Scientists and botanists are continuously exploring nature's vast variety, making tree and plant discoveries that highlight the richness of our planet's biodiversity. 



These findings spark excitement and curiosity, offering fresh perspectives on the vast array of plant species still awaiting exploration. Most recently, experts have added to the world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-technology-will-accelerate-the-pace-of-plant-species-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">botanical discoveries</a> by naming six new tree species.



These species were identified during an exhaustive comparison of dried plant specimens gathered from across the Neotropics. 



Among the six, three unique species - Matisia petaquillae, Matisia changuinolana, and Matisia aquilarum - were identified in Panama while the other three - Matisia genesiana, Matisia mutatana, and Matisia rufula - were discovered in Colombia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-specimens-and-new-tree-species">Plant specimens and new tree species</h2>



The process of discovering these new species was a meticulous one, involving the careful collection, drying, and examination of plant samples. 



These samples were pressed into pieces of cardboard, mounted onto specialized paper, and later filed into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-centinela-mass-extinction-really-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbaria</a> - dedicated repositories for dried plant specimens. 



With digital advancements, curators have made a significant portion of these specimens available online, facilitating easier access and exchange of knowledge.



However, it's important to note that despite digital access, the task of identifying these plant specimens still hinges on expert plant taxonomists.



Scientists often grapple with unidentified specimens for years before they can conclusively establish whether these represent previously unknown species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-upon-previous-discoveries">Building upon previous discoveries </h2>



Ernesto Campos, a research technician at the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI), noted that José Luis Fernández-Alonso played a pivotal role in confirming the identification of a new tree species, Matisia tinamastiana in 2022.



This discovery unfolded in the Altos de Campana Forest Reserve and National Park and laid the cornerstone for the current collaborative efforts.



To identify this intriguing set of species, Fernández-Alonso examined plant samples preserved in herbaria across Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, and the United States. 



Campos provided crucial assistance in Panama, facilitating the review of herbarium collections at different institutions, including the Autonomous University of Chiriquí (UCH).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specimens-from-chagres-national-park">Specimens from Chagres National Park</h2>



The discovery journey was further enriched with the collections made by senior botanists at STRI, Rolando Pérez and Salomón Aguilar, who extended the known distribution range of Matisia aquilarum.



This achievement was possible thanks to specimens found at a study site in Chagres National Park, a part of the ForestGEO-STRI forest monitoring network.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-the-world-of-plants">Window into the world of plants </h2>



The exploration does not end here. With the help of Joana Sumich, a technician in the SCZ herbarium, the researchers are in the process of identifying other plant samples - including some that were collected decades ago. They anticipate uncovering more species previously unknown to science.



To aid non-specialists in identifying these new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-invasive-plant-species-are-in-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, the authors have also included an updated dichotomous key of Matisia species for Panama in their manuscript. This represents the first such identification key published in over half a century.



David Mitre, the research manager for ForestGEO-STRI in Panama, aptly summed up the importance of these discoveries.



"Herbaria are not just collections of dried plants, they are a source of new information in the long term. Discoveries like this remind us how important it is to make sure that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-are-critically-endangered-even-in-protected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected areas</a> are really well protected," said Mitre.



These findings elevate our understanding of our precious ecosystems, shedding light on the multitudes of plant species <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-tree-species-remain-undiscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waiting to be discovered</a>.



“This window into the world of plants leads to discoveries of new pharmaceuticals and makes it possible for conservationists to justify protection for natural areas where rare species flourish," said Joshua Tewksbury, STRI Director.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reservoirs-of-preserved-plant-specimens">Reservoirs of preserved plant specimens</h2>



Herbaria play a pivotal role in botanical research, serving as reservoirs of preserved plant specimens that hold invaluable information about the planet's biodiversity. 



These collections, some dating back centuries, are meticulously maintained to ensure their scientific integrity. 



Advances in digital technology have made many herbarium records accessible online, revolutionizing how researchers study plant species across the globe.



Despite this accessibility, the identification of new species remains a time-intensive process that relies heavily on skilled plant taxonomists. 



By carefully analyzing physical traits, geographical data, and historical records, these experts uncover the stories behind each specimen. 



The recent discoveries of the six Matisia tree species highlight the importance of herbaria in preserving the natural history of our planet and contributing to conservation efforts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://raccefyn.co/index.php/raccefyn/article/view/malvaceae-neotropicae-novae-vel-minus-cognitae-nuevas-especies-d" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales</a>.



