There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

The production of cereals, vegetables, fruits, and nuts depends entirely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-use-mechanical-buckling-to-lure-pollinators/">pollination</a>. However, since many flowers are hermaphrodite, having the male pollen located close to the female stigma, there is a constant risk of self-fertilization, which often results in unhealthy plants. Thus, the ability to control whether or not a plant is “self-compatible” is essential for ensuring healthier and more resilient crops.



A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(22)00342-6">Current Biology</a> has identified a new gene that controls self-fertilization in an engineered version of the plant Arabidopsis thaliana – an inconspicuous small weed related to crops such as cabbage and oilseed rape that is often used by plant scientists to better understand how plants function.&nbsp;



The researchers performed genetic screening to identify a new gene that is critical for regulating self-incompatibility. By using an engineered self-incompatible Arabidopsis plant line, the scientists isolated a gene that, when removed, abolished self-incompatibility, allowing the plant to self-fertilize. This gene – named “Highlander” after the 1986 film with an immortal warrior – encodes a protein called PGAP1 which is found in all complex organisms, from yeast to humans.



The genetically modified Arabidopsis plants showed no evidence of developmental defects, while its self-incompatibility was completely abolished and high levels of self-seed set were observed.&nbsp;



“This is a major breakthrough, as it not only identifies a new mechanism that is critical for achieving self-rejection of incompatible pollen, but it also implicates a role for specific proteins, called GPI-APs in this process for the first time,” said study senior author Veronica Franklin-Tong, a former professor of Plant Cell Biology at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>.&nbsp;



The GPI-APS family of proteins plays a crucial role in other systems too, such as enhancing innate immunity by increasing the levels of interactions between certain proteins. By showing that these proteins have a fundamental role in regulating self-fertilization, Professor Franklin-Tong and her colleagues may also have found evidence that such processes could have evolved from other systems, such as those providing immunity from pathogens.



“We are very excited by the unexpected and novel findings of this study, as it opens up new avenues, leading research into completely new areas, such as the involvement of GPI-APs and possibly accessory proteins, that help cell-cell interactions, in interactions between pollen and pistil in self-incompatibility,” Professor Franklin-Tong concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals new clues about self-fertilization in plants

The production of cereals, vegetables, fruits, and nuts depends entirely...

Zamia pseudoparasitica is an interesting plant, to say the least. Resembling a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-from-jamaica-transmit-diseases-to-florida-palm-trees/">palm</a> tree with short cones, this cycad is a relative of Zamias that existed 68.3 million years ago, when the dinosaurs were still around.&nbsp;



Today, Zamia pseudoparasitica is the only member of its family in the world that does not live on the ground. Instead, it hangs onto tree branches by its roots about 10 to 20 meters up in the air. Zamia pseudoparasitica is found exclusively in the montane cloud forests of western Panama.



A new study from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> is beginning to unravel the mystery of Zamia pseudoparasitica, providing new clues about the plant's history and how it persists in the forest canopy.&nbsp;



The study began a few years ago - when STRI scientist Claudio Monteza and Senacyt-STRI intern and biologist Lilisbeth Rodríguez ran into each other at the Smithsonian research station on Barro Colorado Island in the Panama Canal.&nbsp;



Rodríguez told Monteza about a research project she was conducting with Zamia pseudoparasitica under the supervision of Professor Juan Carlos Villarreal, a biologist from Laval University in Canada, and Kristin Saltonstall, an STRI staff scientist in Panama.



“My goal was to collect samples from different species of Zamias in the country,” said Rodríguez. "These samples would later be analyzed in the laboratory to find out what species of fungi and bacteria grow inside their leaves."



Professor Villarreal explained that no one knew how this plant’s seeds were dispersed - it was still a mystery. To investigate, the researchers placed camera traps up in the trees to examine what mammal species interacted with the Zamia.



The traps were positioned in trees across three three protected areas where Zamia pseudoparasitica grows, including the Palo Seco Protected Forest, the Santa Fe National Park and the Omar Torrijos Herrera National Park in El Copé. In March, 2020, shortly before pandemic lockdowns began, the researchers collected the camera traps.



