There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

A new analysis of high-resolution satellite images of the Amazon rainforest’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetation-helps-wild-honeybees-survive-the-winter/" data-type="news" data-id="1904584">vegetation</a> indicates that the forest is losing its resilience as it becomes less able to recover from perturbations such as droughts and fires. Ultimately, the forest is in danger of dying back and being replaced by drier habitat such as savannah.&nbsp;



This is the conclusion reached by Chris Boulton and Tim Lenton from the Exeter University and Niklas Boers of the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/home">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> (PIK). The researchers analyzed 30 years of satellite data in terms of forest biomass and greenness (productivity), and observed that about three quarters of the forest has shown signs of resilience loss since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



“Reduced resilience - the ability to recover from perturbations like droughts or fires - can mean an increased risk of dieback of the Amazon rainforest. That we see such a resilience loss in observations is worrying,” said Boers.&nbsp;



“The Amazon rainforest is home to a unique host of biodiversity, strongly influences rainfall all over South America by way of its enormous evapotranspiration, and stores huge amounts of carbon that could be released as greenhouse gases in the case of even partial dieback, in turn contributing to further global warming. This is why the rainforest is of global relevance.”



The results, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>, also indicate that the loss of ability to return to a previous equilibrium state has brought the forest closer to a tipping point, where it could undergo a sudden transition to a completely different habitat. The Amazon has long been considered vulnerable to the kinds of ecosystem changes that would result in loss of function, and a number of previous studies have highlighted this vulnerability.&nbsp;



“However, computer simulation studies of its future yield quite a range of results,” said Boers. “We’ve therefore been looking into specific observational data for signs of resilience changes during the last decades. We see continuously decreasing rainforest resilience since the early 2000s, but we cannot tell when a potential transition from rainforest to savanna might happen. When it will be observable, it would likely be too late to stop it.”



The research team used stability indicators that had previously been applied to monitor changes in the Greenland ice sheet and the Atlantic overturning circulation. These statistical indicators aim to predict the approach of a system towards a tipping point by identifying a critical slowing down of the system’s dynamics. The analysis of the two satellite data sets, representing biomass and the greenness of the Amazon forest, revealed the critical slowing down of the forest’s ability to recover after disturbances such as fire and drought.&nbsp;



”Our study shows that the Amazon is approaching a tipping point, but also that it has likely not yet crossed it,” said Boers.



To try and determine the reasons for the forest’s loss of resilience, the researchers explored its relation to rainfall in a given area in the Amazon that had experienced three ‘once in a century’ drought events. They found that drier areas are more at risk of resilience loss than wetter ones. “This is alarming, as the IPCC models project an overall drying of the Amazon region in response to anthropogenic global warming,” said Boers.&nbsp;



Another factor is the distance of an area to roads and settlements from where people can access the forest. More pronounced losses of forest biomass and productivity were observed within 200 kilometers of human land use, such as large farms and settlements. This illustrates the urgent need to minimize human land use in the Amazon region, as well as to limit greenhouse gas emissions globally.&nbsp;



“Our novel analysis of empirical data brings additional evidence to the worries about the forest’s resilience, especially in the near future,” said Lenton, Director of the Global Systems Institute. “It confirms that strongly limiting the logging, but also limiting global greenhouse gas emissions, is necessary to safeguard the Amazon.”&nbsp;



The research is part of the Tipping Points in the Earth System (TiPES) project, which is funded by European Union’s Horizon 2020 program.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Amazon rainforest is creeping closer to a tipping point

A new analysis of high-resolution satellite images of the Amazon...

Trees sprout and grow earlier in a warming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-alter-outdoor-recreation-in-the-west/">climate</a>, but how this change affects overall tree growth is still unclear. A study conducted by Professor Eryuan Liang suggests that trees may benefit from an earlier growing season in cold and humid locations. Those in areas with dryer climates, however, will not necessarily benefit from the earlier springs associated with a warming climate.&nbsp;



To conduct the study, Professor Liang and his team at the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research (ITP) at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> looked at growth rings from trees worldwide and compared them based on latitude. In particular, they were looking at the width of the growth rings.