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Six new tree species identified in Columbia and Panama

Scientists and botanists are continuously exploring nature's vast variety, making tree and plant discoveries that highlight the richness of our planet's biodiversity. These findings spark excitement and curiosity, offering fresh perspectives on the vast array of plant species still awaiting exploration. Most recently, experts have added to the world of botanical discoveries by naming six new tree species. These species were identified during an exhaustive comparison of dried plant specimens gathered from across the Neotropics. Among the six, three unique species - Matisia petaquillae, Matisia changuinolana, and...

In sci-fi movies, aliens are often modelled after insects or other invertebrate animals, which seems to be a reflection of a common view of how alien insects are.  I would argue that although insects are very different from humans, plants, despite their prevalence, are quite a bit more alien.

As humans we often treat plants as little more than inanimate objects, ignoring or even missing the fact that they’re actually living beings in their own right.  We assume that intelligence and depth of life are saved for those life forms with spines, with large brains, with hair and fast metabolisms. How can we possibly judge just by first impressions a life so incredibly different from our own as the life of a plant?  Plant life is subtle, and their fascinating details are easy to miss.

People have the habit of using the term “co-evolution” when it comes to two other species and using words like “domestication” when it involves humans and another species.  For instance, we feel we’ve domesticated crops like corn, but the history of how corn became a part of human life is not so clear cut. Hidden in the dark passages of prehistory, corn and humans have both benefited from their partnership.  <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/switchgrass-biofuel-source/">Corn</a> has provided us nutrition, changed from human selection, and in turn, has received enormous help in reproduction. Corn in its own way has used humans to spread across the globe, to destroy competitors, to be watered and fertilized all by human hands.  

Corn is just one example of a model that applies to virtually all plants humans cultivate.  If another animal, like ants, are adapted to live in one plant that they protect vigorously, we think of it as an unthinking partnership.  I see no reason to think an ant-plant relationship is unthinking evolution benefiting both parties while human plant interactions are thoughtful and benefit humans chiefly.  Plants on their own have severe limitations for how far they can spread and use fruits, nectar and other enticements to get birds, butterflies, bats to pollinate. Plants also get hosts of frugivorous animals of all types and nut storing squirrels to spread their seeds.  Humans are just one other herbivore utilized by plants providing delicious nutrition to receive reproduction and broader distribution of their offspring.

You may have heard about experiments showing plant reacting to the sound of classical music.  Many green thumbed enthusiasts feel that talking to their plants encourages better growth and greater plant success.  Less common is knowledge of experiments mirroring Pavlov’s experiments with dogs. Pavlov showed that dogs, like humans, can learn to associate a ringing bell with being fed. Recently, research has taken pea plants in a dark room and conducted a similar experiment.  Pea plants were put in a room with a small light next to a small fan. Unsurprisingly the plants grew towards the light. What is surprising is that after the light has been removed, plants will grow towards the fan by itself, suggesting that the pea plants have associated the fan with light, which they need for life.

Of course everyone knows about Venus Fly Trap plants, those strange plants that I so desired as a child.  I was fascinated at a plant with eerily gaping leaf mouths into which I could put a bit of ground beef to be eaten.  The plant is one of a few carnivorous plants, mainly plants which have adapted to poor soils by consuming insects. Other examples are pitcher plants which lure creatures into their trap with smells of rotting meat.  Once a hungry fly has made its way into the depths of the plant looking for dead flesh, they’re trapped and digested in a vat of digestion fluid. There are the more obscure sundew plants that curl prickly leaves around their prey.  

Mimosa Pudica is a plant adapted to react to herbivory in a strange way.  When an animal such as a deer bumps the plant, trying to get a bite, all the leaves immediately fold up.  The plant gains the appearance of unappetizing sticks, instead of a lush, leafy snack. An experiment has been done to see if these odd plants can learn when there is actually no threat to stop reacting in this way.  An experimenter dropped these plants over and over, in a safe, controlled environment and she discovered what seems to be learning. After several drops, the plants stop reacting to being dropped but will react to being touched in their normal way.  After waiting almost a month between droppings, the plants ‘learn’ to stop reacting to drops even faster. 

Recently, plants have been sedated, even though sedation seems to require a nervous system, which plants lack.  In an experiment, plants were exposed to a range of anesthetics, including those used on humans during medical procedures.  The anesthetics stopped the plants normal sun following behavior. It seems plants can be drugged unconscious. The real question is what does it mean for a plant to be conscious in the first place?               

