Plants, just like humans, interact in complex and dynamic ways, forming relationships that can shape entire ecosystems.



Sometimes, plants work in harmony, supporting each other for mutual benefit. Other times, one species helps another while remaining unaffected.



In some cases, a plant may even utilize resources that another plant has produced for its own benefit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interactions-of-plants">Complex interactions of plants</h2>



Plant interactions are classified into three distinct types: symbiotic facilitation, where both plants benefit each other; commensalistic facilitation, where the nurtured plant neither impacts the benefactor positively nor negatively; and antagonistic facilitation, where the bestowed partner benefits at the expense of its benefactor.



The existence of antagonistic facilitation has been disputed for a long time. However, a new study provides compelling evidence that this type of interaction between plant species is indeed possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pioneer-plants-the-unsung-heroes">Pioneer plants: The unsung heroes</h2>



The research was conducted by Dr. Ricardo Martínez-García, CASUS Young Investigator, along with lead authors Ciro Cabal from the <a href="https://www.urjc.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King Juan Carlos University</a> and Gabriel A. Maciel from the South American Institute for Fundamental Research.



The study shines a light on a particular phenomenon that has intrigued ecologists for years - the pioneering role of certain plant species in cultivating wastelands.



The pioneer plants, in their quest for survival, start colonizing uninhabited ground. They produce resources like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-produce-their-own-nitrogen-fertilizer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-phosphorus-will-limit-growth-of-the-amazon-rainforest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorus</a> that are scarce in the soil. This not only aids their growth but also paves the way for other species to thrive in these desolate lands.



Opportunistic plants help themselves to the smorgasbord of resources provided by the pioneers. Yet, the pioneer plants remain unbothered because they still benefit from their hard work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-antagonistic-facilitation">Evidence of antagonistic facilitation </h2>



The findings strongly suggest the presence of antagonistic facilitation in these pioneer areas.



The findings extend beyond just proving the existence of antagonistic facilitation. According to Cabal, the team's model also shows that plant interactions are an emergent property of resource availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-dynamics-over-time">Shifting dynamics over time</h2>



The model indicates that antagonistic facilitation is the dominant strategy in environments with low and intermediate resource availability.



However, as the soil changes over time and more plant species begin to flourish, the interaction between the species also changes. 



The pioneer species continue to increase the availability of resources, but due to the overall abundance of resources now, the other plants are no longer impacted.



At this stage, the pioneers' mining ability starts to become a burden, putting them at a disadvantage. Ultimately, other plant species outcompete the pioneers to claim the territory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-world-of-plant-interactions">Fascinating world of plant interactions </h2>



Ecological research often leans on modeling as a tool for testing hypotheses and exploring ideas that are challenging to investigate in field or laboratory experiments. 



In this case, a mathematical model was developed to predict the density and spatial distribution of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roots</a> of interacting plants. The results proved to have a significant overlap with greenhouse experiments.



The model was further refined to depict the interaction of pioneer plants with their environment, taking into account the dynamics of an in-demand soil resource, the size and shape of root systems, and the costs of growing and maintaining roots.



Ultimately, the study illustrates the fascinating world of plant interactions, and the role of such relationships in shaping our natural environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-communicate">How plants communicate</h2>



In addition to their fascinating interactions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants communicate</a> in surprising ways. Through their root systems, plants exchange chemical signals to coordinate growth, warn others of potential threats, and even compete for resources.



Recent studies have shown that volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are released when under stress, signaling nearby species to activate their own defense mechanisms.



This underground network of chemical exchanges plays a critical role in shaping communities and influencing which species thrive in various ecosystems.



Understanding this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication network</a> adds another layer to how plants interact, not just through resource sharing or competition but through a hidden language that helps them navigate their environment.



