Every holiday season, Americans buy nearly 30 million live Christmas trees. Many households cherish the scent of pine that drifts through their halls. The fragrance, which is often described as crisp and woodsy, can set a cheerful tone. Yet there is much more to this refreshing aroma.



That <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-gives-pine-trees-fresh-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fresh smell</a> comes from substances known as volatile organic compounds, or VOCs. These are airborne chemicals that can be released by a wide range of items inside a home.



Fresh paint, cleaning solutions, and newly purchased furniture all have distinct VOC profiles that contribute to the atmosphere we breathe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-its-driving-force">Research and its driving force</h2>



"Our nose is a good chemical sensor," said Dustin Poppendieck, an environmental engineer at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 



"We know that these trees are emitting something, and the question then becomes: How big of a source is it? We wanted to explore which chemicals are emitted and how much, and to put that into the context of other sources of chemicals in a house."



In a recent study, he and his colleagues took a Douglas fir and enclosed it in a specialized chamber. The team wanted to gauge which compounds lingered and how they might shift in a controlled environment. They kept track of the emissions for 17 days to gather a clear picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocs-in-the-home">VOCs in the home</h2>



VOCs appear in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">household products </a>and activities. They come from cleaners, new carpeting, varnishes, personal care items, and similar sources. Some have a pleasant smell that appeals to people, while others cause throat irritation and watery eyes for those who are sensitive.



Many manufacturers now produce items with fewer VOCs, including paint labeled as low-emission. People are also more aware of how indoor air quality impacts overall well-being, so they weigh their choices when buying scented or chemical-based goods. Even simple habits, like regularly airing out rooms, can help manage exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-tree-in-a-chamber">Christmas tree in a chamber</h2>



In the experiment, the researchers placed a decorated tree inside a chamber designed to mimic typical indoor conditions. The lights switched on and off every 12 hours, outside air came in at a realistic pace, and the tree was watered each day.



A specialized instrument called proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry tracked airborne compounds in real time. This method offers a detailed look at changing levels of chemicals in the air. 



The researchers observed which specific compounds were released during the first few days and how quickly they dropped as time went on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-the-scent">A closer look at the scent</h2>



Monoterpenes emerged as the primary source of the tree’s signature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-gives-pine-trees-fresh-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aroma</a>. These molecules also show up in fragrant products such as certain air fresheners and scented candles. They spiked early in the study, before tapering off within the first 72 hours.



According to the measurements, the initial concentration of monoterpenes equaled levels found in a freshly built house or a newly opened plug-in air freshener. From there, the emissions dropped by nearly tenfold. 



The scientists noted that 52 different types of monoterpenes appeared, illustrating how varied these natural compounds can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-trees-and-ozone">Christmas trees and ozone</h2>



The team also introduced ozone to see if it would interact with the tree’s emissions. Ozone near ground level can form through chemical reactions triggered by light. Outdoors, it has been linked to coughing and throat irritation when levels become elevated.



In the chamber, ozone caused monoterpenes to transform into new byproducts. One of these compounds was formaldehyde, measured at about one part per billion in this setup. That number is much smaller compared to the 20 to 30 parts per billion typically found in U.S. houses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indoor-air-perspectives">Indoor air perspectives</h2>



For some individuals, the rush of VOCs from a freshly displayed tree can lead to mild respiratory responses. The watery eyes or runny nose often show up during the initial phase when emissions peak. Opening a window can help if these symptoms arise.



Outside of that, the changes in indoor air chemistry did not reach levels likely to raise alarms. The data indicated that although there was a clear spike in certain compounds, normal ventilation methods were effective at dispersing them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-steps-to-avoid-issues">Simple steps to avoid issues</h2>



People who prefer a newly cut tree might consider leaving it outside or in a garage for about three days before setting it up indoors. The intensity of monoterpene emissions falls naturally during that waiting period, which can lessen any initial surge.



Keeping doors or windows ajar, especially when first moving the tree into a living area, also allows any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-products-expose-people-to-dangerous-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lingering chemicals</a> to escape. These small adjustments may help families enjoy a traditional tree without worrying about minor discomforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-context-for-the-season">Context for the season</h2>



The investigators pursued this research to fill knowledge gaps about how natural decorations might affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioengineered-super-plant-acts-as-natural-indoor-air-purifier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">indoor air</a>. The study, published in the journal Indoor Environments, highlights the dynamic relationship between conifer emissions and everyday living spaces.



Beyond Douglas fir trees, many items in our homes give off VOCs that shape the air we breathe. Recognizing the major sources can guide practical ways to manage them, whether through better ventilation or careful selection of household products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-of-indoor-air-quality">Awareness of indoor air quality </h2>



For those concerned about VOCs, the biggest wave of tree-related emissions occurs early on. Poppendieck advises airing out the living area if irritation becomes noticeable. He also notes that storing the tree for a bit in a cooler spot often eases the transition.



"But for most people, this shouldn't be a major concern. I'm still going to have a Christmas tree in my house," said Poppendieck.



For some, the fresh scent of a real tree remains a part of the season. Awareness of indoor air quality tips can keep the experience enjoyable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2950362023000024?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indoor Environments</a>.