Carnivorous plants and moving mimosa plants seem odd things, exceptions to the rules we implicitly expect plants to follow but the closer we look the more we find odd abilities of our green neighbors.  What is intelligence besides a thoughtful reaction to the surrounding environment? It’s easy to see that plants react and interact with their environment. What’s less obvious is whether there is anything that could be considered thought in a plant.  We usually assume that something with no brain is not thinking in anyway whatsoever. It’s hard to explain especially complex interactions with an environment without thought though. What does it mean for a plant to interact with its environment in a sophisticated way without a brain?  Perhaps it should make us reconsider our ideas of intelligence and thought. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants are more intelligent than you may think

In sci-fi movies, aliens are often modelled after insects or...

Researchers from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> are reporting that city trees have a much better chance of surviving threats from heat and insect pests if they are hydrated. Dehydration can harm trees on its own, but the new study suggests that a lack of water also makes them more vulnerable to other stressors.

“We would see some vibrant urban trees covered in scale insects, but we'd also see other clearly stressed and struggling urban trees covered in scale insects,” said study first author Emily Meineke. “We wanted to know what allowed some trees to deal with these pests so much more successfully.”

“This is important because trees need to grow in order to perform valuable ecosystem services, such as removing pollutants from the air and storing carbon,” said co-author Steve Frank.

The research team used both field data and controlled laboratory experiments in an effort to account for the complex number of variables involved.

Over the course of two years, data was collected on 40 urban willow oak trees. The experts documented how water-stressed the trees were, the temperature conditions, and the density of common tree pests known as scale insects. 

Willow oak saplings were used in lab experiments. While the young trees were growing, the researchers manipulated the temperature as well as the presence of water and scale insects.

The study revealed that warmer temperatures actually had a positive impact on tree development when the trees had enough water. In addition, scale insects had no significant effect on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-carbon/">trees</a> when they were hydrated.

The experts discovered that water stress was enough to limit tree growth on its own, but also found that this impact was greatly increased by the presence of heat or scale insects.

“This tells us that management strategies aimed at increasing tree hydration in cities may reduce the adverse effects of all three of these key stressors,” said Meineke. 

“And that is likely to become increasingly important as water availability, temperature and pest abundance are affected by further urbanization and climate change.”

Professor Frank pointed out that urban managers could invest in various hydration strategies and plant heat-resistant trees in the hottest city regions.


“Moving forward, we're very curious about the prevalence of water stress in urban trees globally - and whether this leads to similar problems regarding the impact of tree pests,” said Meineke. “If so, improved tree hydration could become a higher priority for urban forestry management.”

The study is published in the <a href="http://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2664/">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Emily Meineke

Lack of water puts city trees at risk of multiple threats

Researchers from North Carolina State University are reporting that city...

According to an international team of researchers, trees are dying at an increasingly high rate in the tropical regions of South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. The mortality rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-resist-drought/">trees</a> has doubled in some areas compared to just a few decades ago, and the experts are reporting that this trend will continue.

Study lead author Nate McDowell is a researcher at the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/">Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>.

“No matter how you look at it, trees in the moist tropics will likely die at elevated rates through the end of this century relative to their mortality rates in the past,” said McDowell. “There is a host of factors that appear to be driving mortality, and the likelihood of those factors occurring is increasing.”

The team found that all of the driving factors that cause tree mortality in the tropics are increasing, including CO2 levels, unseasonably warm temperatures, drought, fires, and intense storms. Rising insect infestation and the abundance of woody vines known as lianas are also threatening the survival of the trees. 

Despite all of the present dangers, however, tree mortality in the tropics is most often caused by one of two events: carbon starvation or hydraulic failure.


Carbon dioxide is a source of food for trees, and so it would seem likely that trees would thrive as CO2 levels rise. Unfortunately, higher temperatures dehydrate trees and prevent them from absorbing carbon dioxide.

When trees are forced to conserve water in hot and dry conditions, they close their stomata to conserve water. If the stomata are closed for long enough, this leads to carbon starvation.

“It's like going to an all-you-can-eat buffet with duct tape over your mouth,” said McDowell. “There may be plenty of food, but it doesn't matter how much food is on the table if you can't eat.”