The footage may explain how Z. pseudoparasitica disperses in the trees and not on the ground like other Zamias. The experts found that seven different mammals visited tree branches where the plants were growing. Some of the animals did not pay attention to the Zamias. Capuchin monkeys, opossums and kinkajous inspected the cones, and sometimes licked the plants, but did not take the seeds.



Only one animal was observed at all three sites - the northern olingo, a nocturnal tree-dwelling mammal that is active high in the canopy and feeds primarily on fruit. These animals were seen inspecting and biting the cones of Z. pseudoparasitica when they were still closed and immature. Once the seeds were opened, the olingos collected up to four seeds at a time.



"It could be that the olingos are taking the seeds to what would be their den or perhaps to a seed bank," explained Monteza. "If they are, which we don't yet know for sure, it would help to explain why this is the only Zamia species that lives in the forest canopy."



According to the researchers, this means that if the seeds are being stored in the canopy by olingos, they might end up in favorable places for germination.



“The montane forests of western Panama are very unique, filled with many species that aren’t found anywhere else,” said Kristin Saltonstall, co-supervisor of the project. “It’s exciting to document this interaction between such a special plant and an animal that is also poorly understood.”



“Z. pseudoparasitica is a true epiphyte; that is to say, it spends its entire life in the forest canopy,” said Monteza. “How it persists there is a mystery that perhaps we will begin to solve with these initial findings. It's exciting because we can continue to the next phase by collecting more data; for example, it occurs to us that we can mark the seeds with bioluminescence, wait for the olingos to take them away and then search for the seeds at night.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Solving the mystery of how Zamias live in the forest canopy

Zamia pseudoparasitica is an interesting plant, to say the least....

The olive oil industry generates approximately 30 million cubic meters of mill waste each season. The most solid part of this waste is pomace, which is a major source of concern due to its capacity to pollute and affect soil balance. Although the pomace’s richness in organic compounds is what makes it a pollutant in the first place, these bioactive compounds are mainly phenols and triterpenes, which have a high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-support-antioxidant-processes/">antioxidant</a> potential and thus significant health benefits.



A research team from the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814622000681?via%3Dihub">University of Córdoba</a> has recently evaluated the phenols and other bioactive compounds from the extraction of olive oil pomace in 43 olive varieties for three consecutive seasons. This is the first study to evaluate the role played by olive variety in the phenolic profile of the pomace, taking into account a large variety of cultivars and a time span greater than a single season.



The scientists discovered that olive variety is the main factor determining what types of antioxidants their pomace contains, and classified the cultivars into three different groups based on these concentrations: one containing higher concentrations of oleuropein and ligustroside; one with higher concentrations of oleacein and oleocanthal; and finally, a group that had minor compounds, such as certain flavonoids and triterpenic acids.



Clarifying the bioactive composition of various olive varieties marks a decisive step forward from considering the pomace a waste product to its employment as a by-product from which to extract phenols that can be used in the pharmaceutical or cosmetical industries, as well as in food enrichments or animal feed, due to their significant health benefits. Moreover, extracting these compounds from the pomace makes it less pollutant for the environment.



“From the point of view of the recovery of these pomaces, the industry may know that if an area tends to be used for the picual variety, for example, the pomace generated will contain certain phenols, so one knows which phenols can be extracted from it,” explained study co-senior author Feliciano Priego a professor of Analytical Chemistry at the University of Córdoba.



“The high number of varieties analyzed, and having continued the study over three seasons, renders this work highly valuable,” added another senior author, Concepción Muñoz, a professor from the same department. “Thanks to Córdoba's World Bank of Olive Germplasm, we can have varieties cultivated under the same agronomic and climatic conditions, thus allowing it possible to compare them.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814622000681?via%3Dihub">Food Chemistry</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Olive varieties contain different levels of antioxidants

The olive oil industry generates approximately 30 million cubic meters...