The study was focused on tree ring width because wood formation is a catalyst for xylem maturation and determines how long the xylem will grow. Slower growth of the xylem leads to wider growth rings, which represent larger trees and more carbon storage.&nbsp;



The researchers investigated when tree ring growth began and how that affected the final width of the ring. When they compared different latitudes, they found that trees located in areas above 60 degrees North benefited from an early spring. These areas include central Europe and the eastern and western coasts of North America.



However, trees on the Colorado and Tibetan plateaus, which are cold and dry, suffered from an early spring. This is likely because a longer growing season is associated with a greater likelihood of drought and spring frost.



"From these observations, we conclude that trees will grow faster under advanced springs, unless they are thirsty," said Professor Liang.



The researchers also looked at boreal forests in northern Asia and Europe. They found that increased growth due to an earlier growing season may result in the alleviation of cold stress caused by warmer conditions.&nbsp;



In Central Europe and across portions of the U.S. coastline, advanced spring improved growth, but not for the same reason. The experts found that tree growth was enhanced in these locations due to a longer growing season.&nbsp;



The research shows that a warming climate may be beneficial for tree growth in some areas of the world but detrimental for others - particularly for those areas that are cooler and dryer, and where trees may already have more environmental pressure.&nbsp;



"These emergent patterns of how climatic impacts on wood phenology affect tree growth at regional to hemispheric scales hint at how future phenological changes may affect the carbon sequestration capacity of extratropical forest ecosystems," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Trees in dry areas will not benefit from warming climate

Trees sprout and grow earlier in a warming climate, but...

The potato is being increasingly incorporated into regular diets worldwide, even in Asian countries where rice has been the traditional staple food for millennia. However, unlike in the case of other major crop staples such as rice or wheat, efforts to breed new varieties of potatoes with higher yields have remained large unsuccessful.&nbsp;



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.mpipz.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research</a> is trying to solve this problem by implementing genome-assisted breeding of new potato varieties that will be more productive and resistant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ipcc-report-window-to-secure-a-liveable-future-is-rapidly-closing/">climate change</a>.



After shopping for potatoes on a market today, it is quite possible that the buyer will return home with a potato variety which was already available a century ago. This is not only testament to the enduring popularity of traditional potato varieties, but also highlights their lack of genetic variety. This can have dramatic consequences, such as the Irish famine of the 1840s, where for several years the only existent variety of potato crops was attacked by the newly emergent tuber blight and rotted in the ground.&nbsp;



The difficulty of breeding different potato varieties stems from this plant’s genetic peculiarity. Instead of inheriting one copy of every chromosome from both the father and the mother (as in the case of humans), potatoes inherit two copies of each chromosome from each parent, making them a tetraploid species.&nbsp;



This increased genetic complexity makes it highly challenging and time-consuming to generate new varieties with desired combinations of individual properties. Moreover, multiple copies of each chromosome also make the scientific reconstruction of the potato genome a highly challenging task.



The scientists from the Max Planck Institute have managed to overcome these longstanding problems and succeeded in generating the first full assembly of the potato genome through a simple and elegant trick. Rather than trying to differentiate the four – often very similar – chromosome copies from one another, the researchers sequenced the DNA of large numbers of individual pollen cells, which contain only two random copies of each chromosome. This helped them reduce the complexity of the problem and finally sequence the entire potato genome.



With this information, researchers can now identify more easily the genetic variants responsible for desirable or undesirable traits, and incorporate or exclude them during breeding. Improvements in potato breeding could have an enormous impact on delivering food security in the decades to come.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists are breeding more resilient potatoes

The potato is being increasingly incorporated into regular diets worldwide,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-fruit-warns-the-rest-of-the-plant-when-attacked/">Tomatoes</a> have been domesticated by native American cultures thousands of years ago. However, since very few tomato archaeological remains have been found, the precise history of this plant’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cat-brains-shrank-in-size-as-they-became-domesticated/">domestication</a> remains a mystery. While some scientists claim that the domestication occurred in Mesoamerica, the region comprising Mexico and Central America, others argue that this process happened in Peru and Ecuador. 



By analyzing the whole genome of 628 wild and cultivated tomato plants, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.upv.es/en/">Polytechnic University of Valencia</a> in Spain has discovered that the history of the American tomato is more complex than initially thought.