The other predominant threat comes from a fatal lack of water, or hydraulic failure, which can be caused by rising temperatures, fires, or through competition for resources.

“Trees have a great ability to survive, but there is only so much they can withstand - the question we now face is identifying those thresholds so we can predict risk to tropical forests,” said McDowell.

More than two dozen institutions across the globe were involved in the study, which is published in the journal <a href="http://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1469-8137/">New Phytologist</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alarming rates of tree mortality found in the tropics

According to an international team of researchers, trees are dying...

The world’s population is continuously growing, and with it comes an increased need for more food to feed this rising population. Currently, agriculture uses 90 percent of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-bodies-acidic-co2/">freshwater</a>, which presents quite the conundrum in a world where access to freshwater is becoming increasingly more important. Luckily, a new study in Nature Communications reports that – for the first time – scientists have improved crop water efficiency by 25 percent, without compromising yield.

“This is a major breakthrough,” says Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE) Director Stephen Long. “Crop yields have steadily improved over the past 60 years, but the amount of water required to produce one ton of grain remains unchanged – which led most to assume that this factor could not change. Proving that our theory works in practice should open the door to much more research and development to achieve this all-important goal for the future.”

This breakthrough was accomplished by increasing the levels of a photosynthetic protein (PsbS) to conserve water by tricking plants into partially closing their stomata. The stomata are the microscopic pores in the leaf that allow water to escape, they are essentially the gatekeepers the plant. When stomata are open, carbon dioxide enters the plant to help fuel photosynthesis, while also allowing water to escape. The specific plants used for this study were tobacco, as these plants are easier to modify and test than other crops.

“These plants had more water than they needed, but that won’t always be the case,” explains co-first author Katarzyna Glowacka, a postdoctoral researcher who led this research at the <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> (IGB). “When water is limited, these modified plants will grow faster and yield more – they will pay less of a penalty than their non-modified counterparts.”

Our atmosphere’s carbon dioxide concentration has increased by 25 percent in the last 70 years, which allows for plants to amass enough carbon dioxide without fully opening their stomata. “Evolution has not kept pace with this rapid change, so scientists have given it a helping hand,” says Long. Results showed that the increase in PsbS levels improved the plant’s water-use-efficiency by 25 percent, without sacrificing photosynthesis or yield in real-world field trials.

PsbS is an integral part of the signaling pathway in the plant that relays information about the quantity of light, which is one of the factors that triggers the stomata to open and close. Through increasing PsbS, the signal says that there is not enough light for the plant to photosynthesize. This triggers the stomata to close, as carbon dioxide is no longer needed to fuel photosynthesis.

Overall, decreasing the amount of water needed to grow the crops necessary for feeding our rising population will help us to continue keeping the public healthy while also conserving freshwater. Scientists are now looking to apply this discovery to other crops in order to improve the water-use-efficiency of different food crops.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: Jiayang Xie, Katarzyna G?owacka, Andrew D. B. Leakey

A new strategy helps crops use less water more efficiently

The world’s population is continuously growing, and with it comes...

Many people worry about their personal health when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-cacao-chocolate/">GMO crops</a>.  Individual health is a real problem, as there is possibly a link between increased allergy sensitivity and GMO grain crops.  

But my own health isn’t my first concern when it comes to genetically engineering food, at least not directly.  GMO crops are often modified in way more consistent with modern industrial agriculture than the organic, environment based farms that most traditional crops evolved in.  

What does increased industrial agriculture mean for the consumer?  Industrialization of our food supply has wide reaching implications, but first, let’s talk about chemicals.  Many GMO crops are designed to be more dependent on products such as the herbicide Roundup.  This means that the plant can survive being sprayed with an herbicide that destroys ‘pesky’ weeds.  Fertilizers are also used in heavy dosages in conjunction with GMO crops.  A part of the reason so many fertilizers are used is because the ecology of the soil that naturally creates nutrition is destroyed with large dosages of toxins, such as herbicides and pesticides. The end result of this process is a plant alone in a sterile, artificial environment, with less insects, less fungi, less microbes and less other plants, all of which contribute to the health of the environment.  

Of course the use of pesticides has gotten plenty of coverage in the media, especially neonicotinoid pesticides which cause colony collapse disorder in bees.  The problem goes far beyond honey bees and pollination though.  True pesticides may be devastating honey bees but it doesn’t stop with insects we all know and love.  The invertebrate world is incredibly complex and much of the diversity of the rest of the animal (and plant and fungi) world rests on the humble invertebrates.  We’re also destroying butterflies as well as crop ‘pests’ and insects bats, frogs, lizards and birds depend on for survival.. not to mention soil invertebrates that create living nutrition that feeds plants.