Climate scientists have warned that further deforestation will lead to the release of more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brown-carbon-released-from-wildfires-is-warming-the-arctic/">carbon</a> into our air, perpetuating climate change. Although this remains the case, a new study published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change">Frontiers in Forests and Global Change</a> has examined other ways in which deforestation impacts climate change.&nbsp;



The researchers looked at biophysical changes that occur when forests are destroyed. These factors include albedo (solar reflection), wind patterns, local heat distribution, cloud composition, and water cycles. What they discovered is not encouraging.&nbsp;



The scientists found that less solar radiation is reflected without forests' high tree canopies, making it hotter for those animals, including humans, living on the surface.&nbsp;



"Imagine a smooth surface, the wind just flows straight across and the heat from the sun comes straight down. But with the canopy and its surface like a crown of broccoli, those air parcels bounce around and the heat is dispersed," explained study lead author Professor Deborah Lawrence of the University of Virginia.



Study author Louis Verchot, a principal scientist at the <a href="https://alliancebioversityciat.org/">Alliance of Bioversity International - CIAT</a>, pointed out the vital role that trees play in hydrological cycles.&nbsp;



"Forests are also important to regional hydrological cycles; once you cut the trees, you remove the pump that transfers water from the surface to the atmosphere, which affects down-wind rainfall," explained Verchot.



The researchers also looked at the role that trees play in cloud formation. Trees and other plants emit biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs). These compounds cause a higher concentration of water droplets which produces brighter clouds. As a result, the brighter clouds allow more solar energy to be reflected into space.&nbsp;



With fewer forests and fewer BVOCs, the cooling effects of the clouds are diminished, leading to a hotter environment on the surface. The study authors hope that their findings will influence laws to reduce deforestation.



"We are helping to explain to governments and to policy makers that there are economic advantages to preventing deforestation and having forests in these regions provides an economic safety net, because we don't just look at it from a carbon perspective," said Verchot.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“If we are looking for aggregate climate benefits, both local and global, then we should be working very hard to grow and maintain forests in the tropics and looking to sustainably manage the forests outside the tropics,” said Professor Lawrence.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals the far-reaching climate impacts of deforestation

Climate scientists have warned that further deforestation will lead to...

Stem rust is one of the deadliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-that-breathe-underwater-could-improve-crop-resilience/">crop</a> diseases. It is caused by a fungus (Puccinia graminis&nbsp;f. sp. tritici) and has severely affected cereal farming throughout its entire history. A new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29132-8">Nature Communications</a> has discovered that an obscure species of wild grass (Aegilops sharonensis), which is a distant relative of wheat, has strong resistance against this fungus, and could be cross bred into wheat to give immunity against this deadly disease.



The researchers used novel bioinformatics techniques to sequence for the first time the genome of Aegilops sharonensis, a wild grass native to Israel and southern Lebanon. Using this genetic map and a search tool called “Mutant Hunter,” they identified a gene which appeared to confer strong protection against all tested strains of the wheat stem rust fungus.



“We now have this blockbuster gene that confers amazing immunity. If I were stem rust, I would be shaking in my spore,” said study co-author Dr. Brande Wulff, a wheat researcher at <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/">King Abdullah University of Science and Technology</a>.



“It has been an arduous research journey lasting many years, but we have now found this gene that confers broad-spectrum resistance. We have yet to come across an isolate of the pathogen which can overcome the gene,” added study lead author Dr. Guotai Yu, a geneticist at the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Center</a>.



Dr. Yu and his colleagues plan to employ the new gene as part of a stack of genes bred into common wheat varieties by using genetic modification technologies. Although A. sharonesis’ long generation time, tough seed coat, and difficulties of crossing it with wheat has made it less tractable than other species of wild grasses to be mined for useful genetic traits, the scientists hope that new technologies will help them cross bred it to wheat in order to overcome the burden stem rust disease is increasingly placing upon cereal populations.



“Pathogens like stem rust, already reduce the yield of wheat by 21 percent. Not only is the grain itself lost or damaged by the pathogen, but also the energy that goes into production – an equivalent of 420 billion kilowatts – enough to power 300 million homes in the developing world is wasted. If we can intervene with genetics, by recruiting the resistance found in this wild-wispy looking grass then that would be an amazing contribution to agriculture and climate change,” concluded Dr. Wulff.



Image Credit: Pablo Olivera Firpo



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild grass could protect crops against deadly pathogens

Stem rust is one of the deadliest crop diseases. It...