This phenomenon further supports the idea that plant interactions are far more complex than previously understood, encompassing both cooperation and competition.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.20053" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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Secret lives of plants: Exploring complex interactions

Plants, just like humans, interact in complex and dynamic ways, forming relationships that can shape entire ecosystems. Sometimes, plants work in harmony, supporting each other for mutual benefit. Other times, one species helps another while remaining unaffected. In some cases, a plant may even utilize resources that another plant has produced for its own benefit. Complex interactions of plants Plant interactions are classified into three distinct types: symbiotic facilitation, where both plants benefit each other; commensalistic facilitation, where the nurtured plant neither impacts the benefactor positively nor...

Plants and insects have an ancient defense against viruses coded into their DNA. But according to scientists, humans and other vertebrates don’t have this genetic defense – at least, not anymore.

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.kuleuven.be/english">University of Leuven</a> in Belgium have found that vertebrates may have once had a genetic defense against viral illnesses like other organisms, but it was lost during the process of evolution.

The difference is a mechanism called RNA interference, which can suppress the expression of certain genes. Insects and plants use RNAI to protect themselves against certain viruses. Scientists have even found that bugs and plants can be made resistant to some diseases using the same mechanism – hence the rise of genetically modified crops.

But scientists hoping to protect humans against diseases in the same way have run into a roadblock: we don’t have the same genetic defense that plants and insects do. 

The key lies with three different types of the Argonautes protein. By looking at 40 varied organisms, including humans, the Belgian scientists discovered the problem.

"Two out of these three types [of Argonautes] are especially important for our research: AGO1 and AGO2. The AGO1 family plays a role in regulating its own gene expression. These proteins help to determine which characteristics encoded in the DNA are actually expressed,” Dr. Niels Wynant of the University of Leuven said in a press release. “The AGO2 family takes care of the defense against viruses. However, we didn't find these AGO2 proteins in vertebrates."

So the researchers started working backward, taking a look at jellyfish and sponges, both ancient animal species that share a common ancestor with humans and other vertebrates – albeit, very far back. Like insects and plants, they had the AGO2 proteins.

"In invertebrates, we noticed that AGO2 proteins indeed evolved much faster than their AGO1 counterparts. We didn't see this rapidly evolving group in the vertebrates,” Wynant said.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-08043-5">Scientific Reports</a>. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Humans have lost an ancient genetic defense against viruses

Plants and insects have an ancient defense against viruses coded...

Orchids are beautiful and delicate flowering plants that can found over the globe, thanks to their popularity and prized status. Aside from their aesthetic beauty, the vanilla orchid produces the <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/vanilla-shortage-creates-complicated-problem/">vanilla bean</a>, one of the most recognizable and popular flavors in the world. 

Scientists have now unlocked the genetic code of an orchid native to southeast China in order to better understand the the plant’s remarkable evolution.

Researchers studied the genetic blueprint of the southeast China orchid, belonging to the subfamily Apostasiodea, that splintered from the modern orchid millions of years ago. The team identified certain features that can be found in all orchids, which provided clues about the plant’s evolutionary journey.

Orchids range in size and color and can be found on both sides of the equator, making them an incredibly diverse species. All orchids have three petals, three sepals, and a long stem referred to as the the column. Orchids are also known for the showing some <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969806X99004247">tolerance</a> to gamma-radiation. 

These features give the orchids their distinct and beautiful look. According to the study, they have also maintained parts of their genetic blueprint from the plant’s early beginnings that have stayed present as the species split off into the nearly 30,000 species of orchids recognized today. 

"Whether you're looking at a big, blousy Moth orchid from the supermarket or a tiny rare Bog orchid on a remote Snowdonia hillside, the flowers have the same underlying blueprint," Dr. Trevor Dines from the Wild Plant Conservation Charity told <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-41257104">BBC News</a>.

"This research reveals that elements of this blueprint appeared right at the very start of the evolution of the orchid family, and may well have helped in their spectacular subsequent evolution into the 26,500-28,000 species we know of today."

The study was published in the journal Nature.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Unlocking the evolutionary history of the orchid

Orchids are beautiful and delicate flowering plants that can found...