Fertilizers also go only so far.  Sure, a synthetic fertilizer will keep plants alive and give them some nutrition, but only to a finite extent.  Plants can give us only what we put into them.  Things like dung and worm casings, further processed by fungi and microbes, create many compounds.  Traditional synthetic fertilizers mainly contain Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium; the bare basics that are needed to keep a plant healthy.  Soil nutrition is important and we need plants with more than the three basic nutrients.  Soils that are treated only with artificial fertilizers become increasingly poor; soils that are allowed to develop their own ecology and nutrition naturally can become richer over time.  The difference is nutrition we evolved with and nutrition we invented for the modern convenience of industrial processes.  Runoff from fertilizers also causes problems, creating things like algal blooms that choke wetlands and create oxygen free water ways, killing fish and other aquatic organisms.  

Food security may be one of the biggest problems that GMO crops create.  Through the history of the human race, we’ve probably bred millions of different plants.  Many of the plants were bred in a specific environment, for specific conditions.  Some crops ripen faster, some slower.  Some food plants need a lot of water, some are drought tolerant.  Plants can survive intense heat or crippling cold depending on the conditions they evolved in.  As a whole group the incredible diversity of  and in different crops adds up to not putting all our eggs in one basket.  If you grow three types of tomatoes, two types of cucumber and five carrot varieties, it seems unlikely all will fail because of the same factor unless there is a catastrophe.  

GMO crops on the other hand are replacing local, traditionally developed crops with monocultures that thrive under the same, standard conditions.  GMO crops are usually clones so there isn’t any genetic variation even within a single variety unlike traditional crops.  A monoculture is more vulnerable to a devastating failure from one disease, one cold snap, one heat wave, one drought.  As more of the world grows the same few crops, the whole global food supply becomes increasingly fragile.  Foods also become increasingly boring.  Look at the difference between a thriving farmer’s market and the produce section of your local Wal-Mart. 

The overall impact of the process creating GMO foods is a problem few think about when considering GMO food.  Genetically modified crops, dependent on industrial farming, are more dependent on oil than organic foods.  The real problem isn’t in an individual plant’s genes but in the process of growing that plant.  

GMO may have a place.  It’s hard to entirely discount things like golden rice, designed to give more nutrition to impoverished children.  It’s unlikely that most crops, swapping genes between (mostly) other plants will be dangerous to human health.  Evolution through natural or artificial selection changes the prevalence of genes in a population all the time.  The problem is the process and the scale.  The problem comes when all the crops are GMO.  The problem increases when farms are industrial rather than subsistence.  Local farms engaging as many local people as possible in their own food production is probably the best way to ensure good food and a healthy environment.    

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The real problem with GMO crops

Many people worry about their personal health when it comes...

Without a time machine, scientists can’t possibly know what Earth’s ancient climates looked like, right? Not exactly. Researchers have an array of tools they can use to peek at the ancient environment, and they’ve just added a new one to the kit: leaf wax.

Plants produce a protective, waxy substance in the cuticle of their leaves that changes depending on the environmental circumstances when the leaf budded and grew. The waxy substance helps to minimize water loss and protect leaves from UV radiation.

The makeup of this leaf wax changes depending on the conditions the plant is growing in. In dry conditions, for example, plants use different organic compounds and distribute them differently to hold onto more water and increase odds of survival.

The team of scientists, led by Dr. Yvette Eley of the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/">University of Birmingham</a>, theorized that if they collected leaf wax lipids from organic soil and analyzed them, they could determine the growing conditions their parent plants grew in. 

"Looking at soil today, you're observing the integrated history of all the plant matter that went into forming that soil over the course of hundreds to thousands of years," Dr. Michael Hren of the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a> said in a press release.

Eley and Hren examined leaf wax compounds in topsoil in North and South America, comparing their findings with modern climate records. They found a clear correlation with climate changes and distribution of leaf wax lipid compounds.

Paleoclimate scientists can get an idea of Earth’s past environment by analyzing stable isotopes in mammal bones and teeth, or ice core chemistry. But the new method fills an important gap, the researchers said.

"One of the huge gaps in the past is we didn't have great quantitative records of moisture," Hren said. "We're now managing to get a really nice glimpse of the whole ecosystem and how it's responding."