The genomic analyses revealed that, while most of the contemporary cultivated tomato is very similar to the wild Mesoamerican plants (Solanum lycopersicum&nbsp;var.&nbsp;cerasiforme), wild Ecuadorian and Peruvian species (S. pimpinellifolium) have also been involved in its domestication.



According to the scientists, the domestication process started with the Mesoamerican materials, which migrated southward to a region located between the foot of the Andes and the Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-rainforest-hits-new-records/">rainforest</a> in Peru and Ecuador called Ceja de Montaña. This initial migration was probably fast and most likely due to the emergence of commercial relationships between different Mesoamerican and Ecuadorian and Peruvian cultures.



More recently though, some of these plants, very similar to the ones still grown in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador, migrated back to Mexico. Surprisingly, the vintage Yucatan tomatoes are more similar to the ones found in&nbsp;Ceja de Montaña than to their wild counterparts found in Mexico, suggesting that some wild tomatoes migrated southward and, then, went back as cultivated.



These voyages would change the tomato forever. Growers from&nbsp;Ceja de Montaña did not use pure Mesoamerican plants, but rather admixtures created by crossing the newly arrived plants with wild varieties from coastal Peru and Ecuador. This hybridization between Mesoamerican and Ecuatorial plants was necessary for the adaptation of northern tomatoes to the climate and latitude of Ecuador.



These complex movements between Mesoamerican and Ecuatorial territories were only the beginning of the tomato’s trip around the world. After being introduced in Europe in the 16th century by the Spanish conquistadores, many more different genetic varieties were and continue to be created according to various people’s needs, uses, and tastes. From a secondary crop used mainly to prepare sauces by some Mesoamerican populations, the tomato spread around the world and became one of the most famous and widely consumed vegetable.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tomato domestication was more complex than previously thought

Tomatoes have been domesticated by native American cultures thousands of...

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/">King Abdullah University of Science and Technology</a> (KAUST) in Saudi Arabia has recently created a solar-driven system that could successfully grow spinach by using water drawn from the air while producing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electricity-may-be-the-cheapest-energy-source-by-2050/">electricity</a>. This proof-of-concept design offers a sustainable, low-cost strategy to improve food and water security for people living in regions with dry, hot climates.



“A fraction of the world’s population still doesn’t have access to clean water or green power, and many of them live in rural areas with arid or semi-arid climate,” said study senior author Peng Wang, a professor of Environmental Science and Engineering at KAUST. “Our design makes water out of air using clean energy that would’ve been wasted and is suitable for decentralized, small-scale farms in remote places like deserts and oceanic islands.”



The system constructed by Professor Wang and his team - called WEC2P – is composed of a solar photovoltaic panel placed over a layer of hydrogel, which is mounted on top of a large metal box used to condense and collect water. The hydrogel can effectively absorb water vapors from the air and release the water content when heated.



The scientists conducted a plant-growing test by using this solar-powered system in Saudi Arabia for two weeks in June, when the weather was extremely hot. They managed to use the water solely collected from air to irrigate 60 water spinach seeds planted in a plastic box. The results were impressive: 57 out of 60 seeds sprouted and grew normally up to 18 centimeters.



“Our goal is to create an integrated system of clean energy, water, and food production, especially the water-creation part in our design, which sets us apart from current agrophotovoltaics,” said Dr. Wang. In order to do this, he plans to design a better hydrogel that could absorb more water from the air.



“Making sure everyone on Earth has access to clean water and affordable clean energy is part of the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations. I hope our design can be a decentralized power and water system to light homes and water crops,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports-physical-science/fulltext/S2666-3864(22)00048-0">Cell Reports Physical Science</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Solar panels used to grow plants in the desert

A research team led by the King Abdullah University of...

The neem tree is a plant with impressive antimicrobial properties. The bark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-botanical-extract-extend-the-lifespan-of-humans/">extract</a> been used to treat malaria, internal ulcers, skin and other diseases. Now, a collaborative team of researchers has demonstrated that neem tree bark could possibly be used to treat and reduce the spread of COVID-19.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Study co-author Dr. Maria Nagel is a research professor in the Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology at the University of Colorado School of Medicine.