Due to global warming, many plant and animal species migrate from their native habitats, increasing the likelihood or local and global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-fertilization-led-to-severe-mass-extinction-event/">extinctions</a>. A series of studies on endangered species living on the border of Vietnam and China highlights the increasing importance of transboundary conservation efforts in the face of climate change.&nbsp;



According to a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of National History</a>, the <a href="https://vnu.edu.vn/eng/">Vietnam National University</a> (VNU), and the <a href="https://www.henu.edu.cn/">Henan University</a> in China, strategic, coordinated approaches towards managing transboundary species and landscapes are essential to prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity loss</a>.



“Biodiversity is undergoing dramatic loss on the global level, and we know that it is essential to human health and wellbeing - and that one of the most complex and challenging threats to biodiversity is climate change,” said Mary Blair, an expert in biodiversity at the American Museum of National History.



“There’s an urgent need for more information about how climate change is already affecting the distributions of key endangered species and habitats to inform conservation action planning, especially in areas where there may be limited capacity or resources for management, such as Southeast Asia.”



Recent estimates suggest that more than half of all terrestrial mammals, birds, and amphibians have distributions that cross national borders. Besides being threatened by hunting or deforestation, these animals may also be harmed by the construction of border infrastructure and the insufficient coordination of conservation activities on either side of the border. Additionally, these threats are likely to be exacerbated by climate change.



Professor Blair and her colleagues from Vietnam and China began a project focused on several endangered species inhabiting the border between Vietnam and China. These include highly threatened animals and plants, such as the Cao Vit gibbon, the Francois’ langur, and the Magnolia grandis tree. With a total population of fewer than 120 adult trees, Magnolia grandis is one of the world’s most threatened trees.



“Our analyses show that suitable habitat for species like the Cao Vit gibbon and the Owston’s civet will significantly shrink and become highly fragmented, whereas habitat for the endangered crocodile lizard will substantially shift under future climate scenarios. The results of the study will play a crucial role in formulating appropriate transboundary conservation measures,” said Minh Le, an environmental ecology at VNU.



“Borders often exemplify complex sociopolitical contexts and histories between countries. So conservation scientists, practitioners, and managers have an obligation to understand those contexts and know how they relate to our work and the goals of conservation. As global changes, including climate change, continue, we will have to increasingly work across borders to achieve biodiversity conservation goals and to do better science,” concluded Professor Blair.



The articles are published in a special issue of the journal Frontiers of Biogeography entitled “<a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/fb/14/1">Transboundary Conservation Under Climate Change.</a>”



Image Credit: Photo courtesy of Chu Xuan Canh, Fauna and Flora International, Vietnam



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conservation efforts must cross borders to save endangered species

Due to global warming, many plant and animal species migrate...

Climate change has compounded the issue of deforestation in India over the last two decades, and forest loss in this region will continue to be worse than anticipated in the coming years. This is the conclusion of a new study, which found that recent reports of relatively small forest losses in the country are inaccurate.



“India has seen dramatic forest loss in recent decades, with land use changes to accommodate crops, livestock and a growing population cited as causes. While the contribution of land use change to forest loss has been studied extensively, little attention has been given to the role of climate change in recent decreases," said study lead author Alice Haughan, a PhD researcher at the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>.



“The rapid changes to the climate we identified suggests India’s forest loss in the coming decades could be far worse than feared, as deforestation is only one part of the problem. The high levels of reduction seen are also concerning for biodiversity, as India relies on connected forests for wildlife preservation.”



The study is the first of its kind to examine the relationship between forest loss and rainfall and temperature trends in India on a national scale. The researchers warn that rapid changes to the climate observed in some regions will necessitate targeted preservation action and funding to reduce the risk to biodiversity in India.



The study was focused on forest loss across India between 2001 and 2018 - a time period for which little data exists. The experts studied the velocity of climate change across India to determine how the impacts of rainfall and temperature patterns may be affecting forests.



In areas where the climate has changed most rapidly, the researchers found far greater forest losses. The most influential factor was reduced rainfall, while shifting temperatures also played a role.&nbsp;



"Our study of Indian tropical and subtropical regions shows that rainfall rather than temperature comes into play as the biggest factor in forest loss, in contrast to trends found in many temperate studies," said Haughan.