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-21959-w">Scientific Reports</a>. Funding was provided by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Leaf wax offers insight into Earth's climate history

Without a time machine, scientists can’t possibly know what Earth’s...

In environments with highly variable climates, it can be a struggle for many plants to adapt and survive. Places that can be extremely wet one year and extremely dry the next require species to adapt to this variability. To that end, many species of wildflowers in these environments use seed banks as a survival tool, allowing them to keep a portion of their seeds dormant in the soil rather than spending them all at once. Ultimately, this helps ensure long-term survival.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-water-conservation-benefits/">California</a> is one of those places where the climate can be extremely variable. A recent study, published in the journal <a href="http://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1939-9170/">Ecology</a>, shows how resilient native wildflowers were during the state’s most recent drought. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a> analyzed over 22,000 seedlings from soil cores collected in Northern California during the fall of 2012 and 2014. Their findings showed that seeds from native wildflowers increased more than 200 percent underground, and aboveground growth increased 14 percent. They also found that seeds from exotic grasses decreased 52 percent and 39 percent belowground and aboveground, respectively.

“Seed banking is a form of bet-hedging,” explains Marina LaForgia, a graduate student in the UC Davis Department of Plant Sciences and lead author of the study. “Wildflowers take on low risk but also low reward, whereas grasses are high-risk, high-reward plants. They’re not savers. They increase dramatically during wet years and decrease in dry years. Wildflowers are less dramatic. They are there, but they’re switching where they place the highest proportions of their population.”

The increases to wildflowers’ seed banks were even more significant amongst the drought-tolerant wildflowers. Belowground, these wildflowers increased seed banks by 263 percent, while wildflowers that are intolerant to drought increased their seed bank by 119 percent.

“Even wildflowers that are considered intolerant to drought appeared resilient to a single extreme drought event,” says LaForgia. “However, more frequent, severe or prolonged future droughts could eventually exceed these native species’ capacity to put more and more seeds into the seed bank for their long-term survival.”

The findings from this study indicate that native wildflowers should be used as an integral part of future restoration strategies. Along with their resilience to drought, they’re not too hard on the eyes either.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Marina LaForgia/<a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>

These California wildflowers use seed banks to beat drought

In environments with highly variable climates, it can be a...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) are describing a possible explanation for why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-depression-brain/">mushrooms</a> are hallucinogenic. The experts have found that the genes responsible for the psychedelic compound psilocybin may have been adapted as a defense mechanism against fungus-eating insects.

The research team analyzed three species of magic mushrooms and compared them to three related species that do not produce the mind-altering compound. They identified a cluster of five genes that the psychedelic mushrooms have in common.

The scientists believe that the genes may have emerged as the result of a process known as horizontal gene transfer, which is the movement of genetic material between organisms that is not vertically passed from parent to offspring. 

According to the experts, horizontal gene transfer is not common in mushrooms, indicating that this transfer was likely a response to environmental stress. In this particular case, the scientists believe that an exchange of genes may have occurred due to the predominant presence of fungus-eating insects.

The researchers explained that psilocybin interferes with a neurotransmitter in both humans and insects. For example, previous studies have demonstrated that the drug inhibits a neurotransmitter in flies that causes appetite suppression.

Jason Slot is an assistant professor of Fungal Evolutionary Genomics at OSU and the study's lead author.

“We speculate that mushrooms evolved to be hallucinogenic because it lowered the chances of the fungi getting eaten by insects,” said Slot. “The psilocybin probably doesn’t just poison predators or taste bad. These mushrooms are altering the insects’ mind - if they have minds - to meet their own needs.”

The findings of this research may help in an effort that is already underway to identify the potential of psilocybin as a treatment for neurological diseases.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)2056-3744">Evolution Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mushrooms may have become hallucinogenic to ward off predators

Researchers at Ohio State University (OSU) are describing a possible...

On a remote Norwegian island covered with ice, an abandoned coal mine has been converted into a massive vault to store the seeds of worldwide species so that they can be accessed in the event of a catastrophe. The security of the “doomsday" seed vault has been threatened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-winter-sports/">climate change</a>, and Norway responded with a $13 million plan to reinforce it.

The Svalbard Global Seed Vault was built on the island of Spitsbergen about 800 miles from the North Pole. Since it opened in 2008, the seed bank has accumulated over a million seed samples from thousands of species.

