Manhattan.



Although at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cop26-deal-failure-or-historic-achievement/">COP26</a> international climate summit in Glasgow last year, over 100 governments – including the Brazilian one - promised to stop and reverse deforestation by 2030, Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro in fact weakened the environmental protection for this region, arguing that the government should exploit the Amazon in order to reduce poverty. Moreover, high global demand for agricultural products such as beef or soya beans keep fueling the destruction of the forest.



“Even in January, when deforestation is usually lower due to the rainy season in the Amazon region, destruction has dramatically skyrocketed,” said Cristiane Mazzetti, a campaigner at <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/brasil/">Greenpeace Brazil</a>. “Just weeks ago, this government had delayed the release of annual deforestation numbers that revealed a massive increase and then told the world that it was resolving deforestation in Glasgow. The new data yet again exposes how the government’s actions contradict its greenwashing campaigns.”&nbsp;



Mazzetti and her colleagues at Greenpeace strongly urge supermarkets all over the world to drop suppliers who are involved in deforestation, refusing to accept their meat and dairy supplies.



Moreover, according to Ana Karina Pereira, a political scientist at the <a href="https://international.unb.br/">University of Brasilia</a>, fundamental changes in political structure are necessary in order to reverse this trend, since even though the Bolsonaro government changed their tone last year (especially at the COP26 summit), their policies have largely remained the same.&nbsp;



“Changing the political profile of the president and federal government leadership is crucial in this moment to see a break in this trend of high levels of deforestation,” she concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation in the Amazon hits new record high

According to satellite data from Brazil's National Institute for Space...

Food,In,Laboratory,,Dna,Modify

Genetically modified (GM) crops are often considered contentious, especially in Europe where the topic is politicized. However, GM crops can be necessary to meet the increasing global demand for food production. Increasing food production is a concern for global climate change, as agriculture accounts for 25 percent of greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lower-emissions-needed-to-save-the-winter-season/">emissions</a> worldwide.&nbsp;



Existing scientific literature has shown that GM crops can lead to economic, environmental, and health benefits through higher crop yields, higher farm profits, and lower pesticide use. Genetically modified crops can also help reduce GHG emissions through carbon sequestration in soil.&nbsp;



A recent study has identified a new connection between GM crops and GHG emissions. As genetically modified crops can increase yields, researchers considered the possibility that increased crop yields could reduce land use changes to support food production.&nbsp;&nbsp;



To evaluate this hypothesis, the study considered the climate benefits that would occur through more widespread GM crop adoption in the European Union (EU). The EU was selected for this study as it has not yet widely adopted genetically modified crops, and is re-evaluating GM regulatory policy. This analysis gives a preview of the positive impacts of policy change.&nbsp;



Researchers evaluated the impact of the EU increasing GM crops such as maize and soybean, to the levels of the USA. The selected crops are widely grown in other parts of the world, but hardly in Europe.&nbsp;



“The main reasons are public acceptance issues and political hurdles,” said Dr. Matin Qaim, Director of the Center for Development Research at the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university/">University of Bonn</a>.



The findings of the study are staggering, and suggest that increasing genetically modified crops in the EU could avoid 33 million tons of CO2 equivalents, roughly 7.5 percent of the EU’s annual agriculture GHG emissions.&nbsp;



The study authors argue that the associated climate benefits could be gained at a global scale. “The EU imports a lot of maize and soybean from Brazil, where the expansion of agricultural land contributes to tropical deforestation. Higher yields in the EU could reduce some of these imports and thus help preserve the Amazon rainforest.”



The researchers are also optimistic for the future, as their study was limited to already existing GM variations. “New genomic breeding technologies are currently being used to develop a wide range of new crop applications that could lead to additional climate change mitigation and adaptation benefits in the future," said Dr Qaim.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/home">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetically modified crops could reduce climate impacts

Genetically modified (GM) crops are often considered contentious, especially in...