Successful plant breeding is what puts food in our mouths and trees in our yards. The technology behind it has propped up our food supply and local florists for years, and major advancements have led to more widespread and successful plant breeding.

These days, plant breeding involves teams of scientists with degrees in genetics, phenotyping, and statistics. Improving the efficiency of breeding is a constantly involving endeavor, aiming for increasing prediction accuracy in regards to genotypes, experimental design, and environment sampling.

Mark Sorrells of <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, will be presenting on “Plant Breeding in the 21st Century” at the Managing Global Resources for a Secure Future International Annual Meeting in Tampa, FL on October 23rd. The meeting is sponsored by the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and the Soil Science Society of America.

As part of the presentation, Sorrells will discuss how new technology has revolutionized crop breeding. Innovations such as inexpensive DNA sequencing, genotyping, high throughput phenotyping, and gene-editing are improving both quantitative and qualitative traits, according to Sorrells. Furthermore, plant performance can be predicted for both phenotyped and non-phenotyped plants with genomic selection models that use genome-wide markers.

In the last few years, data is also being generated by both aerial and ground imaging systems, providing greater analysis of important factor such as canopy temperature and normalized difference vegetative index. All of these technologies can be combined to give a more accurate picture of crop breeding and reduce time as well as cost.

As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-reduce-coffee/">climate changes</a> and world population grows, it’s important that these technologies be improved upon so that we can continue to feed ourselves in potentially less forgiving growing environments.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New technology revolutionizing plant breeding to meet demand

Successful plant breeding is what puts food in our mouths...

Many patients who suffer from chronic pain, post traumatic stress disorder, or insomnia use cannabis-based medicines for sleep. But now, clinical research from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> warns that regular users may struggle to sleep without the drug or may build up too high of a tolerance. 

Severe or chronic pain accounts for the majority of qualified conditions for people to use medicinal marijuana in the United States, but another common reason for people to seek out a medical marijuana card is to treat insomnia. 

Despite the legalization of marijuana in 28 states, there are still many things about the drug that are unknown. Previous research on cannabis and sleep was conducted in sleep labs, where sleep stages and sleep continuity were measured. Some of these studies showed that individuals were able to fall asleep faster and stay asleep longer under the influence of cannabis.

For patients who use cannabis regularly, however, quitting the drug causes difficulty sleeping. Previous research also indicates that chronic use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/countries-legalize-cannabis-law/">cannabis</a> may lesson the sleep benefits overtime. To test these theories, experts set out to determine how sleep quality varies among people who never smoke marijuana, occasionally smoke, and smoke daily.

98 young males were recruited for the study. They were asked to answer surveys, keep sleep diaries, and wear accelerometers for a week. Throughout the study, the individuals were instructed to use marijuana as they normally would. The results of the study found that 39 percent of the daily cannabis users reported significant insomnia compared to only ten percent of occasional smokers.

While frequent smokers were found to actually sleep worse, the researchers also discovered that frequent smokers with anxiety and depression slept much better. The researchers ultimately determined that the effects of cannabis on sleep are highly variable.

Psychiatry Professor Deirdre Conroy said that the results of using cannabis to sleep will vary according to factors such as each individual, the type of cannabis, the concentrations of the cannabis, and the frequency of use. 

Future exploration of this topic may look into how different subspecies and concentrations of cannabis impact sleep. For example, one strain of cannabis may help sleep while another may cause nightmares.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis helps you sleep, but regular users can’t sleep without it

Many patients who suffer from chronic pain, post traumatic stress...

Psychedelic mushrooms may actually be used in the future to treat depression. British scientists are planning to study the response of patients to the active ingredient in magic mushrooms known as psilocybin.

One out of three cases of depression is resistant to treatment. Researchers have been trying for years to find alternative ways to successfully treat depressed patients. For example, scientists have found that the club drug and anesthetic Ketamine can rapidly treat some of the most severe cases of depression.