“The goal of this research is to develop a Neem-based medication that can reduce the risk of serious illness when someone is infected with coronaviruses,” said Dr. Nagel.



“We hope that scientists won’t have to continuously develop new therapies every time a new SARS-CoV-2 variant emerges. Just like how we take penicillin for strep throat, we envision taking the Neem-based drug for COVID, allowing us to resume our normal lives without fear of hospitalization and death.”



Neem tree bark extract was tested on animal models in laboratories in India, where it seemed to be effective against COVID. Computer modeling suggests that the neem extract binds to COVID, making it unable to enter into human or animal cells.&nbsp;



In the lab at CU, neem bark extract was tested on human lungs as a preventative measure against COVID. The extract not only protected against the virus, but also&nbsp; prevented the virus from reproducing and spreading.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The next step in our research is to identify the specific components in neem bark extract that are antiviral. Because these components bind to various regions of SARS-CoV-2, we believe that it will be effective on emerging variants with spike mutations,” said Dr. Nagel. “We will then determine the formulation of dosage for an antiviral drug to treat coronavirus infections.”



The researchers hope that this is the first step toward developing important antivirals in the fight against coronavirus.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neem tree bark has the potential to treat coronaviruses

The neem tree is a plant with impressive antimicrobial properties....

Ecuador is a stunning paradise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">biodiversity</a>. From the Galapagos to the high Andes mountains and the eastern Amazon, the unique landscapes are home to a remarkable variety of plants and animals. Taking this into account, it is not very surprising that a new orchid species would be discovered in the cloud forest of Ecuador.&nbsp;



The new orchid, which has been named Maxillaria anacatalina-portillae, was formally described by Polish orchidologists working with an Ecuadorian company specializing in orchid research and supply.&nbsp;



For several years, Polish scientists from the University of Gdańsk have been aiming their research at the tropical genus Maxillaria with the goal of better understanding its abundance of species. The research has taken the scientists to herbariums across Europe and the Americas as well as on field research in South America.&nbsp;



The first specimen of Maxillaria anacatalina-portillae was collected not by a Polish scientist but by Alex Portilla, a photographer and sales manager at Ecuagenera, an Ecuadorian company that works with orchids.&nbsp;



The orchid was collected from a restricted area in the northern province of Carchi. Portilla photographed the orchid in its natural environment before taking it back to a greenhouse to be cultivated and sold. The orchid was marketed as a different species in the same genus Maxillaria sanderiana "xanthina."



At the same time, Professor Dariusz L. Szlachetko and Dr. Monika M. Lipińska happened upon the same plants several times. Intrigued by the uniquely colored flowers and following a hunch that they may represent a new species, they teamed up with Dr. Natalia Olędrzyńska and Aidar A. Sumbembayev.&nbsp;



Together the scientists analyzed the morphology and phylogenetics of the plants. Samples were used from plants grown by hobbyists as well as commercial greenhouses, including critical plants purchased from Ecuagenera.&nbsp;



The new species was named in honor of Alex Portilla’s daughter, Ana Catalina Portilla Schröder.



&nbsp;The research is published in the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/">PhytoKeys</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Image Credit: Alex Portilla



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New and endangered orchid discovered in Ecuador

Ecuador is a stunning paradise of biodiversity. From the Galapagos...

Even though they don't have lungs, soils and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tall-trees-in-the-amazon-face-an-uncertain-future/">trees</a> are constantly breathing in and out. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by trees, which is then converted to oxygen through photosynthesis and stored in their trunks. When the leaves fall to the ground, soil bacteria break down the leaves and other organic debris, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.



Forests actually retain more carbon dioxide than they release, which is good news for us. Forests absorb roughly 30 percent of carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion, a phenomenon known as the terrestrial carbon sink.



“That’s CO2 that’s not in the atmosphere. We’re not feeling the full effects of climate change because of the terrestrial climate sink. These forests are doing an incredible service to our planet," said Professor Lucy Hutyra, a biogeochemist and ecologist at <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a>.