Researchers have long hypothesized that, by intensifying environmental stressors such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-will-face-more-frequent-and-extreme-droughts/">droughts</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-wildfires-linked-to-human-activity-will-only-get-worse/">wildfires</a>, climate change could make ecosystems more vulnerable to invasive plants. These plants may in turn alter the environment in ways which amplify the negative impacts of climate change. A new long-term field study conducted by the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> (UF) has now offered the first experimental evidence to support this hypothesis.



The researchers exposed small plots of long-leaf pine to three scenarios: extreme drought, colonization by the rapidly growing and highly adaptable invasive plant congograss, and a combination of the two stressors. After waiting six years for the trees to grow under each scenario, the scientists added yet another stressor, fire, in order to test how each scenario affected the trees’ capacity of survival.



They found that the trees which experienced both drought and the colonization by invasive plants were least likely to survive after the fire.&nbsp;



“Less water meant the trees didn’t grow as tall. At the same time, the cogongrass, which is drought-tolerant, provided extra fuel to the fire, making it burn hotter and increasing the height of flames,” said study lead author Luke Flory, a professor of Ecology at the UF.



According to Professor Flory, the combination of shorter trees plus taller and hotter flames provided little chance of survival to the long-leaf pines. By contrast, in plots where the pines were able to grow taller or were not surrounded by the fire-fueling invasive plant, the trees fared much better and nearly all survived.



Experiments that show the complex interplay between climate change and invasive plants can provide essential information for land managers in fire-prone areas or regions where prescribed fires are used.&nbsp;



“In addition, these findings are one more reason why managing invasive plants is so important to conserving native ecosystems,” Professor Flory concluded.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ele.13974">Ecology Letters</a>, is part of a larger global scientific effort called&nbsp;<a href="https://drought-net.colostate.edu/">Drought-Net</a>, which collects data from all over the globe to investigate how different ecosystems respond to extreme drought.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change will intensify the issue of invasive plans

Researchers have long hypothesized that, by intensifying environmental stressors such...

Plants are subject to many attacks and injuries, from rabbits or caterpillars munching on their leaves to fungi or grubs attacking their roots. While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-molecule-makes-animals-switch-from-eating-to-mating/">animals</a> can employ “fight or flight” responses when attacked, plants cannot run. Instead, according to a new study led by New York University’s <a href="https://as.nyu.edu/content/nyu-as/as/departments/biology/research/gsb/cgsb.html">Center for Genomics and System Biology</a>, injury triggers a “fight or fix” response in plants, prompting them to either regenerate their damaged or missing parts, or to defend themselves by rapidly producing chemicals designed to stop animals or pathogens from further attacks.&nbsp;



Better understanding how plants regulate the trade-off between repairing damaged tissue and ramping up their defenses enabled scientists to nudge wounded plants towards repair rather than defense, a strategy which can be useful in improving crop regeneration.



In order to investigate how plants regulate these responses, the researchers cut off parts of several specimens of Arabidopsis, a small plant widely used as a model organism in Plant Biology, and corn, America’s largest crop and a very important source of nutrition for both people and animals. They found that, after an injury, plants produced some regeneration and some defense response, but did not ramp up both to maximum capacity. In fact, lowering one response appeared to increase the other.



“The ‘fight or fix’ responses seem to be connected, like a seesaw or scales - if one goes up, the other goes down. Plants are essentially hedging their bets after an attack,” said study lead author Marcela Hernández Coronado, an expert in Plant Molecular Biology at the <a href="https://www.cinvestav.mx/">Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute</a> in Mexico.



The scientists discovered that the balance in regeneration and defense responses was regulated by plant glutamate receptor-like (GLRs) proteins, which are distant relatives to glutamate receptors found in animal and human brains. Understanding the essential role these proteins play in the plants’ responses to injury presents a unique opportunity to improve plant growth, especially in cereal crops such as corn, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetics-and-the-environment-interact-in-plant-development/">sorghum</a>, or wheat, which are particularly resistant to regeneration.