Even though psychoactive drugs such as MDMA and LSD were made illegal in the 1960s, there is new interest in how these drugs may be able to help patients with serious mental conditions including post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder.

A London-based company called Compass Pathways will test the effectiveness of psilocybin in depressed patients next year. The study will take place in eight European countries over the course of three months.

The upcoming trial, which is the largest of its kind, will focus on 400 patients suffering from depression who are resistant to existing treatments. The scientists will use digital technology to observe how the patients respond to the psilocybin.

George Goldsmith is one of the founders of Compass Pathways. He explained to the <a href="https://www.ft.com/">Financial Times</a>, “This is not about going back to the 1960s, but about taking forward 21st century science with digital innovation and medicines now that we understand how they work.”

From what is known from widespread recreational use of illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushrooms-safest-recreational-drug/">mushrooms</a>, experts feel confident that psilocybin is safe. However, the design of the study is still subject to regulatory approval.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Psychedelic mushrooms could help treat depression

Psychedelic mushrooms may actually be used in the future to...

In a new breakthrough, Japanese scientists successfully changed the color of a morning glory using the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool. By isolating one single gene in the plant’s DNA, scientists were able to change the flower’s purple hue to white. 

With the new technology, the team was able to do almost instantaneously what took nature 850 years to perfect. CRISPR has been used to successfully “edit” human embryos, but this is the first time that scientists targeted the color of plants. 

Conducted by researchers from <a href="http://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/">University of Tsukuba</a>, <a href="http://www.yokohama-cu.ac.jp/en/">Yokohama City University</a>, and the <a href="http://www.naro.affrc.go.jp/english/">National Agriculture and Food Research Organization </a>(NARO), the study used the Japanese morning glory as part of the <a href="https://shigen.nig.ac.jp/c.elegans/">National BioResource Project </a>in Japan. 

The researchers isolated a single gene, dihydroflavonol-4-reductase-B (DFR-B), which is responsible for the plant’s color. They then encoded the gene to deactivate enzyme production, which, in turn, changed the colors of the flower from purple to white. 

All in all, the study recorded the successful transformation of 75% (24 out of 32) of the morning glorys used for the experiment.

CRISPR works by removing and replacing gene mutations, allowing the DNA strand to repair itself sans the original mutation effectively.

CRISPR has been the subject of some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edit-genes-human-embryos/">controversy</a>, with the US intelligence community going so far as to call it a possible weapon of mass destruction. Other scientists and policy makers are hesitant to embrace CRISPR technology because of the ethical ramifications associated with it. 

Because CRISPR essentially acts as a gene “photoshop” kit that cuts away undesired gene mutations, isolating and targeting single genes and changing them, there is a concern that it could be used to create “designer babies.”

However, CRISPR could also create revolutionary gene therapies, eradicate many inherited diseases, and cure certain diseases like cancer by removing genetic mutations.

As experiments using CRISPR continue and its promising applications in curing disease are further evidenced, scientists, ethicists, and policy makers will need to work together to ensure the safety and success of gene editing without causing ethical issues.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gene editing tool can change the color of plants

In a new breakthrough, Japanese scientists successfully changed the color...

If you live in an area that isn’t being slammed by hurricanes and tornadoes, or aren’t a farmer whose crop is drying up due to heat waves and droughts, how much do you really have invested in the consequences of climate change? Well according to a new study published in <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, many more of us may have our daily lives affected by recent findings on climate change than previously thought. 

Scientists have found that global warming may significantly reduce coffee growing areas in Latin America, which is the world’s largest coffee-producing region. By 2050, production might decrease in these areas by as much as 88 percent.

This is the first major study to analyze climate change’s projected impacts on coffee, and the bees that affect coffee production, on a national or continental scale. Furthermore, the study estimates much greater losses of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-consumption-lower-death/">coffee</a> regions that previous assessments.