While the vault was designed to survive a disaster as destructive as nuclear war, an unprecedented Arctic warming event led to a structural failure in 2016. Historically warm temperatures caused rain to fall across the Arctic region instead of snow, and the entrance to the vault was exposed.

Hege Njaa Aschim, a representative of the Norwegian government, told <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/">The Guardian</a>:

“It was not in our plans to think that the permafrost would not be there and that it would experience extreme weather like that. A lot of water went into the start of the tunnel and then it froze to ice, so it was like a glacier when you went in.”

The meltwater did not do any harm to the seeds, but it did cause experts to reevaluate the security of the vault. Norway has now developed a $13 million construction plan to further safeguard the seed bank.

According to <a href="https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/lmd/id627/">Norway’s Ministry of Agriculture and Food</a>, the modification of the seed vault will include “construction of a new, concrete-built access tunnel, as well as a service building to house emergency power and refrigerating units and other electrical equipment.”

On February 26, a ten-year-anniversary celebration was held at the seed vault, as representatives of international seed banks carried in 76,000 new samples for storage.

Minister of Agriculture and Food Jon Georg Dale hosted the event. 

“It is simply impressive that 1 million seed samples from all over the world have now found their way to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault,” said Dale. “It confirms the important role of the seed vault as a worldwide insurance for food supply for future generations and an ever-growing population.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change threatens security of Norway’s global seed vault

On a remote Norwegian island covered with ice, an abandoned...

In an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, corn has become a primary source in the creation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuel-compete-oil/">biofuels</a> to power cars and airplanes.

But the environmental impact and water supply needed to grow corn make it better suited to be used as a food than a biofuel resource.

But now, researchers from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> have found that switchgrass may be an attractive new option for the creation of biofuel.

The study, led by John Field and published in the journal Nature Energy, showed that the carbon footprint of growing switchgrass was a fraction of the size of traditional fossil fuel sources. 

Field and his colleagues specialize in working with non-edible plants to create cellulosic biofuels. Switchgrass and other plants could serve as an excellent alternative to high impact crops like corn. 

“They don't require a lot of fertilizer or irrigation,” Field said. “Farmers don't have to plow up the field every year to plant new crops, and they're good for a decade or longer.”

For the study, the researchers analyzed an area in Kansas because the state has a cellulosic biofuel production plant. 

To examine the environmental impact and carbon footprint of switchgrass, the researchers used DayCent, a modeling system developed by Colorado State University in the 1990s. DayCent models plant growth and its response to weather and climate as well as its carbon cycle. 

Using DayCent, the research team was able to test whether switchgrass, grown for biofuel purposes, would be an effective alternative to traditional fossil fuels and have a reduced carbon footprint. 

The resulting carbon footprint of switchgrass was -11 to 10 grams of carbon dioxide per megajoule. Megajoules are commonly used to measure carbon emissions. 

To put that number in perspective, the carbon footprint of gasoline is 94 grams per megajoule. 

In addition to providing a smaller environmental impact, the researchers also found that switchgrass was effective for carbon storage. 

“What we saw with switchgrass is that you're actually storing carbon in the soil,” said John Field, the first author of the study. “You're building up organic matter and sequestering carbon.”

The results are promising, and the researchers are excited about the implications their work could have on future biofuel research. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Switchgrass may be better than corn as a biofuel source

In an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, corn has...

A research team led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> is the first to calculate how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-carbon-dioxide/">carbon</a> could be accumulated in American forests if they were strengthened through reforestation efforts.

Forests in the United States store enough carbon to offset approximately ten percent of the country's annual greenhouse gas emissions, but scientists are warning that this carbon sink is becoming less effective and may level off by mid-century. 

The research team set out to determine the potential carbon sequestration of two different strategies: by planting more trees after wildfires and by allowing forests to take over some marginal croplands. The experts also investigated the ability of restorative topsoils to store carbon.

Luke Nave is an ecologist and biogeochemist at the University of Michigan and the study's lead author.

“Where reforestation is happening - either through planting of trees or through encroachment - these lands are actively adding carbon to a large pool that will continue to grow for many decades,” said Nave.

“The topsoils of reforesting lands provide a significant long-range solution to the problem of the declining carbon-sink strength of U.S. forests, and they help to mitigate climate change. Even modest increases in the amount of land being reforested would have a multiplicative impact on nationwide carbon sequestration.”

