Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a symbol of happiness in countless cultures. For years, farmers and scientists have collaborated to refine this treasured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-could-save-the-future-of-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>, but new evidence shows there is more to its story than meets the eye.



Experts have been analyzing genetic details that trace the cacao tree’s past to a surprising point in time. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Tineo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Tineo</a>, from the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, led a study that used chloroplast genome data to examine when and how Theobroma cacao diversified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chocolate-s-place-in-nature">Chocolate’s place in nature</h2>



Cacao belongs to the Malvaceae family, which also includes hibiscus and cotton. This group of plants has a history going back millions of years, and reflecting a long process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-and-cocoa-prices-have-doubled-in-the-past-year-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> and survival.



“It can be inferred that T. cacao diverged at approximately 7.55 Ma, and it is highly likely that T. cacao populations diversified during the Pliocene or Miocene,” explained Tineo. 



Two main factors appear to have played a role in shaping the trees we see today. First, their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplast genomes</a> carry signs of gradual change, which is common in species that extend across tropical regions. Second, environmental pressures likely promoted different genetic traits in various localities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-insights-to-save-chocolate">Genetic insights to save chocolate </h2>



The chloroplast genome, often called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cpDNA</a>, is inherited in a predictable way in most plants. This trait gives scientists a clear view of family relationships, even within the same species.



One gene, named <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep08348" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ycf1</a>, turned out to be important because it showed more differences among cacao plants than other commonly studied genetic regions. By examining these differences, researchers hope to spot unique traits that may improve the flavor, resilience, or productivity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cacao varieties</a>.



This approach might help breeders develop trees that survive better in changing climates. It may also allow them to detect disease-resistant lines, thus cutting down on the need for chemical treatments and on farm losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-past-matters">Why the past matters </h2>



Farmers today face pests, diseases, and market uncertainty. Learning about cacao’s ancient lineage is not just for academic interest; it can also guide solutions that reduce farming risks.



The deeper a plant’s genetic roots, the more variation it hides in its DNA. This variation supplies fresh building blocks for traits like drought tolerance, flavor, and disease resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-benefits-for-farmers">Practical benefits for farmers</h2>



Thousands of smallholders grow cacao as a main or side income. When farmers tap into genetically diverse planting materials, their crops can adapt more effectively to different environments.



A broader gene pool also lowers the chance that a single disease outbreak will devastate cacao plants in an entire region. Strengthening genetic tools for farmers promotes stable harvests and consistently better beans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-breeding-methods">Modern breeding methods</h2>



Classic breeding methods rely on observing which trees yield the best crops. Now, molecular tools add a scientific boost by marking the genes that truly matter.



When breeders target specific genes - like ycf1 - they can make more precise matches between strong, disease-tolerant varieties and those with desired flavors. This level of detail speeds up the long process of developing improved trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-tradition-with-discovery">Balancing tradition with discovery</h2>



Farmers in Latin America, Africa, and Asia have nurtured cacao for generations. Their local expertise is valuable when it comes to spotting subtle differences among trees.



Collaboration between traditional growers and research institutions bridges technology and cultural wisdom. This approach promotes new partnerships that benefit everyone, from growers to chocolate enthusiasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-future-of-chocolate">Protecting the future of chocolate </h2>



Scientists still do not fully understand how <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05288-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear or mitochondrial data</a> compare with chloroplast results. More work is needed to fill the gaps left by incomplete samples from various parts of the tropics.



Some lines may carry rare genetic elements waiting to be explored. Locating these hidden genes could reveal new ways to manage diseases and keep farms flourishing.



Cacao stands at a crossroads of heritage, commerce, and science. Studies suggest that this plant’s DNA is more varied and ancient than was once believed, hinting that there may be more secrets in its cells.



Ongoing research may answer questions about how different cacao types emerged and how they can be preserved. The bigger picture promises a future where growers and chocolate lovers share the rewards of knowledge-driven innovation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Can chocolate survive? DNA research may help save cacao trees

Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a symbol of happiness in countless cultures. For years, farmers and scientists have collaborated to refine this treasured plant, but new evidence shows there is more to its story than meets the eye. Experts have been analyzing genetic details that trace the cacao tree’s past to a surprising point in time. Daniel Tineo, from the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, led a study that used chloroplast genome data to examine when and how Theobroma cacao diversified. Chocolate’s...

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but also in width, expanding their girth. Imagine a pencil-thin tree growing taller without becoming sturdy - hardly stable, right?



Our perception of plants reveals a simple truth: they must grow outwards as well as upwards. Yet, most research focuses on the tips of shoots, where a plant's height increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-grow-stronger">How plants grow stronger</h2>



"Plants can’t grow endlessly in height. They also need to grow in thickness, or they would simply fall over," noted biologist Kirsten Ten Tusscher from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>.



So, while examining the increase in a tree’s height makes sense, understanding how they get "broader" is just as crucial.



We've all marveled at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older trees</a> growing visibly thicker and more robust over time. This outward growth, especially in trees, is necessary for structural strength.



What's the key to this increase in width over time? It's all in the cambium layer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a>.



These crucial cells are the ones calling the shots, producing wood to support the tree's structure as it grows. However, until now, the genetic mechanisms behind the activation of these stem cells has remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-processes-in-plants">Growing processes in plants</h2>



In collaboration with colleagues from the University of Helsinki, Durham University, and the University of California, Ten Tusscher and her team set out to solve this mystery. The researchers designed and developed a computer model that played a central role in the study.



The model provided invaluable insights and made significant predictions while supporting the laboratory results of the team members.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replicating-the-magic">Replicating the magic</h2>



Where the scientific community had studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-trees-change-their-genetic-structure-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> for growth in height before, increase in width was uncharted territory. Until now, it was unclear which genes enable these cambium&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/tags/stem+cells/">stem cells</a>&nbsp;to become active and how this is controlled.



Ten Tusscher's model tackled the genes controlling thickness growth and shed light on the activation processes. The model's results were astonishing.



The output from the model indicated that growth in thickness is controlled by specific chemical signals within the cambium layer. Gradients in these chemical signals intersect to form a precise zone where stem cells are "switched on."



This subsequently guides the cells to produce woody tissue, thereby ensuring the continuous formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-engineered-wood-poplar-cottonwood-trees-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood</a> throughout the plant’s life. The steady process guarantees the strength and stability a plant needs in order to support its upwards growth.



The model centered on the small plant, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adjust-roots-to-reach-their-preferred-form-of-nitrogen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a>, a popular choice with biologists worldwide who study plant growth.



It demonstrated how cambium stem cells are activated and sustained, facilitating continuous thickness growth throughout a plant's life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-scientific-triumphs">Beyond scientific triumphs</h2>



Unraveling the mystery of growth in thickness isn't just a scientific triumph; it has practical implications in forestry and climate action.



"If you fully understand plant growth, and develop a tree that grows twice as fast in thickness, it's a great benefit for more sustainable timber industry," noted Ten Tusscher.



"It's also advantageous for climate efforts, as faster-growing trees can store more CO₂. Perhaps, it could even help researchers tune thickness growth in crops for better agricultural yield." 



This study, therefore, not only quenches a scientific curiosity but could also lead to a greener, healthier planet. Furthermore, it has profound implications for our environment and economy. 



Plants' hidden growth secret, it turns out, is a secret no more!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



With climate change at the forefront of global challenges, the knowledge gained from this study could transform approaches to reforestation and sustainable timber production in future.