“Coffee is one of the most valuable commodities on earth, and needs a suitable climate and pollinating bees to produce well,” says Taylor Ricketts, study co-author and director of the University of Vermont's (UVM) <a href="http://www.uvm.edu/gund">Gund Institute for Environment</a>. “This is the first study to show how both will likely change under global warming – in ways that will hit coffee producers hard.”

The largest declines are projected to be in Nicaragua, Honduras, and Venezuela. “Coffee provides the main income for millions of the rural poor, so yield declines would affect the livelihoods of those already vulnerable people,” says Ricketts.

However, this study isn’t all doom and gloom. The researchers forecast that coffee suitability in Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, and Costa Rica will actually increase due to climate change. These changes are mainly going to happen in mountainous areas where temperatures are projected to support both coffee growing and an increase in bee populations.

“If there are bees in the coffee plots, they are very efficient and very good at pollinating, so productivity increases and also berry weight,” says lead author Pablo Imbach of the <a href="http://ciat.cgiar.org/">International Center for Tropical Agriculture</a>. “In the areas projected to lose coffee suitability, we wanted to know whether that loss could be offset by bees.”

This shows how important tropical forests are as key habitats for wild bees, as well as other pollinators. Roughly 91 percent of the most suitable areas for coffee in Latin America are currently within a mile of tropical forests. Interestingly, that number is projected to increase to 97 percent by 2050, which means conservation of these habitats will be imperative.

The models created to achieve this study now provide strategies to improve coffee growth and bee pollination for Latin American farmers. These strategies include increasing bee habitats near farms where bee diversity is expected to increase, as well as prioritizing farming practices that are less environmentally harmful and protecting the forests around their farms.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change could drastically reduce coffee growing capacity

If you live in an area that isn’t being slammed...

It is highly likely that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-climate-change/">climate change</a> will intensify weather events such as drought and heat, which will bring physical stress to crops and threaten severe crop loss. Researchers are working to understand and identify the physiological traits of crops in order to select adaptable, stress-tolerant genes that could help crops survive stressful environments.

Christopher Topp is a researcher with the <a href="https://www.danforthcenter.org/">Danforth Plant Science Center</a>. Topp will introduce his research on crop improvement at the "Physiological Traits for High Throughput Phenotyping of Abiotic Stress Tolerance" conference. The discussion will take place at the <a href="https://www.acsmeetings.org/">Managing Global Resources for a Secure Future</a> International Annual Meeting in Tampa, Florida.

Topp stresses the importance of a crop’s roots, in particular, for its survival. He will present various imaging tools used in studying roots, along with quantitative genetics and molecular biology.

"We aim to understand the relationships among root traits that can be effectively measured in both laboratory and field environments," said Topp. "Our hope is to identify genes and gene networks that control roots. The ultimate goal is improving whole plant architectural features useful for crop improvement."

Maria Salas-Fernandez of <a href="https://www.iastate.edu/">Iowa State University</a> will also speak at the conference. She will recommend phenotyping techniques that can help crops adapt to climate change through manipulation of their leaf angles and photosynthesis rates. 

"Yield is determined by a plant's capacity to capture light energy in the form of photosynthesis," said Salas-Fernandez. "It is now recognized that the necessary yield gains to meet global food demands will come from manipulating the photosynthetic capability of plant species."

The meeting will be held Monday, October 23, and is sponsored by the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and the Soil Science Society of America.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New methods introduced to help crops adapt to climate change

It is highly likely that climate change will intensify weather...

Researchers have hit on a discovery that could help clean up the world: a method for extracting plant sugars from trash like wood chips or corn cobs, then using it as a petroleum alternative.

Because it relies on waste material, the new technique could help solve two major environmental issues: the pollution caused by extracting and processing petroleum, and the trend of replacing food crops with crops intended for biofuels.

"To make greener chemicals and fuel, we're working with plant material, but we don't want to compete with its food value," said Dr. Basudeb Saha, associate director of the <a href="http://www.efrc.udel.edu/">Catalysis Center for Energy Innovation</a> at the <a href="http://www.udel.edu/">University of Delaware</a>. "So instead of taking corn and extracting its sugars to make ethanol, we're making use of the stalks and cobs left over after the corn is harvested, as well as other kinds of waste like wood chips and rice hulls."

