There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

With a growing world population and decreases in agricultural production due to geopolitical conflicts, food security is becoming an increasingly critical issue. Now, a research team led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> has uncovered another way to increase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-grass-could-protect-crops-against-deadly-pathogens/">crop</a> production. The researchers found that removing nitrogen oxides (NOx) gases from the air benefited crop production.



“Nitrogen oxides are invisible to humans, but new satellites have been able to map them with incredibly high precision. Since we can also measure crop production from space, this opened up the chance to rapidly improve our knowledge of how these gases affect agriculture in different regions," explained study lead author David Lobell.



Nitrogen oxide gases are a common air pollutant released by cars and industrial equipment. NOx gases directly damage plant cells. Moreover, they generate air particulates, which prevent crops from receiving light, and ozone, a toxin that reduces yields.&nbsp;



These effects are far from benign. The researchers believe that cutting nitrogen oxide emissions in half would significantly improve crop yield. According to their estimates, winter crop yield in China would increase by 25 percent, and summer crop yield would increase by 15 percent. Summer and winter crop yields would both increase by 10 percent in Western Europe, and summer crops in India would rise by about 8 percent, while winter crops would rise about 6 percent.



The researchers mentioned that North and South America have very low NOx exposure and did not report any difference in crop production in these regions. It’s not lost on the experts that their findings relate to the struggle against climate change.&nbsp;



“The actions you would take to reduce NOx, such as vehicle electrification, overlap closely with the types of energy transformations needed to slow climate change and improve local air quality for human health," said study co-author Jennifer Burney.



The researchers hope to learn more about how nitrogen dioxide affects crops during the different growing seasons. They also look forward to exploring how other pollutants affect crop yield. Furthermore, they want to look at the relationship between nitrogen dioxide and climate to better understand why it affects regions differently.



“It’s really exciting how many different things can be measured from satellites now, much of it coming from new European satellites," said study co-author Stefania Di Tommaso. “As the data keep improving, it really drives us to be more ambitious and creative as scientists in the types of questions we ask.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Reducing nitrogen oxide pollution could boost crop yields

With a growing world population and decreases in agricultural production...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> has found that plant species adapt to the altitude where they grow by “sensing” the oxygen levels that surround them. By analyzing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-release-a-variety-of-biological-particles-into-the-air/">plants</a> growing at both low- and high-altitude locations, the experts identified how oxygen-sensing controls the pathway of chlorophyl synthesis, permitting plants to match the levels of a toxic chemical to surrounding oxygen levels.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Altitude is an essential part of plant ecology. At least 30 percent of plant species diversity is currently contained in the mountains. Moreover, since climate change is leading to the displacement of a large variety of wild species and crops to higher altitudes, it is essential to understand the mechanisms that allow plants to live at such heights, where oxygen levels are low.



“Altitude is a key component of ecology with different altitudes subjecting plants to changing environments, some components of which are fixed by altitude and others that are not,” said study lead author Michael Holdsworth, a professor of Crop Science at the University of Nottingham.&nbsp;



“For life at high altitude, it was previously considered that plants need to adapt to many variables, including high UV light and lower temperatures usually present at high altitude, but this study is the first time that perception of atmospheric oxygen levels has been shown to be a key determinant of altitude adaptation in plants.”



Professor Holdsworth and his colleagues discovered that atmospheric oxygen level is the key determinant of altitude perception. “We define the molecular pathway through which oxygen-sensing results in an adapted phenotype and we find that distinct species of flowering plants are adapted to absolute altitude through conserved oxygen-sensing control of chlorophyll synthesis and hypoxia gene expression. Showing that this mechanism works in diverse species provides a new paradigm for plant ecology,” Professor Holdsworth explained.&nbsp;



This better understanding of the genetic changes that plants go through at various heights could lead to new approaches to help plant breeders enhance the ability of crops to grow at higher attitudes – a feature which will become increasingly important as climate change advances.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04740-y">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants adapt to altitude by sensing oxygen levels

A new study led by the University of Nottingham has...