Enhanced growth in tree thickness means greater carbon storage capacity, which plays a critical role in carbon sequestration efforts.



Moreover, unlocking the secrets of cambium-driven growth can guide innovations in crop breeding to optimize plants that produce higher yields and withstand environmental stresses.



By harnessing this newfound understanding, scientists can develop plants that not only meet timber and agricultural demands but also contribute to climate resilience.



The findings of the study pave the way for practical applications that could lead to a greener, more sustainable future, where plants not only reach sky-high but also play an even larger role in supporting life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj8752" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Scientists uncover how plants grow wider, not just taller

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but...

Dementia research is entering a new era as more focus and resources are directed toward finding the right treatments to combat this complex condition.



While much of this search revolves around cutting-edge drugs, it is fascinating to see that potential solutions might be hidden within traditional medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-not-just-a-test-of-time">Dementia: Not just a test of time</h2>



Dementia, a debilitating condition that impacts both cognitive and motor functions, is primarily associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-older-americans-have-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older adults</a> and is often viewed as an inevitable consequence of aging. 



However, it's not merely the passing of time that triggers its onset, but rather a multitude of complex factors such as genetics, environmental influences, and lifestyle.



There is an urgent need for a therapeutic breakthrough to prevent or at least <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/having-a-pet-leads-to-a-much-slower-rate-of-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow down dementia’s progression</a>, especially as populations worldwide continue to age rapidly.



On the brighter side, a dedicated group of researchers in the Graduate School of Medicine at <a href="https://www.omu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka Metropolitan University</a> is making promising strides in the search for new solutions.



The research dives into the realms of traditional Chinese medicine, an area rich with ancient knowledge and healing practices. 



Their findings are quite encouraging, to say the least, and may hold the key to a revolutionary approach to dementia prevention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbal-medicine-and-dementia-treatment">Herbal medicine and dementia treatment </h2>



The researchers focused on the dried seeds of Ziziphus jujuba Miller var. spinosa, a type of jujube that is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine.



The team administered hot water extracts of the dried seeds to mice with various diseases -- including Alzheimer's, frontotemporal dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and dementia with Lewy bodies.



Remarkably, the researchers discovered that the treatments resulted in significant restoration of cognitive and motor functions.



Even more intriguing was when these seeds were crushed into a powder form and given to the model mice. The cognitive function of these mice improved to a level exceeding that of the control group. 



The effects didn't stop there. The powders also seemed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consistent-sleep-slows-down-aging-at-a-cellular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suppress cellular aging</a> in older mice and boosted their cognitive functions to match those of their younger counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-ziziphus-jujuba-miller-var-spinosa">What is Ziziphus jujuba Miller var. spinosa?</h2>



Often called sour jujube or spindle jujube, Ziziphus jujuba Miller var. spinosa is a tree that originally hails from East Asia, especially China. 



What makes it stand out are its thorny branches and the small, oval fruits that shift from green to a rich reddish-brown as they ripen. 



This tree does really well in dry and semi-dry areas and can handle different types of soil and climates, making it super resilient even in tough conditions. Its ability to survive droughts is a big reason why it's grown in so many different places around the world.



People have been loving Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa for centuries because it's so versatile in both cooking and medicine. 



The fruits are pretty sour on their own, but when dried, they're fantastic in teas, desserts, and traditional dishes, adding a unique kick to all sorts of recipes. 



Plus, the fruits and other parts of the tree are a staple in traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese medicine</a>. They’re believed to help improve sleep, boost the immune system, and provide antioxidants, making them a go-to ingredient for herbal remedies that promote overall health and well-being.



Growing Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa comes with a bunch of perks, both economically and environmentally. 



Farmers love that it doesn’t require a lot of maintenance and can still produce fruit even when conditions aren’t perfect, ensuring a reliable harvest. 



On top of that, the tree helps prevent soil erosion and improves soil quality thanks to its extensive root system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-of-traditional-medicine">The world of traditional medicine </h2>



This was not the research team's first successful venture into the world of traditional medicine. 



They had previously noted memory and motor function improvements in dementia mice models when using the Hawaiian herb mamaki and the Chinese herb Acorus gramineus.



"The results of our research will hopefully make it possible to develop dementia prevention products that middle-aged and elderly people can take at their own discretion," said Professor Takami Tomiyama of Osaka Metropolitan University’s Graduate School of Medicine.



Published for review in the journal eLife, the findings mark a substantial leap toward developing vital dementia drugs, drawing from the vast knowledge of traditional herbal medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-practices-and-modern-science">Ancient practices and modern science</h2>



As researchers investigate traditional Chinese medicine, a promising new frontier is emerging at the intersection of age-old wisdom and cutting-edge science. 



Unlike synthetic drugs, which often target specific molecular pathways, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbal</a> remedies typically involve a complex mixture of active compounds that can influence multiple systems within the body. 



This complexity poses a challenge for scientific analysis but also offers an opportunity to explore treatments that work in harmony with natural biological processes.



In the case of Ziziphus jujuba seeds, for example, the potential to improve cognitive function without significant side effects has sparked interest beyond academia. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-prevention-with-herbal-medicine">Dementia prevention with herbal medicine</h2>



Researchers are increasingly interested in whether these herbal treatments could evolve into widely accessible, over-the-counter supplements for dementia prevention.



If successful, these innovations could provide more affordable, preventive care options to populations at risk of dementia. This could transform the landscape of brain health and aging.



This study from Osaka Metropolitan University represents a pivotal step in that direction, encouraging more scientists to investigate ancient practices that may hold solutions for modern health challenges.



By validating the efficacy of traditional herbs through rigorous testing, researchers are paving the way for a new wave of dementia therapies that bridge the best of both worlds: the depth of traditional knowledge and the precision of modern science.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/100737v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Herbal medicine shows great potential in treating and preventing dementia

Dementia research is entering a new era as more focus...

Experts at the University of Sydney have identified a cannabis compound called cannabinol (CBN) that appears to significantly enhance sleep quality, marking an important breakthrough in the search for natural sleep aids.&nbsp;



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41386-024-02018-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuropsychopharmacology</a>, the study provides objective evidence that CBN improves sleep by altering sleep architecture, the structure of sleep phases over the night. 



Conducted by scientists at the University of Sydney's<a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/lambert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics</a>, the research shows CBN’s potential to offer a non-intoxicating sleep aid, similar to yet distinct from conventional sleep medications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-enhancing-effects-of-cannabinol">Sleep-enhancing effects of cannabinol</h2>



“For decades, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-users-seem-to-sleep-better-than-most-other-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> folklore has suggested that aged cannabis makes consumers sleepy via the buildup of CBN, but there was no convincing evidence for this,” explained lead author Jonathon Arnold, the Director of Preclinical Research at the Lambert Initiative. 



“Our study provides the first objective evidence that CBN increases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/getting-high-quality-sleep-helps-prevent-depression-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>, at least in rats, by modifying the architecture of sleep in a beneficial way.”



Cannabinol forms as the primary intoxicating compound in cannabis, delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), breaks down over time.&nbsp;



As cannabis ages, THC gradually converts to CBN, which means older cannabis typically contains higher levels of this compound. Some cannabis users have noted that older cannabis seems to produce a sleepier “high,” which has led to CBN products being marketed as sleep aids.&nbsp;



In the U.S., highly purified cannabinol products are increasingly available as natural sleep aids, though scientific research on their effectiveness has been limited until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabinol-compared-to-traditional-sleep-aids">Cannabinol compared to traditional sleep aids</h2>



The study compared CBN’s effects on sleep with those of zolpidem, a widely used sleep drug, by measuring sleep patterns in rats.&nbsp;



Using high-tech monitoring, the researchers observed significant improvements in sleep architecture with CBN, including increases in both non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.&nbsp;



NREM sleep is known to promote physical recovery and memory consolidation, while REM sleep is associated with processing emotions and dreaming.