Because research has until now largely focused on annual changes to India’s climate, this has masked more dramatic changes to temperature and rainfall within seasons, such as the monsoon seasons, according to the researchers.



As one of the world's most biodiverse countries, India is home to an estimated 47,000 plant species and 89,000 animal species. More than 10 percent of these species are believed to be threatened.&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forest loss in India is worse than expected due to climate change

Climate change has compounded the issue of deforestation in India...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-microplastics-originate-in-european-rivers/">Microplastics</a> in wastewater come in several different sizes, colors and chemical compositions. They include fibers, fragments, pellets and flakes, and originate from the washing of textiles, cosmetic products, the decomposition of plastic packaging, deposition from the atmosphere, and from contaminated runoff. Although wastewater can be treated to remove some of the plastic particles, this involves the use of chemicals that are toxic and disadvantageous for water quality.



In a study that is to be presented at the spring meeting of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) between March 20 and 24, scientists report success in using extracts from common food plants such as okra, tamarind and fenugreek, to remove suspended microplastics during the water treatment process.&nbsp;



Usually, microplastics are removed during water treatment using two methods. Those that float can be skimmed off the surface. The majority, however, are suspended in the water and must be treated with flocculants to make them stick together in clumps and sink to the bottom, where they can be separated from the rest of the water.&nbsp;



Dr. Rajani Srinivasan, principal investigator for the project, points out that some of the substances currently used to remove plastic contaminants are potentially harmful, themselves. This includes the common flocculant, polyacrylamide, which can break down into toxic components under certain conditions. “It doesn’t help if we try to clean up water but add potentially toxic substances to remove the pollutants,” said Dr. Srinivasan.



Dr. Srinivasan and her team from&nbsp;Tarleton State University have had some success in previous research using food-grade plant extracts as nontoxic flocculants to remove textile-based pollutants, such as dyes, from wastewater. They focused specifically on polysaccharides in the extracts because these biopolymers possess the appropriate chemical and biological properties to attract and capture pollutants like dyes or even bacteria.



“I was working with the removal of microorganisms and things like that, and I thought, ‘Why not try microplastics?’” said Dr. Srinivasan.



To investigate, the researchers tested polysaccharide extracts from fenugreek, cactus, Aloe vera, okra, tamarind and psyllium as flocculants to capture microplastics. These plants are usually eaten as foods, but they also sometimes serve as thickening agents. Okra is a potent thickener of stews and soups, and the "goo" it produces, along with slimy extracts from other plants, such as aloe, cactus and psyllium, have been shown to clean water of certain contaminants in the past.&nbsp;



The researchers tested compounds from the individual plants, as well as using combinations of the different extracts. They added the plant extracts to water containing microplastics and then examined the flocculated clumps microscopically. They counted the microplastics in the water before and after treatment each time, to determine how many plastic particles had stuck to the plant polysaccharides during the process.&nbsp;



The results showed that the polysaccharide extracts from okra, when paired with those from fenugreek, worked best to remove microplastics from seawater. The plastics in freshwater were removed most effectively using the extract from okra paired with the polysaccharides produced by tamarind plants. Overall, the plant-based polysaccharides worked as well as, or better than, the traditional flocculant polyacrylamide, depending on the combination of extracts and the water source.



Importantly, the plant-based flocculants can be implemented in existing water treatment processes, without developing additional technology. “The whole treatment method with the nontoxic materials uses the same infrastructure,” said Dr. Srinivasan. “We don’t have to build something new to incorporate these materials for water treatment purposes.”



In the next phase of the study, the researchers plan to identify the optimal ratios and combinations of plant-based flocculants to remove different microplastic types from ocean water, estuary water, freshwater and groundwater. They also plan to take their studies out of the lab and conduct practical studies in the field.&nbsp;



The long-term effects of ingesting these microplastics are not yet known, but it is estimated that people unintentionally consume tens of thousands of these particles every year.&nbsp;Their removal will undoubtedly become more and more urgent in future, and the researchers hope to commercialize their plant-based method so that microplastics can be removed from water on an industrial scale, to ensure cleaner and safer water for everyone to drink.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Okra can help remove microplastics from wastewater

Microplastics in wastewater come in several different sizes, colors and...