In a new commentary, experts are emphasizing the critical need for physicians to better understand the health benefits of plant-based foods. Since not all doctors are trained in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-nutritional-wisdom-we-eat-what-our-body-needs/">nutrition</a>, the report authors feel there is an urgent need for physicians to become aware of the benefits of plant-based diets for six specific health conditions: weight loss, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, and COVID-19.



The commentary is co-authored by Dr. Saray Stancic, who is the director of medical education for the <a href="https://www.pcrm.org/">Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine</a>.&nbsp;



“The field of medicine, despite its prominent influence in society, has invested little to promote healthy lifestyle choices,” said Dr. Stancic. “The consequence of this is reflected in our ever-rising chronic disease statistics, most notably obesity and diabetes rates.”



The experts say that part of the problem is that medical schools offer "an anemic number of hours of nutrition education over 4 years,” and this does not improve in postgraduate training. A recent survey of more than 600 cardiologists revealed that 90 percent felt they had not received the necessary training in nutrition.



The commentary acknowledges that not all physicians must be experts in nutrition, but says that they should at least have rudimentary knowledge of the benefits of a plant-based diet for these six conditions.



When it comes to weight loss and maintenance, a recent study of 70,000 people showed that individuals who consume a vegan diet weigh about nine pounds less, and have a reduced risk of death. Other studies show that vegetarians have lower cholesterol and a lower rate of heart disease compared to omnivores.



Furthermore, active people with diets rich in vegetables, fruits, and whole grains have an estimated lower risk of breast cancer by 50 to 70 percent, while diets high in dairy products increase the chances of developing prostate cancer.&nbsp;



A study from Harvard demonstrated that individuals who consume a plant-based diet could reduce their risk of type 2 diabetes by 34 percent. A separate Harvard study revealed that a primarily plant-based diet is associated with a 41 percent lower risk of severe COVID-19.



The experts also point to a study which found that a plant-based Mediterranean-DASH diet can reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease by 60 percent.



“It is time for all physicians across the globe to speak to the importance of diet and lifestyle in health,” conclude the report authors. They say this can be accomplished through counseling patients, ensuring that hospitals provide healthy menus, lecturing in the community, writing articles, and by providing commentary to the media.



The research is published in the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ajl">American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine</a>, and will be presented by Dr. Stancic at the International Conference on Nutrition in Medicine taking place in Washington, D.C.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Physicians need to know the benefits of plant-based diets

In a new commentary, experts are emphasizing the critical need...

Green,Leaves,Of,Medicinal,Cannabis,With,Extract,Oil.medical,Marijuana,Flower

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indoor-cannabis-smoke-endangers-public-health/">cannabis</a> component widely used for a variety of medical purposes, such as to improve sleep or boost energy. Unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), another cannabis component that can induce sedation, euphoria, and cognitive and motor impairment, CBD does not appear to intoxicate people. Instead, scientific studies have shown that CBD has calming and pain relief effects, making it useful for wide range of medical conditions, including sleep disorders, anxiety, or various types of pain.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> has discovered that this cannabis component has no impact on people’s driving or cognitive abilities, even if consumed in high doses of up to 1,500 mg.



“Though&nbsp;CBD is generally considered ‘non-intoxicating,’ its effects on safety-sensitive tasks are still being established,” said study lead author&nbsp;Danielle&nbsp;McCartney, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Sydney’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/lambert/">Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics</a>. “Our study is the first to confirm that, when consumed on its own, CBD is driver-safe.”