The findings show that CBN improved total sleep time in a way comparable to zolpidem, suggesting that CBN may have similar efficacy to traditional sleep aids.&nbsp;



“CBN was found to increase both NREM and REM sleep, leading to increased total sleep time, with a comparable effect to the known sleep drug zolpidem,” Arnold said.&nbsp;



These results may point to CBN as a viable natural alternative for those seeking sleep enhancement without the side effects that can accompany standard sleep medications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-a-broader-range-of-users">Potential for a broader range of users</h2>



CBN also appears to offer sleep benefits without the intoxicating effects commonly associated with THC. While THC binds strongly to CB1 receptors in the brain, leading to its psychoactive effects, CBN does so only weakly, which likely accounts for its minimal intoxicating impact.&nbsp;



To the researchers' surprise, they found that a metabolite of CBN, called 11-OH CBN, had more substantial effects on CB1 receptors and seemed to impact sleep architecture. This insight suggests that CBN’s breakdown products might play an important role in its overall sleep-enhancing properties.



“This provides the first evidence that CBN indeed increases sleep using objective sleep measures,” Arnold said.&nbsp;



“It was a surprise that CBN metabolism in the body can yield a much greater effect on cannabinoid CB1 receptors than the parent molecule CBN, which has much more limited activity.”&nbsp;



He notes that while these findings are promising, further studies in humans are necessary to confirm whether the benefits observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> will translate to human sleep patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-human-trials-show-promise">Early human trials show promise</h2>



Building on these findings, a parallel human trial was conducted by Iain McGregor, Director of Clinical Research at the Lambert Initiative, with insomnia patients.&nbsp;



Led by PhD student Isobel Lavender and renowned sleep researcher Camilla Hoyos from the <a href="https://www.woolcock.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woolcock Institute of Medical Research</a>, the human study was structured as a placebo-controlled randomized trial, revealing promising preliminary results that were presented at recent scientific conferences.



“Our research encourages further basic and clinical research on CBN as a new treatment strategy for sleep disorders, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-link-between-insomnia-and-hypertension-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insomnia</a>,” McGregor said. 



“Our clinical study only administered CBN on a single occasion. A trial on a larger scale, with repeated dosing, is the logical next step.”&nbsp;



Larger studies over extended periods may reveal even more about CBN’s effects, helping researchers understand its role as a possible long-term solution for sleep issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-cannabinol-research">Next steps in cannabinol research</h2>



Professor Arnold and his team are now exploring ways to amplify CBN’s sleep-promoting effects, including combining it with other compounds found in cannabis or with conventional sleep aids such as melatonin.&nbsp;



“The team has now commenced a preclinical drug discovery program around CBN, as well as observing whether the pro-sleep effects of CBN can be further amplified by other molecules found in cannabis, or by conventional sleep aids, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melatonin-receptor-is-a-new-target-for-treating-sleep-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melatonin</a>,” Arnold said.



Given the study's promising findings, future research could open up a new realm of sleep therapeutics that leverage non-intoxicating cannabinoids for improved sleep quality.&nbsp;



With sleep disorders impacting millions worldwide, a natural, non-addictive option like CBN could offer an alternative to those seeking help for sleep disturbances without the potential drawbacks of traditional medications.



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Nature's sleep aid: Cannabinol shows promise as a safe sedative

Experts at the University of Sydney have identified a cannabis...

The corpse flower is infamous for its rare blooms and its signature odor, which mimics the stench of rotting flesh, drawing crowds to greenhouses worldwide. The plant’s blooms are infrequent and short-lived, making it difficult for scientists to study.&nbsp;



Alongside its unusual scent, the corpse flower, or titan arum, possesses a rare ability among plants: it heats itself up just before blooming, a process called thermogenesis.&nbsp;



Now, a study led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> delves into the molecular workings behind the corpse flower’s odor and heat production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-source-of-the-corpse-flower-s-odor">Source of the corpse flower’s odor</h2>



The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae492" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>, was led by G. Eric Schaller, a Dartmouth professor specializing in plant biology, who, with his team, used blooms from Morphy, a 21-year-old corpse flower at Dartmouth’s Life Sciences Greenhouse, to analyze the plant’s unique biological processes.&nbsp;



This study not only revealed how the plant warms itself but also uncovered a new component of its distinctive odor: putrescine, a compound often found in decaying animal tissue.



“The blooms are rare and also short-lived, so we only get a small window to study these phenomena,” Schaller said, explaining the challenges of studying such an elusive plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-and-blooming-cycle-nbsp">Structure and blooming cycle&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-corpse-flower-smelliest-flower-on-earth-is-at-grave-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">titan arum</a> bloom structure isn’t a single flower but a cluster of small flowers hidden within a massive spadix - the central spike-like structure that can grow up to 12 feet tall. 



The spathe, a frilly petal-like layer at the base of the spadix, unfurls to reveal a deep red interior. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blooming</a> begins, the spadix heats up significantly, sometimes reaching up to 20 degrees Fahrenheit above the surrounding temperature, while releasing its pungent scent.&nbsp;



This unique “carrion cologne” attracts pollinators like flies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-impact-the-beetles-that-protect-our-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a>, which are drawn to the sulfur-based compounds emitted by the spadix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-pathways-of-the-corpse-flower-nbsp">Genetic pathways of the corpse flower&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate how the titan arum generates both heat and odor, the research team collected tissue samples from Morphy during a 2016 bloom, focusing on various areas of the spathe and spadix over three nights.&nbsp;



By extracting high-quality RNA from the tissues, exchange scholar Alveena Zulfiqar enabled the team to analyze RNA sequences and determine which genes were active during the plant’s heating phase.



“This helps us see what genes are being expressed and to see which ones are specifically active when the appendix heats up and sends out odor,” Schaller explained.&nbsp;



The RNA analysis revealed that genes linked to sulfur transport, metabolism, and a plant protein known as alternative oxidase - essential to heat production - were especially active in the appendix area during flowering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-amino-acids">The role of amino acids</h2>



The team turned to mass spectrometry to measure different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a> within the plant’s tissues, working with collaborators from the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a>.&nbsp;



The analysis confirmed high levels of methionine, a sulfur-based amino acid, in tissues collected as flowering began.&nbsp;



Methionine, known for vaporizing when heated, contributes to the corpse flower’s sulfurous smell. Levels of methionine dropped quickly in tissues collected just hours later, supporting its role in the plant’s initial odor production.