As a result of deforestation, large continuous forest areas are being divided into smaller forest regions. This type of forest fragmentation has been occurring for more than a decade. Professor Hutyra's research is focused on determining what happens to the planet's "lungs" due to forest fragmentation.&nbsp;



“We think about forests as big landscapes, but really they are chopped up into all these little segments because of the human world." Professor Hutyra further explained how forests are being broken up into smaller plots to make room for roads, buildings, agriculture, and solar farms, which is one of the leading causes of forest loss in Massachusetts. Forest edges - literally, the trees at the forest's farthest edge - are created as a result of these land use changes.



The assumption has been that forest fringes release and retain carbon at the same rate as forest interiors, but the BU team has revealed that this is not the case. Soils and trees along the borders of temperate forests in the Northeast United States behave differently than those further away from humans.



The researchers discovered that border trees grow quicker than their rural cousins deep in the forest, and that soil in urban areas can store more carbon dioxide than previously assumed. The findings may cast doubt on popular notions of conservation, and shed light on the usefulness of urban forests as more than just recreational areas.



Professor Hutyra and her study team, which included researchers from the Harvard Forest, investigated the development rates of edge trees in comparison to the rest of the forest in one of the most extensive studies of temperate forest edges to date.



The experts examined more than 48,000 forest plots in the Northeast United States using data from the US Department of Agriculture's Forest Inventory and Analysis program, which tracks tree size, growth, and land use across the country. They discovered that trees on the margins grow nearly twice as quickly as trees in the interior, which are around 100 feet away from the edge.



“This is likely because the trees on the edge don’t have competition with interior forest, so they get more light,” said study lead author and PhD candidate Luca Morreale. She added that as a tree grows, the amount of carbon it can take in increases.



This is good news, because edges encompass almost a quarter of the area in the Northeast United States. However, more forest fragmentation isn't the answer to sucking more carbon out of the atmosphere. Carbon storage along the edges of fragmented areas does not come even close to compensating for the negative consequences of losing forests, such as releasing carbon long stored underground back into the atmosphere.



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>, emphasizes the need to better understand and protect existing forest borders, which are often considered more disposable.



“We are underestimating how much carbon is being taken up by temperate forest edges," said Hutyra. "We also need to think about how susceptible they might be in the future to climate change. Because previous studies have shown that even though these trees are growing faster from more sunlight, hotter temperatures cause growth rates of edge trees to plummet."&nbsp;



In a second study, Professor Hutyra collaborated with BU scientist Pamela Templer to discover that soils along the forest boundary, like trees, felt the consequences of forest fragmentation.



"Soils contain wild amounts of bacteria, fungi, roots, and microorganisms, and just the way we breathe out CO2 when working and being active, they respire CO2, as well. With soil, there is more there than meets the eye," said&nbsp;



Sarah Garvey, lead author of the study published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.



Garvey discovered that forest edge soil not only releases more carbon than inside forest soil, but that it also behaves differently in rural and urban forests. She measured the concentrations of carbon emitted from the soils at eight field sites in developed and undeveloped areas of Massachusetts every two weeks for a year and a half (except the winter, when the ground is covered in ice).&nbsp;



The researchers measured the temperature and moisture levels of the soil at the forest edge, then went 300 feet farther into the forest to take more measurements.



Warmer temperatures near the forest edge caused leaves and organic waste to decay rapidly in rural regions with fewer people and buildings, causing soil microorganisms to work harder and release more carbon dioxide than their cooler, more shadowed counterparts in the forest.&nbsp;



However, soils in urban forests, where the Earth was substantially hotter and drier, did not release as much carbon. “It’s so hot and dry that the microbes are not happy and they’re not doing their thing,” said Hutyra.&nbsp;



"The long-term effect of unhappy soil is uncertain, but the findings also mean that urban soils, like those in Franklin Park, the largest public park in Boston, could have a greater capacity to store carbon than previously expected," said Garvey, who plans to delve more deeply into the mechanisms that underpin the various carbon release and storage rates.



Although finding that urban trees and soils store more carbon may appear to be "a double whammy of a positive thing," said Hutyra, it is uncertain whether this increase in carbon uptake will remain as the world warms.



Climate change may aggravate carbon losses from soil, and trees on the outskirts of forests in rural and urban areas may become more susceptible to excessive heat and drought.