In order to test this, Dr. McCartney and her colleagues asked 17 participants to undertake simulated driving tasks after consuming either a placebo or 15, 300, or 1,500 mg of CBD. The participants had to try to maintain a safe distance between themselves and another vehicle, and “drive” along simulated highways and rural roads.&nbsp;



In order to cover the range of CBD plasma concentrations at different times, they had to complete these tasks twice – first, between 45 and 75 minutes after taking the treatment, and then again after 3.5 to four hours.&nbsp;



The scientists measured participants’ control of the simulated car, as well as their cognitive functioning and subjective experiences, and concluded that no dose of CBD induced feelings of intoxication or impaired their driving or cognitive performance.&nbsp;



“We do, however, caution that this study looked at CBD in isolation only, and that drivers taking CBD with other medications should do so with care,” Dr. McCartney warned.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/02698811221095356">Journal of Psychopharmacology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

High doses of CBD do not affect driving abilities

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a cannabis component widely used for a...

Previous research has linked coffee consumption with lowered risk of death from various causes, but the effect of sweetening the coffee with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-amounts-of-sugar-found-under-seagrass-meadows/">sugar</a> or artificial sweeteners has not been investigated. A large-scale study of British coffee drinkers has now cast light on the role of this variable.



Researchers at Southern Medical University in Guangzhou, China used data from the U.K. Biobank study to evaluate whether the consumption of sugar-sweetened, artificially sweetened, and unsweetened coffee is linked with risk of mortality from all causes, and from certain specific causes.&nbsp;



More than 171,000 participants from the U.K. completed the health behavior questionnaire in which they gave details of their dietary and health status. All participants were free of known heart disease or cancer at the start of the study.&nbsp;



The researchers divided the participants in to three groups, those who sweetened their coffee with sugar, those who used artificial sweeteners and those who drank their coffee unsweetened. They monitored the participants for a period of seven years and recorded any mortalities during that time.



The results of the analysis, published today in the <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/journal/aim">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>, showed that participants who drank any amount of unsweetened coffee in a day were 16 to 21 percent less likely to die than participants who did not drink coffee at all. They also found that participants who drank moderate amounts of coffee (1.5 to 3.5 cups daily) sweetened with sugar were 29 to 31 percent less likely to die than participants who did not drink coffee.&nbsp;



“Our study found that adults who drank moderate amounts of coffee sweetened with sugar every day were about 30 percent less likely to die from any cause during the average 7-year follow up period compared to non-coffee drinkers,” said study co-author Dr. Dan Liu.



The authors stated that adults who sweetened their coffee before drinking it added, on average, only about 1 teaspoon of sugar per cup. This is far less than the amount of sugar found in other, commercially available beverages.&nbsp;



The beneficial results of drinking unsweetened and sugar-sweetened coffee were true for all types of coffee, namely decaffeinated, caffeinated and ground. However, the researchers found that the results were inconclusive where the use of artificial sweeteners was concerned.



According to Dr. Christina Wee, editor at ACP Journals, although the study found that drinking moderate levels of coffee regularly was associated with a lower risk of dying from any cause, dying from cancer, and dying from heart disease, the authors cannot conclude definitively that coffee was the cause of the lower risk.&nbsp;



The effects of other, potentially confounding factors could not be assessed in this study. For example, the participants were all British and were likely to drink tea as well as coffee.&nbsp;



Also, coffee is a low-sugar beverage (even when sweetened with one spoon of sugar), so people who drink coffee probably take in less sugar each day than people who drink carbonated beverages. The roles of these factors cannot be separated in the current study.



“The results of this study do not necessarily apply to drinking specialty coffees which may contain a much higher level of added sugar," said Dr. Wee.



However, based on the data obtained from this research, clinicians can tell their patients that there is no need for most coffee drinkers to eliminate the beverage from their diet but to be cautious about higher calorie specialty coffees.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coffee could be a life-saver, sweetened or unsweetened

Previous research has linked coffee consumption with lowered risk of...

During their lifespans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-plants-can-be-easily-confused-with-edible-ones/">plants</a> release through their stems and leaves a wide range of biological particles, including fungal spores, pollen, bacteria, viruses, algae, and cell debris. When reaching the atmosphere, these particles can act as the nuclei for ice crystals or cloud droplets, thus having a significant environmental and climatic impact.&nbsp;



Although scientists have long been familiar with this process, little has been known about how the composition of this microbiome changes throughout a plant’s life cycle. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> has investigated the biological particles produced during the life cycle of&nbsp;Brachypodium distachyon, a wild but commonly used model grass.