Unexpectedly, the researchers also detected elevated levels of another amino acid in the spathe tissues: a precursor for putrescine, a compound common in decaying animals.&nbsp;



What came as a surprise, Schaller noted, was finding putrescine - which adds an authentic element to the corpse flower’s cadaver-like scent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thermogenesis-in-plants">Thermogenesis in plants</h2>



Thermogenesis, or heat production, is common in animals but rare among plants. In animals, this process involves uncoupling proteins that release energy as heat instead of storing it.&nbsp;



In the titan arum, the plant counterparts of these proteins - alternative oxidases - play a similar role in heating. By examining the unique ways these proteins function in the corpse flower, the researchers shed light on the mechanisms plants can use to generate heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-about-the-corpse-flower-nbsp">Unanswered questions about the corpse flower&nbsp;</h2>



While the team’s findings reveal much about the corpse flower’s odor and heat production, Schaller and his colleagues are still investigating other mysteries.&nbsp;



One area of interest is understanding the triggers that prompt flowering and exploring whether multiple corpse flowers could synchronize their blooms.&nbsp;



Schaller suggests that synchronized blooming could amplify the plant’s scent, potentially increasing the attraction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



With this study, scientists have taken a significant step in understanding the molecular processes behind the corpse flower’s unique traits.&nbsp;



Future research may further reveal how these mechanisms contribute to the plant’s survival and its interactions with the environment, providing valuable insights into the unusual adaptations of this giant, mysterious bloom.



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Why does the corpse flower smell like rotting flesh?

The corpse flower is infamous for its rare blooms and...

Plants, just like us, want to grow big and strong. But they're constantly under attack by pathogens - tiny organisms that have the power to weaken or even kill plants. This is where the plants' secret agents - "defense genes" - enter the picture.



These genes arm plants with defenses against harmful pathogens. However, this defense network comes at a cost - it saps away the resources the plant could otherwise use for growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defense-genes-of-plants">Defense genes of plants</h2>



A recent study on defense genes was led by postdoctoral researcher Michael Giolai and Professor Anna-Liisa Laine from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>.



The team analyzed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> defense genes and growth traits across 184 plant species - a feat made possible by the power of open databases.



The researchers found a direct correlation between a plant's investment in defense genes and its ability to grow.



They discovered a broad range of plant defense strategies, from asparagus with just 72 resistance genes to a chili variety with 1,095 of them. 



However, the more of a plant's genome that is devoted to defense, the less it grows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defense-in-cultivated-plants">Defense in cultivated plants</h2>



Think of the trade-off business like this - every plant has a limited pool of resources (like energy and nutrients) to carry out activities.



The more it dips into this pool to fuel its defense system, the less it has left to spur its growth. But why don't plants just expand their resource pool and do both? Well, that's the revelation - they can't.



However, the researchers found a catch. Cultivated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants that we humans have bred</a> for specific traits in agriculture did not show this correlation between defense and growth.



The experts suspect this might be due to the breeding process, which has reduced natural variation in the genomes of these crop plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



But it's not just about a single plant or its struggles. The findings shed light on how allocation costs - the costs associated with this balancing act - play a crucial role in shaping and maintaining biodiversity.



Essentially, these findings help us understand why plants are the way they are and how they have adapted to their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-plant-defenses">Complexity of plant defenses</h2>



In exploring these phenomena further, Giolai and Laine highlight the intricate dance between genetic inheritance and environmental demands. 



They found that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> exhibit sophisticated strategies to balance their defense and growth, flaunting their evolutionary prowess. 



For instance, plants native to harsh or unpredictable environments tend to boast a diverse genetic toolkit, allowing them to switch on specific defense genes only when under threat. This inducible defense strategy ensures they can conserve resources when conditions favor growth. 



This adaptive flexibility highlights the evolutionary trade-offs that have fine-tuned plant species to their specific niches, reinforcing the role of natural selection in shaping plant biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture">Implications for agriculture</h2>



The insights gained from this study offer vital implications for agriculture, particularly in breeding new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant varieties</a>. By understanding the dynamic between defense investment and growth potential, scientists can aim to optimize crop yields while maintaining sufficient resistance to pathogens.



Looking ahead, Giolai and Laine advocate for more studies utilizing large-scale, open-access databases to deepen our understanding of genetic trade-offs in plants further. 



They emphasize the need for an interdisciplinary approach, combining insights from genomics, ecology, and evolutionary biology to gain a holistic view of plant adaptations. 



Such efforts could pave the way for sustainable agricultural practices and contribute to global food security in an ever-changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-open-science">Power of open science</h2>



This research on plants defense genes wouldn't have been possible without open science. Sequencing hundreds of plant genomes and collecting extensive growth data just isn't feasible for a single team.



Open access to such data is enabling scientists to dig deeper into interspecies variations, opening up entirely new levels of inquiry.



"If we want to understand the mechanisms that maintain interspecies trait variation, a multi-species approach like this is essential," noted Professor Laine. 



"The increasing availability of open data enables entirely new levels of investigation into these questions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn2779" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Plants have sophisticated strategies to balance defense and growth

Plants, just like us, want to grow big and strong....

Closeup,Woman's,Hands,Cutting,Philodendron,White,Wizard,Plant,Stem,For

Have you ever talked or sang to a plant or a tree? Or maybe walked through a garden and wondered if the flowers were trying to tell you something? Fascinating new research suggests that plants seem to be emitting sounds and engaging in unheard conversations, especially when they're stressed.



Lilach Hadany, an evolutionary biologist and theoretician, led a team that uncovered this surprising phenomenon. 



They found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-acylsugars-parallel-universe-plant-kingdom-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants like tomatoes</a> and tobacco emit sounds when they're stressed, such as when they're dehydrated or their stems are cut.



"Even in a quiet field, there are actually sounds that we don't hear, and those sounds carry information," says Hadany. 



"There are animals that can hear these sounds, so there is the possibility that a lot of acoustic interaction is occurring."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-emit-sounds-when-they-re-stressed">Plants emit sounds when they're stressed</h2>



Using sensitive microphones, the researchers at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> recorded these plants in both soundproof chambers and noisier greenhouses. 



They discovered that stressed plants emit sounds resembling pops or clicks -- imagine the sound of bubble wrap being popped. 



In fact, a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-respond-to-specific-stress-situations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stressed plant</a> can produce about 30 to 50 of these clicks every hour.



"When tomatoes are not stressed at all, they are very quiet," Hadany notes. What's fascinating is that these sounds are at frequencies too high for human ears to detect. 



However, they are comparable in volume to normal human conversation and could potentially be heard by insects, mammals, and perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even other plants</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-hear-sounds-from-plants">How to hear sounds from plants</h2>



To delve deeper, the team trained a machine-learning algorithm to differentiate between the sounds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unstressed plants</a>, thirsty plants, and those that had been cut. 



They found that not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-secret-weapon-for-surviving-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stressed plants</a> emit more sounds, but the types of sounds also vary depending on the kind of stress.



Water-deprived plants began making noises even before showing visible signs of dehydration. 



The frequency of their sounds peaked after five days without water and then decreased as the plants <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-use-their-roots-to-ration-water-during-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dried up completely</a>.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="sBuOk5UI4R-4000606-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-there-a-universal-plant-language">Is there a universal plant language?</h2>



While the study focused on tomatoes and tobacco due to their ease of cultivation, the team didn't stop there.



"We found that many plants -- corn, wheat, grape, and cactus plants, for example -- emit sounds when they are stressed," says Hadany.



This raises the possibility that emitting sounds under stress might be a common trait among plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-this-happen">How does this happen?</h2>



The exact reason plants produce these noises is still a mystery. One theory is that the sounds result from cavitation -- the formation and bursting of air bubbles in the plant's vascular system.



But are plants <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emit-faint-glow-sif-when-flash-droughts-imminent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intentionally communicating</a> with these sounds?



"It's possible that other organisms could have evolved to hear and respond to these sounds," Hadany suggests. 