For decades, researchers have been looking into ways to recycle waste products into usable fuels and other products. However, biorefineries have come up against obstacles such as a lack of steady supply. In the case of plentiful waste like wood chips or corn cobs, the difficulty has been in finding a process that breaks them down so the plant sugars they contain can be used.

"The lignin that makes their cell walls so tough and sturdy acts like superglue, holding tightly to the sugars," Saha said in a press release.

The current process requires two or more steps and relies on the use of harsh chemicals. But Saha, other University of Delaware researchers and scientists at <a href="http://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> have developed a much more environmentally friendly, single-step process for extracting plant sugars from waste materials.

Instead of pretreating wood chips to break down the lignin, then moving on the the hydrolysis of of the sugars within the cells, it comes both steps into one process. Using a concentrated, inorganic salt solution, the process also operates at a relatively low temperature – 185 Fahrenheit – and takes about one hour.

The University of Delaware team has filed for an international patent on their solution and process. They’ve even figured out how to recycle the salt solution.

"Our process enables – for the first time – the economical production of feed streams that could profoundly improve the economics of cellulosic bioproducts manufactured downstream, not to mention the environmental benefits of replacing petroleum," Saha says. "More than 10,000 million metric tons of carbon emissions were reported in 2010 from conventional fossil fuels and chemicals, which has a long-term catastrophic effect on our environment."

The team has published their research in the journal <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1864-564X">ChemSusChem</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Evan Krape, <a href="http://www.udel.edu/">University of Delaware</a>

Plant sugars could rival petroleum with new extraction method

Researchers have hit on a discovery that could help clean...

With the legalization of cannabis in Canada, the United States, and Uruguay, the future of international drug control treaties is now in doubt, as these changes are violate the treaties.

Professor Wayne Hall, who made world headlines after publishing a review of 20 years of cannabis research in 2014, published a paper in the scientific journal <a href="http://www.addictionjournal.org/">Addiction</a> that outline a cautious approach to policy reform. His suggestions revolve around trialing and evaluating the effects of incrementally more liberal drug policies is decriminalization is going to continue to expand.

The majority of member states of the United Nations endorse these international drug control treaties, which prohibit the non-medical use of cannabis, amphetamines, cocaine, and heroin. These treaties are designed to reduce illegal access to prohibited drugs while also facilitating access to these drugs for medical and research purposes.

However, critics have stated that these treaties have failed to effectively handle non-medical use of illegal drugs while also defending policies that conflict with UN human rights treaties through the incarceration of large numbers of drug users.

In his paper, Hall suggests policies that nations could adopt in order to address the harm that certain illegal drugs cause to users and others. This would include completely changing some treaties or allowing for “flexible interpretations” of treaty provisions by members of the UN.

Cannabis is the strongest candidate for national policy experiments on a variety of ways to regulate its sale and use. This is already occurring in the U.S., Uruguay, and Canada. Thorough evaluations of these experiments could be useful for other nations in how they may decide to legalize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-treats-migraines-better/">cannabis</a> in the future.

For drugs such as ecstasy, LSD, and other psychoactive substances, the most imperative regulatory challenge would be ensuring that the manufacture and sale of these substances meet the standards of consumer safety, and that consumers are informed about the risks of using these drugs.

Hall suggests a mitigated form of prohibition for opioids, which would expand treatment for opioid dependence, reduce some of its serious medical complications, and reduce imprisonment of opioid users.

Unfortunately for cocaine and amphetamines, Hall doesn’t have any quick fixes. Policies for stimulants need to be improved to reduce the demand and offer more effective treatments for stimulant users. Prohibition may minimize their use, but it’s not sufficient, and regulation through a modified prescription system is unlikely to curtail harmful use.