“Airborne biological aerosols are an integral part of the atmosphere–biosphere interface and significantly impact the environment and Earth’s climate,” wrote the study authors. “Primary biological particles such as fungal spores, bacteria, and fragments of plant debris are emitted directly from the biosphere into the atmosphere. The phyllosphere (aboveground plant surfaces) is one of the major habitats for different microbes.”



In order to understand the dynamics of this process over the life cycle of&nbsp;B. distachyon, the scientists collected particles at eight different developmental stages – from the emergence of leaves to the last season of plant life – and analyzed particle morphology, elemental composition, and abundance of functional groups through various types of microspectroscopy platforms.&nbsp;



The researchers found a variety of spores, bacteria, plant fragments, and other types of biological particles in the plants’ phyllosphere. While fungal spores were most abundant during the stage just before flowering, bacteria took the lead during the flowering and fruit development stages.



Better understanding the differences in the composition and morphology of biological particles during plants’ life cycles provides new, more reliable insights on the structural, functional, and biochemical properties of plant systems, as well as on their complex interactions with microbial communities. Further research is needed to clarify all the environmental and climatic implications of these processes.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.0c00144">ACS Earth and Space Chemistry</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants release a variety of biological particles into the air

During their lifespans, plants release through their stems and leaves...

The Corn Belt is a region in the midwestern United States that is dominated by agriculture, including western Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, eastern Nebraska, and eastern Kansas. A new study led by <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a> has found that climate change will make the U.S. Corn Belt unsuitable for cultivating corn and other major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-crops-could-reduce-climate-impacts/">crops</a> by 2100. 



According to the researchers, this transition will be inevitable without major technological advances in agricultural practices, as well as significant diversification beyond the major commodity crops that currently make up the bulk of U.S. agriculture.



“Climate change is happening, and it will continue to shift U.S. cultivation geographies strongly north,” said study author Emily Burchfield, an environmental scientist at Emory. “It’s not enough to simply depend on technological innovations to save the day. Now is the time to envision big shifts in what and how we grow our food to create more sustainable and resilient forms of agriculture.”



Currently, 80 percent of U.S. agricultural lands are cultivated with only five types of crops – alfalfa, corn, hay, soy, and wheat. By drawing upon historical land-use data classifying where these crops are grown, Professor Burchfield developed computational models to project biophysically driven shifts in cultivation to 2100 under low-, moderate-, and high-emissions scenarios. The results revealed that, even under moderate-emissions scenarios, the cultivation geographies of these major crops will all shift strongly north, with the Corn Belt becoming unsuitable to the cultivation of corn by the end of the century.



“These projections may be pessimistic because they don’t account for all of the ways that technology may help farmers adapt and rise to the challenge,” Professor Burchfield&nbsp;said. “But relying on technology alone is a really risky way to approach the problem. If we continue to push against biophysical realities, we will eventually reach ecological collapse.”



In her opinion, a better solution would be for agricultural systems to diversify beyond this handful of major crops. “One of the basic laws of ecology is that more diverse ecosystems are more resilient,” explained Professor Burchfield. “A landscape covered with a single plant is a fragile, brittle landscape. And there is also growing evidence that more diverse agricultural landscapes are more productive.”