"For example, a moth that intends to lay eggs on a plant or an animal that intends to eat a plant could use the sounds to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">guide their decision</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-the-natural-world">Implications for the natural world</h2>



If insects or other animals can detect these sounds, it could have significant ecological implications. Other plants might also be listening in.



"If other plants have information about stress before it actually occurs, they could prepare," says Hadany.



Previous studies have shown that plants can respond to sounds and vibrations. For instance, some plants increase the sugar concentration in their nectar when they "hear" the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stressed-out-bees-get-depressed-and-make-bad-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">buzz of pollinators</a>.



Yossi Yovel, a neuro-ecologist at Tel Aviv University and co-senior author of the study, is excited about the potential applications of this discovery.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/plants-make-sounds_stress_screams_credit-Tel-Aviv-Uni_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/plants-make-sounds_stress_screams_credit-Tel-Aviv-Uni_1s.webp" alt="Plants heard making &quot;screaming&quot; sounds, likely from stress, for the first time ever. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1950033"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Plants heard making "screaming" sounds, likely from stress, for the first time ever. This photo shows the recording equipment used in the experiment. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



"We know that there's a lot of ultrasound out there -- every time you use a microphone, you find that a lot of stuff produces sounds that we humans cannot hear -- but the fact that plants are making these sounds opens a whole new avenue of opportunities for communication, eavesdropping, and exploitation of these sounds," Yovel explains.



Understanding these plant sounds could revolutionize how we approach agriculture. Farmers might one day use sound recordings to monitor crop hydration and stress levels, leading to more efficient water use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-plant-sound-research">Next steps in plant sound research</h2>



"So now that we know that plants do emit sounds, the next question is -- 'who might be listening?'" says Hadany. 



"We are currently investigating the responses of other organisms, both animals and plants, to these sounds, and we're also exploring our ability to identify and interpret the sounds in completely natural environments," Hadany concluded.



To sum it all up, by discovering that stressed plants emit sounds, researchers like Lilach Hadany and Yossi Yovel have unveiled a hidden layer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-rhythms-inspire-a-new-approach-to-energy-efficiency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication in nature</a>. 



These ultrasonic clicks and pops, though inaudible to us, could be influencing how insects, animals, and even other plants interact with their environment.



This finding change our understanding of plant behavior while opening practical applications in agriculture. 



By listening to these silent signals, farmers could monitor crop stress levels and optimize watering, leading to more efficient farming practices. 



As we continue to explore this unseen world of plant acoustics, we're reminded of how much there is still to learn about the silent conversations happening all around us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867423002623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



Video Credit: Tel-Aviv University



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Plants heard making 'screaming' sounds for the first time ever

Have you ever talked or sang to a plant or...

When you think of a brainy creature, a bumblebee probably isn't the first thing that pops into your mind. But did you know that these small wonders are actually quite adept learners? Surprisingly, bees have incredible cognitive abilities.



Felicity Muth, an assistant professor in the Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior at UC Davis, has dedicated her research to understanding the cognitive capacities of these tiny powerhouses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-performing-cognitive-tasks">Bees performing cognitive tasks</h2>



Bumblebees, despite having brains smaller than a sesame seed, can outperform many vertebrates when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-build-symmetrical-nests-not-for-beauty-but-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive tasks</a>, as Professor Muth's research has shown.



She initially explored the behavior of birds, but her curiosity led her to investigate the thought processes of bumblebees. Muth's research looks into how bumblebees learn, choose flowers to visit, and what motivates them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-caffeine-and-mind-games">Bees, caffeine, and mind games</h2>



Professor Muth's studies go beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> and examine the fascinating dynamics that unfold between bumblebees and the plants they frequent.



It's a known fact that plants reward bees with nectar rich in sugar to encourage them to visit more flowers of the same type, helping in pollination. But plants also use some cunning tricks to garner the attention of these buzzing visitors.



Many plants infuse their nectars with caffeine and other chemicals like octopamine and tyramin, which function as hormones and neurotransmitters in brains of bees. 



Muth meticulously studies these interactions in the lab by filling artificial flowers with nectar concoctions. "The plants are actually manipulating the insects," noted Professor Muth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-consuming-caffeine">Bees consuming caffeine</h2>



The research sheds light on the intriguing effects these chemical-imbued nectars have on bees.



When bees consume nectar laced with caffeine, they behave as if it is sweeter than it actually is, thus making them more inclined to remember and revisit those flowers. 



The caffeine also amps up their flower-visiting rate. However, when the nectar contains octopamine and tyramine, it nullifies the effect of caffeine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-being-a-bumblebee">Challenge of being a bumblebee</h2>



Professor Muth and her students spend much of the summer outdoors, particularly in California's Sierra Nevada.



The team catches wild-foraging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2024-bee-engaged-with-youth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> in nets and test their learning and memory capacities. They employ colored tabs soaked in sugar water or plain water to examine the bees' ability to associate specific colors with food.



In a 2021 study by Professor Muth and her former postdoc mentor, Anne Leonard of the <a href="https://www.unr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nevada</a>, it was found that both female worker bees and male drones learned equally well, albeit the males were slower to make decisions.



The real revelation came from the queen bumblebees they tested, which turned out to be significantly faster learners than the other bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-abilities-of-queen-bees">Learning abilities of queen bees </h2>



"Queens are much more elusive than workers. They are much less studied, and that's what drew me to them," said Professor Muth.



The fact that they have only a limited period to forage adds more pressure on them to be quick and efficient.



The need to forage, find mates, and choose nesting sites likely leads to cognitive specialization in queen bees. Research suggests that caffeine in nectar may further enhance these bees' learning and memory, aiding them in these crucial tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-mechanisms-of-learning">Neural mechanisms of learning</h2>



Going deeper into the intellectual wonders of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a>, Muth's research progresses into the neural pathways that govern learning and memory in these insects. 



Utilizing advanced imaging techniques, her team maps the neural circuitries involved in processing sensory inputs and forming associative memories. 



Through controlled experiments, they seek to uncover the neural basis for the bees' ability to learn from their environment, adapt to new situations, and make choices benefiting their survival. 



Understanding these processes not only enriches our knowledge of caffeine's effects on bee cognition but also provides insights into the complex neural architectures shared across animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-biodiversity">Implications for biodiversity</h2>



The explorations into bumblebee cognition have far-reaching implications for biodiversity and conservation efforts. Given their pivotal role in pollination, understanding the subtleties of their behavior and learning can aid in crafting effective conservation strategies.



Professor Muth advocates for preserving natural habitats and reducing pesticide use, strategies that are essential for fostering healthy bee populations.



By drawing correlations between cognitive science and environmental impact, her research serves as a foundation for interdisciplinary approaches to safeguarding the myriad of ecological roles bumblebees fulfill.



The interplay between research and conservation efforts highlights the urgency of protecting these "brainy" bees to maintain ecosystem balance and agricultural productivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-bees-and-caffeine">Birds, bees, and caffeine</h2>



The ultimate goal of Muth's research is to understand how the challenges faced by different animals shape their specific cognitive traits.



This understanding could illuminate how intelligence evolved in animals, even extending to birds, mammals, and humans. If we can comprehend this, Muth added, we could understand ourselves better.



As our journey into the microscopic world of bumblebees comes to a close, we are left with a rekindled fascination for these small creatures. 



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Flowers use caffeine to 'trick' bees into coming back to them

When you think of a brainy creature, a bumblebee probably...