“These glutamate receptors provide a ‘druggable target’ that we can use to enhance plant regeneration and propagation,” explained study senior author Kenneth Birnbaum, a professor of Biology at NYU.



By using both genetic interventions and three types of neuronal antagonist drugs to inhibit GLR activity, Professor Birnbaum and his team managed to alter the plants’ decision-making process in favor of regeneration.&nbsp;



“Retuning the balance between plant defense and regeneration could be used to improve regeneration for biotechnology, conservation, and propagation of staple food crops. Breeding crops that more readily regenerate and can adapt to new environments is critical in the face of climate change and food insecurity,” Professor Birnbaum concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2022.01.013">Developmental Cell</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants have a “fight or fix” response to injury

Plants are subject to many attacks and injuries, from rabbits...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a> has recently investigated the relationship between cannabis use and brain health. Despite the perception that this drug is harmless, which led to its legalization in several states across the U.S., as well as in other countries such as the Netherlands, animal studies show that its psychoactive component, THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) could cause behavioral and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/housework-promotes-cognitive-strength-and-mental-agility/" data-type="news" data-id="1898804">cognitive</a> abnormalities, particularly if exposure occurs prenatally or during adolescence.&nbsp;



While further research is necessary in order to clearly map the risks and benefits associated with cannabis, scientists warn that there might be an increased risk of cognitive impairment associated to the use of this substance.



Cannabis contains two main substances, THC and CBD (cannabidiol). While THC is the compound that gives the sensation of being high, CBD has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that can have significant therapeutic benefits. This compound is similar to substances that the human body produces naturally (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-increases-the-bodys-own-cannabis-like-substances/">endocannabinoids</a>), which are involved in the regulation of many fundamental bodily processes during life, including learning, memory, pain control, and sleep. The proper functioning of endocannabinoids is essential to prenatal brain development and brain maturation during adolescence.



According to scientists, since both THC and endocannabinoids attach to neurons through molecules called cannabinoid receptors, exposure to THC may interfere with and disrupt the normal actions of endocannabinoids, particularly during prenatal life and adolescence.&nbsp;



“Data obtained in these animal studies demonstrate that disruption of endocannabinoid pathways leads to behavioral and cognitive abnormalities, such as poorer memory and learning ability and a heightened sensitivity to stress. Also, there may be vital life periods – gestation and adolescence – when the brain may be particularly vulnerable to the impact of THC,” explained study lead author Fernando Testai, a professor of Neurology and Rehabilitation at the <a href="https://www.uic.edu/">University of Illinois at Chicago</a>.&nbsp;



Several studies performed on humans led to similar results: children whose mothers consumed cannabis during pregnancy had more psychological problems and poorer cognitive function, while cannabis use during adolescence has been associated with the thinning of the prefrontal cortex, a brain area crucial for cognition. Moreover, regular consumers tended to score poorly on verbal memory tests and driving tests. Finally, cannabis users were found to have an increased risk of clot-caused stroke, with one study finding a 17 percent and another a 24 percent increase in strokes among this population.



Further research is needed to clarify whether the relationship between cannabis use and brain health depends upon a person’s age, whether different types of cannabis impact the brain differently, or whether there are differences in brain health effects depending on whether the substance is smoked or consumed in edibles. Most importantly, urgent research is needed to clarify the ways in which cannabis interacts with prescription medications, particularly in elderly people who may be using multiple drugs such as blood thinners, antiarrhythmia or anticonvulsant medications to treat chronic health issues.



“Our understanding of the effects of marijuana on the brain is imperfect, and human research in this area is a work in progress. Still, the results of recent animal studies challenge the widely accepted idea that cannabinoids are harmless and call for caution when using marijuana, particularly while pregnant or during adolescence,” concluded Professor Testai.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STR.0000000000000396">Stroke</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis use may negatively impact brain health

A new study led by the American Heart Association has...