“We need to switch from incentivizing intensive cultivation of five or six crops to supporting farmers’ ability to experiment and adopt the crops that work best in their particular landscape. It’s important to begin thinking about how to transition out of our current damaging monoculture paradigm toward systems that are environmentally sustainable, economically viable for farmers, and climate-smart."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac6c3d">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The U.S. Corn Belt will take a hard hit from climate change

The Corn Belt is a region in the midwestern United...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-reduces-the-risk-of-autoimmune-disease/">Vitamin D</a> deficiency is linked to a number of health concerns across the world, and it is often recommended to increase intake by eating more fruits and vegetables. In a new study John Innes Centre, researchers have found a way to maximize vitamin D in tomatoes through gene editing.&nbsp;



Our bodies produce vitamin D after exposure to UVB light, but food is the biggest source. The new biofortified crop could help millions of people with vitamin D deficiency, which is linked to higher risk of cancer, dementia, and many leading causes of mortality. Recent studies have also identified a link between vitamin D deficiency and increased severity of Covid-19 infection.&nbsp;



During the winter months, and also at higher latitudes, people need vitamin D from their diet or supplements because the sun is not strong enough for the body to produce it naturally.&nbsp;



Tomato leaves contain provitamin D3, one of the building blocks of vitamin D at very low levels. Provitamin D3 does not normally accumulate in ripe tomato fruits. The researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to revise the genetic code of tomato plants so that provitamin D3 accumulates in the tomato fruit.&nbsp;



The leaves of the edited plants contained up to 600 ug of provitamin D3 per gram of dry weight. The recommended daily intake of vitamin D is 10 ug for adults.&nbsp; This may not sound beneficial as tomato leaves are usually discarded. However, the leaves of the edited plants can be used to manufacture vitamin D3 supplements.&nbsp;



“We’ve shown that you can biofortify tomatoes with provitamin D3 using gene editing, which means tomatoes could be developed as a plant-based, sustainable source of vitamin D3,” said study co-author Professor Cathie Martin.



“Forty percent of Europeans have vitamin D insufficiency and so do one billion people world-wide. We are not only addressing a huge health problem, but are helping producers, because tomato leaves which currently go to waste, could be used to make supplements from the gene-edited lines.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The gene-editing had no effect on growth, development or yield of the tomato plants. One tomato contained levels of vitamin D that were equivalent to two medium sized eggs or 28 grams of tuna. Vitamin D in ripe fruit could be further increased by extended exposure to UVB, for example during sun-drying.&nbsp;



“The Covid-19 pandemic has helped to highlight the issue of vitamin D insufficiency and its impact on our immune function and general health," said study first author Dr. Jie Li.



"The provitamin D enriched tomatoes we have produced offer a much-needed plant-based source of the sunshine vitamin. That is great news for people adopting a plant-rich, vegetarian or vegan diet, and for the growing number of people worldwide suffering from the problem of vitamin D insufficiency.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tomatoes could become an important source of vitamin D

Vitamin D deficiency is linked to a number of health...

Plants respond very strongly to touch and other external stimuli, and researchers at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> have now discovered new details about the genetic basis for such stress responses. This breakthrough could ultimately lead to higher yields and improved stress resistance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-grass-could-protect-crops-against-deadly-pathogens/">crops</a>, noted the experts.&nbsp;



"Through millions of years of evolution, plants have gained a sophisticated molecular machinery to sense and respond to a plethora of environmental stimuli. So far, plant responses to biotic and abiotic factors have been extensively studied and characterized at the molecular level. Nonetheless, insights on how plants respond to mechanical cues, like rain, wind, touch, and bending, are just beginning to unfold," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



Mechanical stimuli instantly activate a plant's molecular defense system, and this powerful response can contribute to plants becoming more resistant later. While scientists have been aware of this innate response since the days of Darwin, many questions still remain today. In the new study, the experts looked at complex networks which support the strengthening of plant defenses through external influences.



“We exposed the plant thale cress to soft brushing, after which thousands of genes were activated and stress hormones were released. We then used genetic screening to find the genes that were responsible for this process," explained study co-author Olivier Van Aken.



Ultimately, the researchers identified three new proteins that play a key role in the plant response to touch.



“Our results solve a scientific mystery that has eluded the world's molecular biologists for 30 years. We have identified a completely new signaling pathway that controls a plant's response to physical contact and touch. Now the search for more paths continues," said study co-author Essam Darwish.