The research team investigated forestlands that have experienced major disturbances such as intense wildfires over the last few decades. They found that only about 7 percent of the forestlands available for restoration have been replanted. 

The experts also found that reforestation efforts on marginal croplands have only reached about 10 percent of their potential to expand carbon storage. The study authors said that this discovery highlights “the substantial C-sink capacity of this land-use transition if these lands are allowed to continue returning towards a natural forest condition.”

Furthermore, the study revealed that topsoils used in reforestation projects across the United States are currently storing 13 to 21 million metric tons of carbon each year, which is equivalent to about 10 percent of the country's total forest carbon sink.

According to Nave, reforesting topsoils will capture a cumulative 1.3 to 2.1 billion metric tons of carbon over the next century, accounting for nearly half of the carbon stored in all of the forest soils across the United States. This amount could be drastically increased by expanding the country's reforesting acreage, which is currently at around 200,000 square miles.

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Reforestation efforts help combat greenhouse gas emissions

A research team led by the University of Michigan is...

Many plants have the ability to deter predators that might see them as a tasty snack, whether these deterrents are physical (like thorns or spines) or chemical (like a bad taste or poisonous substances). But with chemical defenses, how do these plants decide which defenses are affective enough to be worth the energy they take to produce?

A study led by Tatyana Livshultz, assistant curator of Botany at the Academy of Natural Science of <a href="http://drexel.edu/">Drexel University</a>, and published in <a href="http://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1469-8137/">New Phytologist</a> found genetic evidence that multiple lineages of plants evolved to stop producing a chemical that their ancestors had formally produced. The researchers believe the chemical was meant to deter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbivores-ecosystems-climate-change/">herbivores</a>, and the plants stopped producing as the primary herbivores became immune.

The team of researchers traced the evolution of a gene involved in the production of a class of chemicals that are toxic to humans and other mammals. These chemicals – called pyrrolizidine alkaloids – were found in a flowering plant family commonly known as dogbanes and milkweeds (in the family Apocynaceae). Through tracing the gene back, they were able to find when production of these chemicals first evolved, as well as how many times it was discontinued.

They were able to identify a single origin of the gene in the most recent common ancestor of over 75 percent of current Apocynaceae species. Through analysis, they found evidence that the gene became nonfunctional at least four different times among that plant’s descendants, meaning the chemical was “lost” to evolution. 

The researchers then wanted to find a correlation between the gene’s distribution in Apocynaceae plants and the animals that are unaffected by the defense alkaloids. They found that almost every species of this plant family descended from the alkaloid-producing ancestor is eaten by larvae of Danainae (milkweed and clearwing) butterflies. In fact, many of the species of butterfly in this lineage actively seek out plants with these alkaloids. Because of this, it seems that some species of Apocynaceae may have ceased production of the alkaloids because they were actually attracting butterflies, rather than repelling them.

“Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are likely an ineffective defense against Danainae,” says Livshultz. “Furthermore, they are actually beneficial to them since they take in these chemicals for their own defense against their predators.”

Their findings support the “defense de-escalation” hypothesis, which theorizes that organisms will evolve to stop using their limited resources on defense mechanisms if they’re no longer effective. In doing so, they can potentially divert resources to defenses that actually work.

“Apocynaceae species of this lineage produce a number of different classes of defensive chemicals, including cardenolides and other types of alkaloids,” Livshultz explained. “It has been shown that cardenolides are at least partially effective defenses against adapted herbivores such as the monarch butterfly, the most familiar species of Danainae to Americans.”

But this raises the question, why would any Apocynaceae species continue to produce alkaloids? “Perhaps because they suffer more from other insects that are deterred by these chemicals,” posits Livshultz – who plans on continuing this research in order to find out more about the history of this chemical defense in these plants. 

Overall, this research helps lead to a better understanding of the dynamics of defense de-escalation and co-evolution – the theory that associated species influence each other’s adaptations. Other implications of this study extend beyond plant life.

“Understanding the evolution of plant defenses is of practical importance to people, whether we focus on agriculture – herbivorous insects can cause 15 percent reductions in crop yields; medicine – plant secondary metabolites (pyrrolizidine alkaloids are one variety) are an important source of medicinal compounds; or environmental protection – such as developing control strategies for invasive plants,” explains Livshultz.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants evolve from ineffective defenses when eaten by herbivores

Many plants have the ability to deter predators that might...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...