Hot days, cool salads, and refreshing tomato slices - sounds like summer, doesn't it? But have you ever wondered - how do tomatoes survive intense heat?



Under the scorching sun, as the mercury rises, some tomato varieties keep on thriving. A team of biologists based at <a href="https://www.brown.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> decided to investigate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomatoes-surviving-the-heat">Tomatoes surviving the heat</h2>



The experts wanted to identify the specific growth cycle phase when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-tomatoes-are-ready-for-an-unprecedented-mission/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomatoes</a> buckle under heat, as well as the molecular mechanisms that shield them.



The findings could be a crucial key to protecting our food supply in the age of climate change. Indeed, agricultural productivity is already dancing on thin ice.



Our rising temperatures could slash crop yields by up to 16% with every additional degree Celsius of seasonal warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-evolution">Lessons from evolution</h2>



Study co-author Sorel V. Yimga Ouonkap is a research associate in molecular biology, cell biology, and biochemistry at Brown.



Ouonkap noted that the scientists took some lessons from evolution to experiment with how best to speed up the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-acylsugars-parallel-universe-plant-kingdom-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation process</a> for varieties of tomato plants.



According to the researchers, it would take a long time to wait for evolution to weed out the vulnerable tomato varieties like Heinz in favor of those that can handle extreme heat - a process that might also jeopardize the qualities that make vulnerable crops commercially desirable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-tomatoes-more-tolerant-of-heat">Making tomatoes more tolerant of heat</h2>



“We’re trying to figure out thermoregulation at a molecular and cellular level, and identify what and where we need to improve so that we can target those in commercial plant cultivars and conserve everything about them except for this one aspect that makes them vulnerable to extreme heat,” explained Ouonkap.



“Over time, you can start accumulating different resistance mechanisms as the growing conditions continue to change.”



Thermotolerance, or the ability of a plant to withstand extreme temperatures, could be a promising way to confront climate change, noted study author Mark Johnson, a professor of biology at Brown.



"Imagine if you could just make a Heinz <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-talk-to-one-another-to-signal-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomato</a> more resilient to temperature stress without affecting the flavor profile or the way people experience the tomato," Johnson said. "That would be a great advantage."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-stress-and-plant-reproduction">Heat stress and plant reproduction</h2>



Johnson's lab has studied plant reproduction for years. Yet, a gap remained: no studies examined what happens after pollen lands on the stigma during this crucial phase - a key to understanding how tomatoes survive extreme conditions.



Undeterred, Ouonkap dived into this unexplored area for his thesis project. He focused on the pollen tube growth phase of the plant reproductive cycle, studying different tomato varieties known for thriving in extra-hot growing seasons. 



Collaborating with scientists from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, the experts learned that heat stress during just this phase limits fruit and seed production more in heat-sensitive than heat-tolerant tomato varieties.



It’s not all bad news. Ouonkap discovered that the heat-tolerant Tamaulipas tomato variety showed exceptional growth under high temperatures. His molecular analysis helped the team uncover the mechanisms that let this tomato survive intense heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-tomatoes-to-beat-the-heat">Creating tomatoes to beat the heat </h2>



The researchers focused on tomatoes because different varieties can adapt to a range of extreme climates - providing clues to how species respond differently to environmental conditions.



Tomatoes are a valuable commercial crop all over the world, including some regions that are among the most vulnerable to extreme heat conditions.&nbsp;



Having identified the beneficial molecular mechanisms, the next step is to determine specific techniques to enable tomatoes to grow in diverse climates. 



One possible avenue? Creating a molecule that could prepare the pollen in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> to withstand a heat wave, as Johnson explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-more-tomatoes-survive">Can more tomatoes survive?</h2>



"When the weather forecast showed two weeks of high temperatures during the pollen tube growth phase, the farmer would apply a product to plants that would change the gene expression so that the pollen would be resilient to heat," said Johnson.



While this level of manipulation is still a vision and not yet a reality, the experts said this area of research is ripe for exploration.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01379-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Tomatoes have a molecular trick to survive in extreme heat

Hot days, cool salads, and refreshing tomato slices - sounds...

Tree planting has often been seen as an affordable, effective way to combat global warming due to trees' ability to capture large amounts of carbon from the atmosphere. 



Yet, a new study warns that large-scale tree planting at high latitudes may actually worsen global warming rather than mitigate it.&nbsp;



 As climate change enables the planting of trees further north, initiatives to establish forests in Arctic regions have gained support. 



But according to a team of international scientists, led by assistant professor Jeppe Kristensen from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, this approach could have unintended climate consequences in sensitive northern ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-in-arctic-soils">Carbon storage in Arctic soils </h2>



The Arctic and sub-Arctic regions are unique in their ecological characteristics, and Kristensen emphasizes that these areas are unsuited to afforestation as a climate mitigation strategy.&nbsp;



“Soils in the Arctic store more carbon than all vegetation on Earth,” said Kristensen. “These soils are vulnerable to disturbances, such as cultivation for forestry or agriculture, but also the penetration of tree roots."&nbsp;



"The semi-continuous daylight during the spring and early summer, when snow is still on the ground, also makes the energy balance in this region extremely sensitive to surface darkening, since green and brown trees will soak up more heat from the sun than white snow.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-disturbances-are-intensifying-nbsp">Natural disturbances are intensifying&nbsp;</h2>



Regions around the North Pole, including parts of North America, Asia, and Scandinavia, are already prone to natural disturbances, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> and droughts, which can kill vegetation. Climate change has only intensified these threats. 



Kristensen warns that northern forests are at particular risk: “This is a risky place to be a tree, particularly as part of a homogeneous plantation that is more vulnerable to such disturbances.”&nbsp;



If these trees burn, the stored carbon is likely to be released into the atmosphere within decades, reversing any intended climate benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-solar-reflection-and-carbon-storage">Balancing solar reflection and carbon storage</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a> is a common focus in climate solutions, the researchers argue that at high latitudes, managing solar reflection (albedo) is even more crucial. 



“Climate change results from the balance between solar energy entering the atmosphere and how much leaves again,” Kristensen said.&nbsp;



The albedo effect is essential in polar and subpolar regions because light-colored snow and ice naturally reflect solar energy. Dark tree canopies, however, absorb it, converting sunlight into heat, which impacts the energy balance more than carbon storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-holistic-approach-to-climate-solutions">A holistic approach to climate solutions</h2>



Rather than solely emphasizing carbon storage, the study calls for a more comprehensive understanding of ecosystem dynamics.&nbsp;



“A holistic approach is imperative if we’re going to make a difference in the real world,” said co-author Marc Macias-Fauria, a researcher at the University of Cambridge’s Scott Polar Research Institute.&nbsp;



Macias-Fauria adds that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a> may be valuable for timber production or self-sufficiency, it should not be marketed as a climate mitigation strategy without accounting for its environmental impact.



“Forestry in the far North should be viewed like any other production system and compensate for its negative impact on climate and biodiversity,” he said. “By selling northern afforestation as a climate solution, we’re only fooling ourselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-populations-of-large-herbivores">Sustainable populations of large herbivores</h2>



If tree planting is not ideal for high latitudes like the Arctic, what nature-based strategies could help mitigate climate change in these areas? 



The researchers suggest an alternative: supporting sustainable populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a>, like caribou, which could offer a more viable climate solution. 