Last year was a bad one for manatees, when more than 1,000 of the loveable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-900-manatees-have-died-this-year-in-florida/">mammals died</a> in Florida. The main cause of the mass mortality event was starvation, which was due to a lack of seagrass, the manatee’s favorite food. Seagrass was scarce in the Indian River lagoon, a 156-mile-long estuary along Florida’s east coast.&nbsp;



The seagrass was likely killed by a chain reaction from pollution runoff, and some non-profits<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-groups-sue-the-epa-over-manatee-deaths/"> sued the EPA </a>over their handling of the pollution. The runoff caused phytoplankton blooms, which in turn blocked light from the grass.



Now, a new study published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a> seeks to remedy the problem by investigating the loss of seagrass and assisting with ecosystem restoration.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Light is mandatory for growth and survival of seagrasses,” said study co-author Dr. Dennis Hanisak, a research professor at <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) Harbor Branch. “Reduced light causes changes in the physiology and the size and shape of seagrass, such as decreased leaf length, leaf width, leaves per shoot, and shoot growth. Seagrasses can cope with reduced light for short periods, however, once poor clarity becomes chronic or recurrent, detrimental effects on survival, resilience, and recovery arise.”



The study showed that from 1943 to 1994, about 7,400 acres of seagrass were lost. Between 2011 and 2019, approximately 58 percent of seagrass was lost.&nbsp;



"Multiple anthropogenic stressors affect seagrasses by reducing water clarity, particularly at the deep edge of a bed or the light-limited depth of colonization," wrote the study authors.



"Reduced light also causes changes in the physiology and morphology of seagrass, such as decreased leaf length, leaf width, leaves per shoot, and shoot growth."



"Seagrasses can cope with reduced light for short periods, but once poor clarity becomes chronic or recurrent, detrimental effects on survival, resilience, and recovery emerge."



The researchers noted that reduced availability of light is not the only stressor affecting seagrass. They explained that salinity and temperature are two additional stressors, which are not related to physical disturbance or excessive nutrient loads. The research team is working to grow seagrass in an effort to restore some of what has been lost.&nbsp;



“We are maintaining the seagrass nursery in a ‘ready mode’ so that we can readily partner with agencies and other interested parties in experimentation or pilot studies for seagrass restoration efforts,” said Dr. Hanisak.



This effort to understand the loss of seagrass is critical in reversing the trend and restoring the habitat to hopefully support a healthy population of manatees into the future.&nbsp;The Florida Power &amp; Light Company (FPL) is providing the funding to operate the nursery for at least three years.



“This gift and continued support from FPL is helping our ongoing research in marine science and technology and addressing critical issues affecting our marine ecosystems,” said Dr. Jim Sullivan, executive director of FAU Harbor Branch.&nbsp;



“With this funding, our researchers are applying unique techniques to help repair the damages to the crucial aquatic plants that are essential to the health of the Indian River Lagoon, and moreover, critical for the survival of our beloved lagoon manatees that are dependent on this dietary staple.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seagrass restoration could help save starving manatees

Last year was a bad one for manatees, when more...

Young people can add years onto their life expectancy through dietary changes, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/">PLOS Medicine</a>. The experts report that a young adult in the United States can add more than a decade to their life by shifting away from a typical Western diet to a healthy diet with more legumes, whole grains and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-a-handful-of-walnuts-every-day-for-better-heart-health/">nuts</a>.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed data from existing studies, such as the Global Burden of Diseases study, to build a model that instantly estimates the impact of dietary changes on life expectancy. The results show that healthy diets, including less red or processed meat, could also extend the lives of adults by eight years.&nbsp;



“Research until now have shown health benefits associated with separate food group or specific diet patterns but given limited information on the health impact of other diet changes. Our modeling methodology has bridged this gap," said study lead author Lars Fadnes of the University of Bergen.