“Forests store almost half of their carbon below ground. Which is why understanding the relationships between the soil and the plant life is so vital to understanding the bigger picture of how forests store carbon for the long term.” explained Garvey.



With cities and countries pledging to plant more trees in an effort to mitigate the effects of climate change, Hutyra's lab agrees that considering the larger context of trees and soils, as well as where new trees are planted, is critical. When looking at long-term climate change estimates, it's also important to consider the increased amounts of carbon deposited by forest edges.



“We need to think about that as we (decide) what areas to conserve, what to develop, and how to tackle climate change solutions. Is a place like Franklin Park where there’s tons of foot traffic just as valuable to save as a remote forest in Maine where three people visit? There’s no easy answer," said Hutyra.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forest edges store more carbon than expected

Even though they don't have lungs, soils and trees are...

A research team from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> in the UK and the<a href="https://www.unl.pt/en"> Nova University Lisbon</a> in Portugal has recently developed an efficient method to turn carbon dioxide into clean, sustainable fuels without any unwanted products or waste. The results demonstrate that polluting carbon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lower-emissions-needed-to-save-the-winter-season/">emissions</a> can be turned into clean fuels efficiently without any wasted energy.



Most methods for converting CO2&nbsp;into fuels also produce unwanted by-products such as hydrogen.&nbsp;Although chemical conditions can be altered in order to minimize the production of hydrogen, this process reduces the performance for CO2 conversion. Thus, cleaner fuel can be produced, but only at the cost of efficiency.&nbsp;



The newly developed proof of concept relies on enzymes isolated from bacteria to power electrolysis – the chemical reactions that convert CO2 into fuel. While enzymes are more efficient than other catalysts, such as gold, they are highly sensitive to local chemical environments.&nbsp;



By fine-tuning the solution conditions to alter the local environment of the enzymes, the researchers managed to improve fuel production efficiency by 18 times, compared to previous attempts. Moreover, adding an extra enzyme to control the environment, they sped up the reactions, both increasing efficiency and reducing unwanted by-products.



“We ended up with just the fuel we wanted, with no side-products and only marginal energy losses, producing clean fuels at maximum efficiency,” said first author of the&nbsp;Nature Chemistry&nbsp;paper Dr. Sam Cobb, an expert in Electrochemistry and Bioelectrocatalysis at the University of Cambridge. “By taking our inspiration from biology, it will help us develop better synthetic catalyst systems, which is what we’ll need if we’re going to deploy CO2&nbsp;electrolysis at a large scale.”



“Once you manage to make better catalysts, many of the problems with CO2&nbsp;electrolysis just disappear. We’re showing the scientific community that once we can produce catalysts of the future, we’ll be able to do away with many of the compromises currently being made, since what we learn from enzymes can be transferred to synthetic catalysts,” he added.



Such processes will play a crucial role in reducing carbon emissions. Instead of capturing and storing carbon dioxide – a highly energy-intensive endeavor – electrolysis can capture carbon and transform it into something useful, in an energy-efficient way.



“In future we want to use what we have learned to tackle some challenging problems that the current state-of-the-art catalysts struggle with, such as using CO2&nbsp;straight from air as these are conditions where the properties of enzymes as ideal catalysts can really shine,” concluded Dr. Cobb.



The research is published in two related papers in&nbsp;<a href="https://eur03.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41557-021-00880-2&amp;data=04%7C01%7Csc604%40cam.ac.uk%7C2771a0b447d24f77510208d9f5f49584%7C49a50445bdfa4b79ade3547b4f3986e9%7C0%7C0%7C637811253085182436%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000&amp;sdata=USovubW3qeD3PbJiuICCFeKasVHE0acKShxXNWitkH8%3D&amp;reserved=0">Nature Chemistry</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/119/4/e2114097119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Carbon emissions can be turned into clean fuels

A research team from the University of Cambridge in the...

Canada’s drug regulator <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada.html">Health Canada</a> has recently approved a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-covid-vaccine-is-safe-and-effective/">plant-based coronavirus vaccine</a> developed by the Quebec City-based company <a href="https://medicago.com/en/">Medicago</a> in collaboration with the pharmaceutical company&nbsp;<a href="https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/home/">GlaxoSmithKline</a>&nbsp;(GSK). 