“Given the extreme weather conditions and pathogen infections that climate change leads to, it is of utmost importance to find new ecologically responsible ways to improve crop productivity and resistance," concluded Van Aken.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals new clues about how plants respond to touch

Plants respond very strongly to touch and other external stimuli,...

Junipers,,Berries,

Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-be-smart-while-foraging-for-food/">foraging</a> – the activity of finding, gathering, and harvesting wild plants. However, since many of the plants found in the wild are highly poisonous, although they look similar to various edible plants, knowing which plant species to avoid and which to gather and consume is crucial. Geoff Dann, a British writer and foraging teacher, has now outlined some of the biggest risks novice foragers are facing when searching for wild plants.&nbsp;



According to Dann, the best advice is never to eat anything found in the wild that we are not absolutely sure what it is. “I guess the most important rule is ‘Pay attention to what you are doing,’ followed by ‘If in doubt, leave it out,’” he said.



Dann warned foragers about four plant species – dead man’s fingers, lords and ladies, foxglove, and deadly nightshade – which, even if they look similar to other edible species, are in fact very dangerous, and can cause severe illness and death.



Dead men’s fingers (Oenanthe crocata) has toxic roots and stems that look very much like parsley, and even more poisonous roots which look and smell exactly like parsnips. Consuming this plant can trigger spasmodic convulsions, often followed by sudden death. Similarly, lords and ladies (Arum maculatum), a plant whose leaves closely resemble edible sorrel and wild garlic, can cause intense pain and irritation upon contact with the soft tissue of the mouth and throat.



Another plant Dann warns foragers about is the common foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), which is often mistaken for members of the edible borage family. However, since it contains glycosides, the foxglove can cause skin irritation on contact, as well as headaches, vomiting, convulsions, delirium, and cardiac arrest if consumed. Finally, the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladona), which sports attractive and delicious-looking black berries, leads to severe disruptions of the nervous system and eventually death by respiratory arrest if consumed.



“Identifying plants requires much more than just visual properties – smell, habitat, and location are all important. If you are going to learn how to forage, then you need to learn how to identify wild species yourself, and you need to know what can be confused with what,” concluded Dann.



In his recent book - <a href="https://www.geoffdann.co.uk/edible-plants-the-book/">Edible Plants: A forager’s guide to the wild plants and seaweeds of Britain, Ireland and temperate Europe</a>&nbsp;– Dann describes in great detail a large number of edible plants, including the black nightshade, the Japanese knotweed, or the three-cornered leek.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toxic plants can be easily confused with edible ones

Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in foraging –...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> has shed new light on how plant life became established on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-endured-rapid-global-warming-300-million-years-ago/">Earth</a> 470 million years ago. The experts found two genes that seem indispensable for allowing plants to defend themselves against fungal attacks – a crucial ability that paved the way for all terrestrial plant life.



When plants evolved from aquatic algae to survive on land nearly half a billion years ago, they needed to build defenses against the massive population of fungi colonizing the Earth.&nbsp;



“It is estimated that 100 million years prior, fungi crept across Earth’s surface in search of nourishment and most likely found it in dead algae washed up from the sea,” said study senior author Mads Eggert Nielsen. “So, if you, as a new plant, were going to establish yourself on land, and the first thing you encountered is a fungus that would eat you, you needed some sort of defense mechanism.”



According to the scientists, the essence of this defense mechanism can be narrowed down to two genes, PEN1 and SYP122, which help blocking the invasion of fungi.&nbsp;



“We found out that if we destroy these two genes in our model plant thale cress (Arabidopsis), we open the door for pathogenic fungi to penetrate. We found that they are essential to form this cell wall-like plug that defends against fungi. Interestingly, it appears to be a universal defense mechanism that is found in all terrestrial plants,” Dr. Nielsen explained. The same mechanism was also identified in liverwort, a direct descendent of one of the Earth’s first land plants.