People usually think of the highly beneficial omega-3 fatty acids as connected mainly to fish. But now, a new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> has found that a plant-based version of this nutrient – the alpha-linoleic acid (ALA) – has a positive effect on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-a-handful-of-walnuts-every-day-for-better-heart-health/">heart health</a>, significantly reducing the risk of heart disease for those who do not eat seafood.



In a comprehensive review of previous studies, Penn State researchers discovered that consuming ALA found in plant-based foods such as walnuts or flaxseeds was associated with a 10 percent lower risk of cardiovascular disease and a 20 percent reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease.



“People may not want to eat seafood for a variety of reasons, but it’s still important for them to consume omega-3s to reduce the risk of heart disease and to promote overall health,” said study co-author Penny Kris-Etherton, a professor of Nutritional Sciences at Penn State. “Plant-based ALA in the form of walnuts or flaxseeds can also provide these benefits, especially when incorporated into a healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.”



The scientists found evidence that even for people who consume seafood regularly, adding plant-based omega-3s to their menu could further improve their heart health.&nbsp;



“When people with low levels of omega-3s in their diet ate ALA, they saw a benefit in terms of cardiovascular health. But when people with high levels of omega-3s from other sources ate more ALA, they also saw a benefit. It could be that ALA works synergistically with other omega-3s,” explained study co-author Jennifer Fleming, an assistant professor of Nutrition at Penn State.



According to the researchers, ALA has beneficial effects on reducing atherogenic lipids and lipoproteins – such as total cholesterol, low density-lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides – as well as inflammation and blood pressure. Current dietary guidelines recommend to consume half an ounce of walnuts or just under a tablespoon of flaxseed oil per day in order to reap these benefits.



Further studies are needed to clarify the effects of ALA on other major chronic diseases and to evaluate whether the recent scientific literature supports new, higher dietary recommendations for ALA, particularly for people who also consume significant amounts of seafood.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmac016">Advances in Nutrition</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant-based omega-3s are beneficial for heart health

People usually think of the highly beneficial omega-3 fatty acids...

Heat is often intensified in cities, since asphalt, concrete, and similar materials absorb and retain significantly more heat than vegetation – a phenomenon known as the <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-change-impacts/urban-heat-islands">urban heat island</a> effect. According to a new study led by climate scientists from NASA’s <a href="https://www.giss.nasa.gov/">Goddard Institute for Space Studies</a> (GISS), rooftop gardens and greenery could help ease some of the severe heat in cities by harnessing the cooling power of plants to lower the temperature.



“As cities grow and develop, they need to make good decisions about their infrastructure, because these decisions often last for 30 or 50 years or longer,” said&nbsp;study co-author Christian Braneon, a climate scientist and civil engineer at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> and GISS. “In the context of more frequent heat waves and more extreme heat, it’s important to understand how these urban design interventions can be effective.”



By using freely available satellite data, Dr. Braneon and his colleagues studied three sites in Chicago to assess how rooftop gardens affected surface temperatures around the buildings. While two of the roofs reduced temperatures, the other one did not, thus indicating that effectiveness may depend on a variety of factors, ranging from geographical location and plant diversity to rooftop structure and the cooling efficiency of the building itself.



“In a lot of places, you might be developing an area that didn’t have something there before; it just had overgrown vegetation. You might think that putting a green roof on your new building would make a significant impact. But what we see is that a lot of impervious material may also be added there – such as a parking lot around the building. As a result, you might reduce the impact of the parking lot, but you certainly haven’t created the cooling effect that the overgrown vegetation had,” explained Dr. Braneon.



Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of the use of greenery and rooftop gardens in other locations in various cities. This could help experts fully understand the diversity of factors that influence processes of urban heating and cooling. Most importantly though, the dynamics of the climate should always be taken into account.