According to the health regulators, clinical trials had shown that the two-dose Covifenz vaccine was 71 percent effective against infection. However, since the trials took place before the emergence of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-is-surging-but-may-cause-less-severe-illness/">Omicron</a> variant, it is not yet clear how the vaccine fares against this particular strain. This is the second non-mRNA vaccine approved in Canada, after the protein-based vaccine developed by Novavax, a medical company from Maryland.



Covifenz is based on proteins resembling the coronavirus that are produced by a plant similar to tobacco, and is administered intramuscularly together with an adjuvant produced by GSK that helps rev up the immune system. Health Canada recommended the use of this vaccine to individuals 18 to 64 years of age in two doses given 21 days apart.



This vaccine can be stored at normal refrigerator conditions, between two and eight degrees Celsius. One of the most common side effects identified during the clinical trials was arm soreness, which is likely caused by the GSK adjuvant. Although other minor side effects such as chills, fatigue, joint and muscle aches, headaches, or nausea have also been identified, Covifenz appears to cause less cases of fever or flu-like systemic symptoms than other vaccines.



“The approval of our COVID-19 vaccine is a significant milestone for Canada in the fight against the pandemic. We appreciate Health Canada’s timely review,” said Takashi Nagao, president and CEO at Medicago. “We’re also grateful for the Government of Canada’s support in the development of this new vaccine, and we are manufacturing doses to start fulfilling its order.”



“This first approval is an important milestone in our approach of pairing GSK’s well-established pandemic adjuvant with promising antigens to develop protein-based, refrigerator-stable COVID-19 vaccines to help protect people against COVID-19 disease,” added Roger Connor, president of GSK Vaccines.



Last year, the Canadian government agreed to buy 76 million doses of Covifenz. However, since 82 percent of Canadians over the age of five are already vaccinated, many of these doses will probably be sent to other countries.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Canada’s plant-based vaccine is finally approved

Canada’s drug regulator Health Canada has recently approved a plant-based...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pomegranates-contain-an-anti-aging-substance/">Aging</a> is considered to be a biological process that is subject to metabolic control. Not everyone ages in the same way, and the reasons for this are not yet clear, even though the process has been intensely investigated by those seeking to understand it better.&nbsp; A team of scientists in the&nbsp;Department of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a> has now published a landmark study showing that a botanical extract can extend longevity in roundworms by improving their metabolic health.&nbsp;



Although the roundworms (Caenorhabditis elegans) may not appear to have much in common with humans, the investigation supports the results of previous work involving mice, which was conducted at LSU’s Pennington Biomedical Research Center under Professor Jacqueline Stephens.&nbsp;



“The reason this study made so much sense to do in worms is because worms live for only about three weeks, so in a month or two, we had definite results,” said Bhaswati Ghosh, LSU student and lead author of the recently published study.



Both the initial study on mice, and the current study on C. elegans, investigated how the consumption of Artemisia scoparia (an extract named SCO) affected the laboratory organisms. Commonly known as wormwood, A. scoparia is an aromatic herb that is widely distributed across Asia. It is a member of the sunflower family, and an important plant in traditional Chinese medicine. It is known to have many bioactive constituents, including flavonoids, coumarins, phenolic acids and terpenoids.&nbsp;



In the lab of Professor Adam Bohnert, the researchers made an extract from the plant’s leaves and fed worms with this in various doses. They found that the worms fed the highest, and second-highest doses, showed immediate improvement in their metabolic health. They showed heightened levels of unsaturated fat, rather than accumulating saturated fat, which is not as healthy. The treated worms lived 40 percent longer than the untreated worms.&nbsp;



Although the worms that received the extract grew fat and became less mobile, they also became healthier and more resistant to stress. The researchers found that&nbsp;SCO&nbsp;helped convert unhealthy fat stores into healthy fat stores in the worms’ bodies. These findings, published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology">Journal of Gerontology</a>, suggest that diet is an important factor that can influence aging at a cellular level. The research indicates that the extract from Artemisia scoparia&nbsp;can activate many pro-longevity pathways in the body, and effectively turn on multiple genes involved in regulating lifespan.