While fungi posed a major obstacle for early plants, they were also a prerequisite. As soon as plants adapted to survive fungal attacks, the next problem they faced was finding nutrients. While nutrients such as phosphorous or nitrogen were easy to access in the water, the newly evolved land plants faced significant difficulties in extracting nutrients bound in the rocky land that was widespread on Earth half a billion years ago.&nbsp;



On the other hand, fungi could extract such nutrients, and entered into a symbiotic relationship with the first land plants, which, in their turn, provided fungi with the carbohydrates they could not find otherwise. Thus, the defense mechanisms plants developed simply stopped fungi from invading, but did not kill them.&nbsp;



“Since a fungus can only gain partial entry into a plant, we believe that a tipping point arises where both plant and fungus have something to gain. Therefore, it has been an advantage to maintain the relationship as is. The theory that plants tamed fungi to colonize land is not ours, but we are providing fodder that supports this idea,” explained Dr. Nielsen.



The results of this study – published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/73487#s3">eLife</a> – could be used to make crops more resistant to fungal attacks, which is currently a major problem for farmers.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants tamed fungi to colonize land half a billion years ago

A recent study led by the University of Copenhagen has...

Flavonoids are compounds produced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-grow-plants-in-lunar-soil-for-the-first-time/">plants</a> and thought to confer significant health benefits on humans. In plants, they act as essential pigments and are responsible for the colors found in buds, petals, fruits and autumn leaves. Flavonoids are found in many brightly colored fruits and vegetables, including blueberries, parsley, red grapes, cranberries, cherries and citrus fruits.



Research conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> set out to test whether supplementing people’s diets every day with cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon) could help improve memory and brain function in older individuals, and thereby reduce age-related neurodegeneration. Cranberries are rich in anthocyanins, a particular group of plant flavonoids that act as antioxidants.



“Dementia is expected to affect around 152 million people by 2050. There is no known cure, so it is crucial that we seek modifiable lifestyle interventions, such as diet, that could help lessen disease risk and burden," explained lead researcher Dr. David Vauzour.



“Past studies have shown that higher dietary flavonoid intake is associated with slower rates of cognitive decline and dementia,” he continued. “And foods rich in anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins, which give berries their red, blue, or purple colour, have been found to improve cognition. Cranberries are rich in these micronutrients and have been recognized for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.”



The researchers investigated the impact of eating 100g of cranberries each day for 12 weeks. The 60 participants, all cognitively healthy individuals between the ages of 50 and 80, were divided into two groups. One group took 100g of freeze-dried, powdered cranberry (equivalent to 1 cup of berries) as a supplement every day, while the other group received a placebo.&nbsp;



After 12 weeks, it was found that participants who had consumed the cranberry powder showed significantly improved memory of everyday events (visual episodic memory), neural functioning and delivery of blood to the brain (brain perfusion). These results have been published by the researchers in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



“We found that the participants who consumed the cranberry powder showed significantly improved episodic memory performance in combination with improved circulation of essential nutrients such as oxygen and glucose to important parts of the brain that support cognition – specifically memory consolidation and retrieval," said Dr. Vauzour.



“The cranberry group also exhibited a significant decrease in LDL or ‘bad’ cholesterol levels, known to contribute to atherosclerosis – the thickening or hardening of the arteries caused by a build-up of plaque in the inner lining of an artery,” he added. “This supports the idea that cranberries can improve vascular health and may in part contribute to the improvement in brain perfusion and cognition.”



This study is one of the first to examine cranberries and their long-term impact on cognition and brain health in humans, and the researchers hope that their findings will be used to inform future strategies for the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia.&nbsp;



“Demonstrating in humans that cranberry supplementation can improve cognitive performance and identifying some of the mechanisms responsible is an important step for this research field,” said Dr. Vauzour. "The findings of this study are very encouraging, especially considering that a relatively short 12-week cranberry intervention was able to produce significant improvements in memory and neural function."



The experts feel that their study establishes an important foundation for future research in the area of cranberries and neurological health.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cranberries help improve memory and brain function in older adults

Flavonoids are compounds produced by plants and thought to confer...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...