For young adults in the United States, the model estimates that a sustained shift from a typical Western diet to the optimal diet beginning at age 20 would increase life expectancy by up to 10.7 years among women and 13 years among men.&nbsp;



Adopting a healthy diet at age 60 could increase life expectancy by eight years for women, and by 8.8 years for men. Furthermore, an 80-year-old adult could gain an average of 3.4 years from such dietary changes.



The largest gains in life expectancy are associated with eating more legumes, more whole grains, and more nuts, while eating less red or processed meat.&nbsp;



Each year, dietary risk factors are estimated to cause 11 million deaths and 255 million disability-adjusted life-years annually. The new model makes it possible to instantly calculate how life expectancy (LE) is affected by a range of dietary changes. This tool, called the <a href="https://food4healthylife.org/">Food4HealthyLife calculator</a>, is available to the public online.&nbsp;



“Understanding the relative health potential of different food groups could enable people to make feasible and significant health gains,” said the researchers. “The Food4HealthyLife calculator could be a useful tool for clinicians, policy makers, and lay-people to understand the health impact of dietary choices.”



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dietary changes can add years to your life expectancy

Young people can add years onto their life expectancy through...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> highlights the need for better mapping of peatland ecosystems and peatland fires, along with regular pre-and post-fire ground measurements. The researchers also emphasize the need for stricter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-reveal-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-a-forest/">forest</a> and peatland protection policies, especially considering that their environmental impacts have been underestimated.



Global demand for wood and foods, such as soy beans, palm oil and beef, is known to fuel the deforestation of rainforests in countries such as Brazil and Indonesia. Felling these forests to make space for croplands, pastures and plantations removes the trees that would otherwise absorb and store carbon. This process also involves burning the indigenous vegetation to the ground, and even below the ground.



Although visual images of deforestation fires raging in the Amazon have become more common in the media, calculations of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reaching the atmosphere due to deforestation fires have been varied and contradictory.&nbsp;



Now, Dr. Ramanan Krishnamoorti of the University of Houston has quantified the GHG emissions associated with the 2019 and 2020 deforestation fires in Brazil and Indonesia. The study also considered the contribution from the burning of peatlands - dense, waterlogged ecosystems that underlie many of the rainforests in these two countries.



“The impact that human activities are causing in forests, especially in critical ecosystems like peatlands, is not well communicated to the general audience,” explained Dr. Krishnamoorti.



“During the 2019 fire season in Indonesia and Brazil, we observed a wide range of numbers being quoted in scientific and media communications."&nbsp;



“We wanted to understand the basis of these numbers but ran into challenges accessing the data. That led us to analyze the sources of measurement and errors, how the errors are compounded over time, and their impact on policies.”



The researchers used publicly available data for deforestation in Brazil and Indonesia to estimate the total GHG impact of deforestation fires in 2019 and 2020. They analyzed available data from all Indonesian provinces, and the Legal Amazon and Pantanal regions in Brazil. They accounted for emissions from the burning of above-ground biomass, as well as from the peat soils and dry matter in peatlands.&nbsp;



In Brazil, a total of 11,088 km2&nbsp;of forest were destroyed between August 2019 and July 2020. In 2019, Indonesia lost 31,000 km2&nbsp;of forest to deforestation fires. Many of these fires burned in carbon-rich peatland ecosystems.



Peatlands are wetland ecosystems in which&nbsp;waterlogged conditions prevent plant material from fully decomposing. Instead, it accumulates and becomes a dense layer of carbon-rich organic matter. Peatlands are known to store and sequester more carbon than any other type of terrestrial ecosystem.&nbsp;



In the humid tropics, peat forms under conditions of high precipitation and high temperature such as are found in Brazil’s Amazon and in the rainforests of Indonesia. In these locations, peatlands underlie the rainforest trees and are exposed when the forests are cleared.&nbsp;



During deforestation fires, peat ignites and burns, often underground. Peatland fires can smolder for weeks, as the dense organic matter slowly combusts. The stored carbon gets released into the atmosphere as CO2, along with other GHGs such as carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH4). The accompanying smoke causes a haziness of fine particulate matter that contributes to air pollution and affects wildlife and human health.