When it comes to drugs and drug regulation, much of the world is changing. It makes sense the policies, both nationally and internationally, must adapt to change with it. 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

As countries legalize cannabis, what is the international law?

With the legalization of cannabis in Canada, the United States,...

Bees hold pollen in the perfect place for plants.  Pollen is an important part of plant reproduction and acts a food source for the pollinator’s young. Bees are easily considered nature’s most important pollinator, and as such, their declining populations have caused serious concern. Now, new research has proven a long held hypothesis that even after grooming, pollen stays on the bee’s body in the perfect location for plants to receive it.

Plants rely on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-life-cycles-of-bees-and-plants/">bees</a> for reproduction, but the primary objective for the bee is to feed its young. The “safe sites” that bees can’t groom on their bodies are an effective way to ensure that some pollen will make its way to a plant’s reproductive system. 

To prove the hypothesis on these safe sites, researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/home/en/">Heinrich-Heine-University</a> in Germany, led by Petra Wester, conducted two experiments on Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris bees. The research was published in the open access-journal, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0182522">Plos One</a>.

First, the researchers put individual Bombus terrestris bees in covered glass jars that contained a mix of pollens. As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-know-little-bees/">bee</a> flew around the jar it would coat itself in pollen. 

The bee was then moved to a clean jar where it could groom itself, and the researchers recorded the amount of pollen that remained on the safe sites. 

For the second experiment the researchers put the two types of bees in indoor cages with flowers, where the anthers (the part of the flower that produces pollen) and the stigmas (the part of the flower where pollen germinates) were marked with fluorescent dye. 

The researchers could see which parts of the bees were in contact with the flower’s reproductive organs by noticing the transfer of dye on the bees. 

Both bee groups had similar safe sites, with most of the pollen left over on the waist, the dorsal parts of the thorax, and the abdomen.  The second experiment also showed that these safe sites were where the flowers made contact with the bees. 

“For the first time, we experimentally demonstrated the position, area and pollen amount of so-called safe sites at the body of honeybees and bumblebees,” said Wester. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Bees hold pollen in the perfect place for plants

Bees hold pollen in the perfect place for plants.  Pollen...

As the tundra gets warmer and plants adapted for its harsh, cold environment struggle to survive, grazing reindeer and other animals may actually help protect them.

So says a new study from <a href="http://www.umu.se/english">Umeå University</a> in Sweden, where researchers visited tundra meadows with grazing herds and small, plant-eating animals like voles and lemmings, then looked at meadows without these animals.

"We found that the warming increased the number of species in plots that were grazed, because it enabled small tundra plants to appear and grow there. But when we fenced reindeer, voles and lemmings out, vegetation became denser and the light was limited. As a result, many small and slowly-growing plant species were lost," said Dr. Elina Kaarlejärvi, the study leader.

The grazing reindeer and their other herbivorous cohorts ate tall, wide-leaved species that blocked sunlight from other plants growing in the meadows. The result was actually a healthier, more diverse range of plant life in the unfenced meadows. 

Earlier studies assumed that plant species would die out and diversity would wither in the tundra due to warming. However, the voles, lemmings and reindeer seem to counteract that, allowing small and slow-growing species to have an equal opportunity at survival.

"By eating tall and wide-leaved plants, reindeer can increase light availability and thus allow more plant species to co-exist and benefit from warmer conditions," Kaarlejärvi said in a press release.

The scientists conducted their research in Kilpisjärvi in northwest Finland. They monitored which plants appeared, flourished, waned or disappeared in both fenced and unfenced meadow plots. They added nutrients to some plots by way of fertilization.

They also constructed small greenhouses in some locations that increased summer temperatures by 1 to 2 degrees Celsius, to see how a further rise in temperatures might affect the tundra. 

The study will be published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit:  Dr. Elina Kaarlejärvi

Grazing reindeer play a vital role in keeping the tundra healthy

As the tundra gets warmer and plants adapted for its...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...