“Traditionally, civil engineers and urban planners assumed a stationary climate,” said Dr. Braneon. “The whole practice is built on the premise that we can look at the past to assess risk in the future. Everything is being flipped on its head due to climate change, so I’m hoping to do more work that changes how civil engineers and urban planners practice.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103376210670721006491">Sustainable Cities and Society</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rooftop gardens can lower city heat

Heat is often intensified in cities, since asphalt, concrete, and...

The green industry experienced a spike in sales during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-doubles-the-risk-of-severe-pregnancy-complications/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, as people turned to gardening and landscaping during quarantine. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> shows that while plant nurseries and greenhouses may not continue to boom as they did in 2020, some people who took up gardening will continue to raise plants as a lifelong hobby.&nbsp;



"The COVID-19 pandemic altered the way many consumers and businesses transacted business. Concerning the green industry, many households began gardening and/or purchased more green industry products. As the pandemic ends and households begin to return to normal, green industry firms need to understand this new normal," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



"Using an online national survey of households, we assessed which households were more likely to remain in the market after entering during the height of the pandemic."



Among more than 4,200 survey respondents, about one out of every three people began gardening in 2020 because they were home more. Many of these individuals also put in new grass lawns or tackled other outdoor renovations and landscaping projects.



“You had low interest rates, so you had a lot of people refinancing, which gave them money to invest in their homes,” said study lead author Professor Benjamin Campbell. “You had people at home looking for something to do, whether by themselves or with their kids. That led to a huge demand for plants.”



Nearly half of the respondents said they did not plan to garden in the future, even if they had in 2020. On the other hand, one in ten participants who had gardened in 2020 said they planned to keep it up going forward.



The survey results suggest that millennials and younger individuals were more likely to have started gardening during the pandemic, yet also more likely to report that they would not continue to garden as states returned to normal.



“We saw a lot of younger consumers come into the market because of the pandemic and because they were having to stay home,” said Professor Campbell. “Plants have been shown to help with a lot of different things related to people’s psyche. Gardening not only gave people something to do, but it also gave them a little bit more happiness.”



The results of the analysis show that food insecurity motivated some people to pick up gardening so they could grow their own food. Many of the study participants said they planned to garden in the future because they were concerned about food shortages.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.ashs.org/horttech/view/journals/horttech/horttech-overview.xml">HortTechnology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gardening got a major boost from the COVID-19 pandemic

The green industry experienced a spike in sales during the...

In 2012, the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/ga/">United Nations General Assembly</a> designated today, March 21, as the International Day of Forests to raise awareness of the importance of all forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a>.&nbsp;



"When we drink a glass of water, write in a notebook, take medicine for a fever or build a house, we do not always make the connection with forests. And yet, these and many other aspects of our lives are linked to forests in one way or another," reports the UN.



"Forest sustainable management and their use of resources are key to combating climate change, and to contributing to the prosperity and well-being of current and future generations. Forests also play a crucial role in poverty alleviation and in the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Yet despite all these priceless ecological, economic, social and health benefits, global deforestation continues at an alarming rate."



According to the UN, around 1.6 billion people are directly dependent on forests for food, shelter, energy, medicines and income. Meanwhile, 10 million hectares of forest are lost every year.&nbsp;



The State of the World’s Forests 2020 report, released by the the Food and Agriculture Association of the United States, notes that deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, and this is a major contributor to the ongoing biodiversity crisis.



"Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades," says the report.&nbsp;



"Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990."



In the Amazon forest alone, thousands of plant and animal species are threatened with extinction as a direct result of deforestation. The <a href="https://www.bgci.org/globaltreesearch">GlobalTreeSearch database</a> reports that there are currently 60,082 tree species in existence. More than 20,000 of these tree species are on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.



"International Forest Day is a tremendous occasion to celebrate the world’s wildlife and humanities’ achievements in preservation of it, to educate the public on forests and ecosystems. But it is also a suitable opportunity and the right time to address global problems and to mobilize political will to take action," says the UN.



"Last month, the UN agency on climate change, IPCC, published a report revealing the deadly consequences of climate change for people in all parts of the world in the coming decades. The consequences of climate change are worse than ever, highlighting the importance of global unity."



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

International Day of Forests: a time for global unity

In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly designated today, March...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...