“There is ample evidence that large herbivores affect plant communities and snow conditions in ways that result in net cooling,” Macias-Fauria said.&nbsp;



Large herbivores keep tundra landscapes open and prevent excess snow buildup, which insulates the soil and accelerates permafrost thaw.&nbsp;



Their activity, including winter grazing, helps lower soil temperatures and preserve the permafrost layer, which plays a crucial role in regulating global temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prioritizing-biodiversity-and-local-communities">Prioritizing biodiversity and local communities</h2>



Finally, the study underscores the importance of considering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and the needs of local communities when developing climate solutions. 



Large herbivores not only aid in reducing climate-driven biodiversity loss in Arctic ecosystems but are also a key food source for Indigenous and local communities.&nbsp;



“Biodiversity and local communities are not an added benefit to nature-based solutions: they are fundamental,” said Macias-Fauria, emphasizing that these efforts must be community-led, particularly by those directly affected by climate change.



In sum, while tree planting remains valuable in many contexts, implementing it in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions could inadvertently increase warming.&nbsp;



Instead, focusing on nature-based solutions that respect and work with local ecosystems and communities offers a more balanced and effective path to mitigating climate impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01573-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Why planting trees in the Arctic is not a good climate solution

Tree planting has often been seen as an affordable, effective...

What if the solution to cancer lay hidden in a parasitic fungus? Scientists from the University of Nottingham have been studying a chemical that is produced by a fungus that grows on caterpillars. 



In previous studies, the chemical has shown promise as a possible cancer treatment. The researchers set out to further investigate its potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-fungus-in-cancer">Caterpillar fungus in cancer</h2>



The research is based on Cordyceps militaris, an orange fungus with a slightly creepy parasitic lifestyle. In Asia, it's not only a popular health food but also a powerful traditional medicine.



The magic ingredient in this fungus is cordycepin, a mighty chemical that has shown promise as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer medicine</a> in many studies. But how does it work?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus-compound-to-treat-cancer">Fungus compound to treat cancer</h2>



The researchers analyzed the activities of thousands of genes in multiple cell lines to unearth the secrets of cordycepin.



They used high-throughput techniques, which made it possible to examine huge amounts of data at the same time.



And what did they find? Cordycepin interrupts the cell growth signals overactive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-lifestyle-changes-could-prevent-half-of-all-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a>. It does this by acting on the growth promoting pathways of the cell. 



This could be less damaging to healthy tissue than most currently available treatments. Now, doesn't that sound promising?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inner-workings-of-the-chemical">Inner workings of the chemical </h2>



The experts dug deeper into what happens to cordycepin inside the cell. They found that it is converted into cordycepin triphosphate, which looks a lot like the cell's energy carrier ATP.



This doppelganger molecule seems to be the likely culprit behind cordycepin's effects on cell growth, making it the direct assailant of cancer cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-fungus-as-a-cancer-medicine">Caterpillar fungus as a cancer medicine</h2>



"We have been researching the effects of cordycepin on a range of diseases for a number of years and with each step we get closer to understanding how it could be used as an effective treatment," said lead author Dr. Cornelia de Moor from the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/pharmacy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Pharmacy</a>.



"One of the exciting things to have been happening is that it has become easier and less expensive to do these very large experiments, so we were able to examine thousands of genes at the same time." 



According to Dr. de Moor, the data confirms that cordycepin is a good starting point for novel cancer medicines and explains its beneficial effects. 



"For instance, derivatives of cordycepin could aim to produce the triphosphate form of the drug to have the same effect," she noted. 



"In addition, the data will help with monitoring the effects of cordycepin in patients, as our data indicate particular genes whose activity reliably responds to cordycepin, which could for instance be measured in blood cells."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Exploring the potential of Cordyceps militaris goes well beyond its current applications. Future research could explore the synthesis of cordycepin derivatives that may enhance its efficacy and specificity in targeting cancer cells.



With increasing understanding of genomics and targeted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-could-face-an-84-increase-in-cancer-cases-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies</a>, researchers are optimistic about crafting personalized treatment regimens that could be less toxic and more effective. 



Collaborative efforts across disciplines, including biotechnology and pharmacology, are likely to illuminate new pathways for leveraging the natural benefits of this fungal powerhouse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integrative-medicine-fungus-and-cancer">Integrative medicine: Fungus and cancer</h2>



Integrative medicine, emphasizing a holistic approach to healthcare, benefits greatly from the potential inclusion of cordycepin-based therapies. 



By harmonizing conventional cancer treatments with natural compounds like those derived from Cordyceps militaris, healthcare providers can offer more balanced and comprehensive care. 



This could result in less invasive treatment plans that focus not only on eradicating cancer but also on preserving quality of life and minimizing side effects. 



Continued clinical studies will be crucial in validating these integrative approaches, potentially solidifying the role of natural compounds as complements to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-anti-aging-drug-interleukin-11-boosts-lifespan-prevents-cancer-gray-hair/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern medicine</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-new-cancer-drugs">Developing new cancer drugs </h2>



This research is not just a significant step towards understanding potential of a fungus but also creates a pathway for developing new drugs for cancer treatment. 



It's a journey we're all invested in as we strive for a world without cancer. And who knew that a small caterpillar fungus could become such an important ally in this fight?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1873-3468.15046" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FEBS Letters</a>.



Image Credit: Daniel Winkler - Mushroaming



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Caterpillar fungus slows down growth of cancer cells

What if the solution to cancer lay hidden in a...

Ever wondered how colors come into existence? How do they influence the lives of beings around us? This isn't just about how we humans perceive different colors, but also how they shape the world of animals and plants. 



From peacocks flaunting their magnificent tail feathers to poison-dart frogs donning their bold hues, colors serve a purpose. Similarly, the brilliant hues of flowers and fruits aren't just for our aesthetic pleasure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-vision-in-animals">Color vision in animals</h2>



Researchers from the University of Arizona embarked on a journey to understand the evolution of color vision in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-wild-cats-got-their-striking-eye-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> and the functionality of colors in our environment.



The research revolved around the concept of "conspicuous colors." These are the colors that instantly snag our attention - the bold reds, striking yellows, vivid blues, and intense purples. But their role extends far beyond just being eye-catching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-in-the-animal-world">Colors in the animal world</h2>



Color plays a crucial role in the animal kingdom. It isn't merely about looking attractive. Instead, it's an effective way for animals to communicate. 



The researchers identified two significant types of color signals exploited by animals - warning and sexual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-and-sexual-signals">Warning and sexual signals </h2>



Warning color signals are perhaps the most striking element of color communication among species. These signals act as a universal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-changing-color-to-adapt-to-human-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caution sign</a>, telling potential predators to "back off."



Interestingly, these warning signals are far more common than sexual signals. They span across the animal kingdom, while sexual signals are limited to arthropods and vertebrates.



On the other hand, sexual color signals form an integral part of mating rituals. They attract and select the best possible mate. However, these signals necessitate highly developed vision.



Plants, too, have been assigning crucial roles to colors for millions of years. Bright colors in plants primarily serve two functions - to distribute pollen (flowers) and disperse seeds (fruits).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-findings-from-the-past">Findings from the past</h2>



According to the team's findings, color vision in animals evolved around 500 million years ago - about 150 million years before the arrival of colorful fruits. In addition, colorful flowers emerged around 200 million years ago.



The study was led by John J. Wiens, a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Ecology at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>. He was assisted by Zachary Emberts, an assistant professor of integrative biology at <a href="https://go.okstate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oklahoma State University</a> and a former postdoctoral scholar at the University of Arizona. 