The results of the analysis, published today in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/climate/sections/climate-services">Frontiers in Climate</a>, show that Brazil and Indonesia collectively emitted nearly 2 gigatons of CO2 equivalents (<a href="https://climatepolicyinfohub.eu/glossary/co2eq">CO2e</a>) in 2019 and 1 gigaton CO2e in 2020 from the combustion of above-ground biomass.&nbsp;



However, when the researchers included the emissions from deforestation fires in peatlands, the combined GHG impact in both countries increased to 3.65 gigatons CO2e in 2019 and 1.89 gigatons CO2e in 2020.&nbsp;This represents an increase of around 200 percent from the emissions generated by burning above-ground biomass alone.&nbsp;



The results indicate that burning peatlands contributed to between 40 and 60 percent of the GHG emission impact caused by deforestation fires, in those two countries. This implies that previous estimations underrepresented the contribution of these slow-burning fires in peat ecosystems.&nbsp;



In total, deforestation fires in Brazil and Indonesia accounted for three and seven percent, respectively, of the planet’s total greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 and 2020,&nbsp;reports the study.



“Monitoring and measurement challenges in peatlands lead to an underestimation of the true impact of deforestation fires. Since these estimates form the basis of the policy response from national governments, it results in inadequate attention to forest and peatland protection as part of climate crisis mitigation efforts,” said Krishnamoorti.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The true impact of peatland fires has been underestimated

A new study published by Frontiers highlights the need for...

Known locally as kuluva, the Fijian Dillenia biflora trees have long been a mystery to scientists aiming to understand their position in the evolutionary tree of flowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-that-breathe-underwater-could-improve-crop-resilience/">plants</a> and the way in which they were pollinated. Until recently, the Dilleniaceae&nbsp;plant family was believed to offer no nectar rewards and be pollinated mainly by bees. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> (UniSA) has found that blossom bats (Notopteris macdonaldi) play a fundamental role in the pollination of these plants.



“We discovered that the kuluva flowers never opened on their own, and instead were being pulled off by blossom bats that were after the sugar-rich nectar inside,” said study lead author Sophie Petit, an expert in Pollination Ecology at UniSA.&nbsp;



“The bat lands on a whorl of leaves, removes the corolla, and licks the nectar, covering its nose with pollen in the process. The pollen on the bat is then transported to other flowers of the same species, which are pollinated and produce fruits containing seeds.”



Since kuluva flowers are mature and receptive for one night only during their life cycle, they just have one chance of being pollinated. By removing their corollas - which would otherwise remain forever closed&nbsp;– blossom bats are fundamental for their reproduction.&nbsp;



These findings highlight the need to understand the co-dependence of different species. In this particular case, without blossom bats, some Dillenia trees may not survive - while without these trees, some endangered bat species may become extinct.



“Our discovery has the potential to facilitate the conservation of several threatened tree and bat species across countries,” said Professor Petit. 



“In Fiji, blossom bats are a threatened species. Given that 70 percent of the bats’ dietary samples contained kuluva, it’s obvious that the bats rely heavily on this tree for food. Considering the threatened status of several Dillenia species in different countries, their potential association with bats needs urgent attention, particularly since so many bat species are also threatened.”



“We are currently establishing collaborations in other parts of the Dillenia range. Urgent conservation action is needed, and many nocturnal discoveries await. It’s time for botanists and ecologists to stay up late!” 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0262985">PLoS One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bats play an active role in plant pollination

Known locally as kuluva, the Fijian Dillenia biflora trees have...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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