“Until recently, it wasn’t really known how aging could be modified through diet, or how core metabolic signaling pathways influence longevity,” said Bohnert. “What we’ve been able to show is that a natural extract can come in and influence these pathways in much the same way as a genetic mutation would.”



The finding that a dietary supplement (SCO) can have such a significant effect on longevity suggests that we have a certain amount of control over our own aging.&nbsp;



“Importantly, it gives us a therapeutic standpoint,” Bohnert said. “We know age is the primary risk factor for many diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, but if you think of aging as a treatable disease, you can actually treat many diseases at once.”



The worms that showed the greatest improvement in lifespan were fed the A. scoparia&nbsp;extract during the time before they reached reproductive maturity. However, Bohnert’s team also observed significant effects in worms treated for the first time in middle age. Instead of a 40 percent increase in lifespan, these worms still managed to live about 20 percent longer.



This result is important because it emphasizes the important connection between metabolic health, fat regulation and longevity. The worms that benefited from the SCO treatment not only lived longer, but also became fatter. This indicates that the presence of fat may enhance some aspects of physiological health in older age, as long as it involves healthy, unsaturated fats.&nbsp;



“Usually people think of fat as ‘bad,’ but in these cases, it seems good, and actually pro-longevity,” said Bohnert. “Artemisia scoparia&nbsp;could have some exciting potential as a dietary supplement.”



“Also, the simple fact that an organism is short, fat&nbsp;and slow-moving does not necessarily qualify it as in poor health,” Ghosh added. “These phenotypes must be considered in the full context of other parameters, including lifespan.”



Artemisia scoparia extract is not currently recommended for humans to take as a life-extending dietary supplement, and there is no understanding of what would be a safe or effective dosage. However, the properties of the extract do seem to have had significant impacts. The researchers also investigated the effects of extracts from several other, related plant species, but only observed positive effects on fat regulation and longevity with&nbsp;the A. scoparia extract.&nbsp;



The study authors conclude that the A. scoparia extract is a natural product that can modify fat regulation and benefit longevity by altering core metabolic parameters. They propose that natural products like this may provide a means to extend animal lifespan and promote healthy aging.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Could a botanical extract extend the lifespan of humans?

Aging is considered to be a biological process that is...

A research team led by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cefe.cnrs.fr/fr/">Center of Functional Ecology and Evolution (CEFE)</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ecotonia.fr/">Ecotonia consultancy</a> has recently discovered a population of unprecedented proportions of a rare, protected orchid (Serapias neglecta) in a closed military base from east of the Mediterranean island of Corsica. Among numerous species of other rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-pollination-can-be-advantageous-for-plants/">plants</a>, the scientists found a massive population of 155,000 individual S.neglecta orchids.



Although this near-threatened orchid can be occasionally found in the south of France, Italy, and the east coast of the Adriatic too, none of its known populations has been as abundant as the one discovered in the Solenzara military base in Corsica. According to the scientists, the maintenance of the closed military area was extremely favorable to the development of orchids around the edges of runways and on lawns near military buildings.



“Мilitary bases are important areas for biodiversity because they are closed to the public, are not heavily impacted and these areas have soils that are often poorly fertilized and untreated due to old installations, so they often have high biodiversity,” wrote the study authors.



Since the meadows around the airport are regularly mowed for security reasons, orchids can thrive in a low vegetation environment with little competition. Additionally, the positioning of this land on the old Travo river bed favors low vegetation, providing rocky ground only a few centimeters beneath the soil.



Thus, due to its history, management, and lack of public access, the Solenzara military base hides a rich floristic diversity. The researchers found a total of 552 species of plants, including 19 with protected status in France, spread throughout just 550 hectares of land. While the Corsican coastline is increasingly urbanized, this area remains an important testament to the local flora, comprising a large diversity of plants that need to be carefully conserved.



“If logistical developments are carried out on this base, they will have to favor the conservation of this exceptional floristic biodiversity, and, in particular of this particularly abundant orchid. Military bases are a great opportunity for the conservation of species and would benefit from enhancing their natural heritage,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://bdj.pensoft.net/article/76375/">Biodiversity Data Journal</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Huge population of rare orchid found on military base in Corsica

A research team led by the&nbsp;Center of Functional Ecology and...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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