A remarkable finding from their work is that warning color signals manifested before sexual color signals - around 150 million years ago, with the latter emerging about 100 million years later. 



"Warning signals are at least five times more widespread. That's the overall pattern," Wiens said.&nbsp;"There has been a dramatic explosion of both warning and sexual color signals in the last 100 million years."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-and-animal-dynamics">Colors and animal dynamics</h2>



Predator-prey relationships are profoundly influenced by the visual cues provided by colors within the environment. 



For prey species, possessing colors that allow them to blend seamlessly into their surroundings can mean the difference between survival and predation. 



Camouflage serves as a quintessential example of how colors are utilized to create a visual cloak, enabling prey to evade detection. Conversely, predators, such as the tiger with its stripes, use their coloration strategically to ambush unsuspecting prey. 



The careful balance of coloration within predator-prey dynamics underscores the evolutionary arms race where subtle changes in hue and pattern can significantly affect ecological interactions and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impacts-and-adaptive-signals">Human impacts and adaptive signals</h2>



As humankind continues to alter the biosphere, the natural manifestations of color in the animal and plant kingdoms are not immune to these influences. 



Deforestation, pollution, and climate change are leading to habitat destruction and fragmentation, which in turn affect how species utilize and manifest colors for survival. 



The adaptive signals once finely tuned to specific environments are now facing unprecedented challenges. Researchers emphasize the importance of preserving natural habitats to maintain the ecological functions of colors. 



Looking to the future, continued study of these vibrant natural phenomena not only enriches our understanding of ecology but also strengthens conservation strategies aimed at safeguarding the myriad species that rely on the tapestry of colors for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unsolved-mystery-of-colors-in-animals">Unsolved mystery of colors in animals</h2>



The reasons behind the sudden escalation of these color signals remain a mystery. However, the team managed to identify three critical groups that likely contributed to this surge - marine ray-finned fishes and terrestrial birds and lizards.



"In the future, it would be even more interesting to study what drives the ability of animals to see specific colors like red or blue," Emberts said.



So, what do you think might be the next revelation in this vibrant journey of color evolution?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/brv.13141" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Reviews.</a>



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Animals got their colors 150 million years before plants

Ever wondered how colors come into existence? How do they...

A team of biologists has recently revealed the origins of a unique DNA duplication mechanism that grants plants additional ways to control genetic instructions.&nbsp;



This discovery, led by Xuehua Zhong from the <a href="https://washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> (WashU), holds promise for innovations in agriculture, particularly in enhancing crop resilience to environmental challenges like heat and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a>. 



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr2222" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, delves into DNA methylation - a biological process that plays a key role in gene regulation, directly impacting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> respond to environmental stressors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-plant-dna-methylation">Complexity of plant DNA methylation</h2>



DNA methylation involves adding small chemical groups called methyl groups to DNA. This modification determines which genes are turned on or off, shaping various plant traits.&nbsp;



A crucial part of this process involves silencing “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fungus-has-become-more-deadly-thanks-to-jumping-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jumping genes</a>” or transposons, which are mobile DNA sequences that can disrupt normal genetic function if not controlled. In plants, this regulatory role is handled by specialized enzymes, distinct from those found in mammals.



“Mammals only have two major enzymes that add methyl groups in one DNA context, but plants actually have multiple enzymes that do that in three DNA contexts,” Zhong explained, highlighting the unique complexity of plant DNA methylation.&nbsp;



“The question is - why do plants need extra methylation enzymes?” This research could pave the way for advancements in agriculture by helping scientists to tap into plant systems that naturally regulate resilience-related traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-enzymes-in-plant-dna">The role of enzymes in plant DNA</h2>



Zhong’s study focuses on two enzymes unique to plants: CMT3 and CMT2. Both enzymes are part of the chromomethylase (CMT) family, responsible for adding methyl groups to specific DNA sequences.&nbsp;



CMT3 specializes in methylating so-called CHG sequences, while CMT2 targets CHH sequences. Despite their differences, these enzymes share a common ancestry, having evolved through duplication events that provided plants with extra copies of genetic information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-history-of-the-enzymes-nbsp">Evolutionary history of the enzymes&nbsp;</h2>



Using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, also known as thale cress, Zhong’s team traced the evolutionary history of these enzymes.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that CMT2 lost its ability to methylate CHG sequences due to the absence of an amino acid called arginine, a change that occurred during the enzyme’s evolution.&nbsp;



“Arginine is special because it has charge. In a cell, it’s positively charged and thus can form hydrogen bonds or other chemical interactions with, for example, the negatively charged DNA,” explained co-author Jia Gwee, a graduate student at WashU.



CMT2, however, contains valine instead of arginine. Valine lacks the necessary charge to interact with CHG sequences, explaining why CMT2 no longer recognizes these DNA contexts as CMT3 does.&nbsp;



To test this theory, the research team introduced arginine back into CMT2, restoring its ability to methylate both CHG and CHH sequences.&nbsp;



This mutation suggests that CMT2 originally functioned as a duplicate of CMT3 - a backup enzyme with the potential to diversify its function as plant DNA complexity grew.&nbsp;



“But instead of simply copying the original function, it developed something new,” Zhong noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-environmental-stress">Adapting to environmental stress</h2>



The study also uncovered structural features that set CMT2 apart. Notably, the enzyme has a flexible N-terminal region that influences its protein stability, a characteristic that may have helped plants adapt to various environmental conditions.&nbsp;



“This is one of the ways plants evolved for genome stability and to fight environmental stresses,” Zhong explained. This structural adaptation has likely allowed plants equipped with CMT2 to thrive in diverse climates across the globe.



A significant portion of the data for this study came from the <a href="https://1001genomes.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1001 Genomes Project</a>, which maps the genetic diversity of A. thaliana strains worldwide. 



By exploring samples from plants in the wild rather than just laboratory specimens, the researchers gained insights into how DNA methylation contributes to plants’ natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ecosystem-stability-threatened-by-declining-plant-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jumping-genes-and-plant-adaptation">Jumping genes and plant adaptation</h2>



The study also highlights the adaptive potential of transposons, or “jumping genes,” in plant DNA. These mobile sequences are often silenced by methylation to maintain genomic stability, but their occasional movement can aid in environmental adaptation.&nbsp;



“One jump might help species deal with harsh environmental conditions,” Zhong said, explaining how these genetic shifts could help plants survive in challenging environments.



As plants navigate unpredictable climates, the diversification enabled by DNA methylation - particularly through enzymes like CMT3 and CMT2 - can provide the flexibility needed to withstand stressors like extreme temperatures and limited water availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-implications-for-crop-resilience">Future implications for crop resilience</h2>



Understanding how CMT enzymes contribute to plant resilience opens exciting possibilities for agriculture.&nbsp;



By precisely targeting the genes and methylation processes responsible for drought tolerance, heat resistance, or other resilience traits, scientists could enhance crops’ ability to thrive under changing climate conditions.&nbsp;



“If we find precisely how they are regulated, then we can find a way to innovate our technology for crop improvement,” Zhong explained.



As the world faces growing agricultural challenges, insights into the DNA methylation processes that strengthen plants can provide a foundation for developing crops capable of withstanding increasingly severe environmental pressures.&nbsp;



This research marks a step forward in harnessing plants’ genetic systems to create resilient agricultural ecosystems, offering a promising path to sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungal-infections-are-threatening-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a> in the face of climate change.



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Plants use DNA duplication to increase their resilience 

A team of biologists has recently revealed the origins of...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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