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Christmas trees and VOCs: The source of that fresh, clean holiday smell

Every holiday season, Americans buy nearly 30 million live Christmas trees. Many households cherish the scent of pine that drifts through their halls. The fragrance, which is often described as crisp and woodsy, can set a cheerful tone. Yet there is much more to this refreshing aroma. That fresh smell comes from substances known as volatile organic compounds, or VOCs. These are airborne chemicals that can be released by a wide range of items inside a home. Fresh paint, cleaning solutions, and newly purchased furniture all have...

Invasive pathogens can be catastrophic for plants, crops, and can even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-insects-could-cause-billions-in-damages-to-agriculture/">negatively impact a country’s economy.</a>

The chestnut blight in the United States in the early 1900s is just one example of how an invasive plant pathogen can cause untold damage. 

An Asian fungus infected chestnut trees in the eastern United States and all but wiped out Chestnut trees from American forests. It was said that before the blight, one in every three trees in the eastern US was a chestnut tree. 

Now, a new study shows that there is a direct correlation between an increase in trade between countries around the world and invasive plant pathogens, but also that thorough biosecurity measures can be successful in reducing the spread of unwanted fungi across a nation’s border.

“Because globalization and imports to and from other countries are just going to keep increasing, most data have shown with that come lots of new invasive species around the world,” said Benjamin Sikes, the lead author of the study. “The question is, can you slow that? This work shows that link can be slowed with implementation of targeted biosecurity measures.”

Sikes is a microbial ecologist from the<a href="https://www.ku.edu/"> University of Kansas</a> who conducted the study in collaboration with <a href="https://bioprotection.org.nz/">New Zealand's Bio-Protection Research Centre</a> and <a href="https://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/">Manaaki Whenua-Landcare Research</a>.

The extensive study was published in the journal PLOS Biology. 

New Zealand was chosen for the study because of that fact that so many of its crops are imported which raises the risk of invasive species. 

New Zealand also spends around .03 percent of its gross domestic product on biosecurity measures and the researchers were able to use a database of all known plant-pathogen associations in New Zealand to show that the country’s biosecurity is working. 

“We had this ability in New Zealand because of the records that were there and because it's a relatively young country,” said Sikes. “They're a world leader in biosecurity, and it's important for them to know if those measures are working and worth spending money on.”

Plant pathogens like invasive fungi are often brought in through agricultural imports like seeds but lumber and other raw materials also carry the potential for invasive species. 

That’s where biosecurity comes in. Proper screening at points of entry can stop pathogens from crossing borders and disrupting native ecosystems. 

“At ports of entry there are border-inspection people, like our USDA,” said Sikes. “If they're getting in a shipment of bananas to the U.S. from Costa Rica, there would be a person inspecting it, looking for visible symptoms and spot testing for the most prolific diseases from source countries.”

Because of the significant amount of damage that invading pathogens can cause, not just to agriculture but also to economic and conservational efforts, effective biosecurity is more important than ever. 

“For the first time, we can quantify how fast these things are coming into a country, and that's actually super hard to do,” said  Sikes. “Given the amount of investment the U.S. or, say, Germany is making in biosecurity, we now can say, 'You've found this number of things, and you looked this many times -- and based on what we know, this is about how many things you would find if you were able to find them all.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Biosecurity effectively prevents pathogens from crossing borders

Invasive pathogens can be catastrophic for plants, crops, and can...

DCIM100MEDIADJI_0122.JPG

A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.essex.ac.uk/">University of Essex</a> has revealed that the output of major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-happening-quickly-food-crops-adapt/">food crops</a> could be increased by nearly 50 percent simply by boosting the production of a specific protein that is involved in photorespiration.


The experts developed a model crop that was used to investigate the effects of overexpressing the H-protein, which occurs naturally in the leaves of plants. Over the course of two years, field experiments showed that increasing this particular protein improved the crop’s yield by 27 to 47 percent.

However, this process also stunted plant growth and metabolism, leaving some young plants only around half of their potential size.

“Plant scientists have traditionally used promoters that express proteins at high levels throughout the plant, and there are many examples where this has worked really well,” said study lead author Patricia Lopez-Calcagno. 

“But for the H-protein, we showed that more is not always better demonstrating that when we translate this method to other crop plants, we will need to tune the changes in protein to the right levels in the right tissues.”

The study is the first of its kind to enhance a crop’s H-protein levels in real-world growing conditions outside of a laboratory. The team used tobacco for the investigation because it grows quickly and is easy to genetically engineer, and any effective modifications in tobacco can be applied to food crops.

“The reality is that as growing season temperatures continue to increase, the yield hit caused by photorespiration will also increase,” said co-author Paul South. “If we can translate this discovery to food crops, we can equip farmers with resilient plants capable of producing more food despite increasing temperature stress.”

The team has plans to increase the H-protein levels of soybeans and cowpeas next. In addition, they will manipulate this protein in cassava, which is a staple food for more than one billion people.

The primary goal of the research is to increase crop yields for farmers worldwide, particularly smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia.

This analysis is part of the international research project <a href="http://ripe.illinois.edu/">Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency</a> (RIPE), which is supported by Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research, and U.K. Department for International Development.

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/loi/14677652">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Beau Barber

Stimulating photorespiration increases crop yields by 47 percent

A new study led by researchers at the University of...

A team of experts from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> have used natural dye extracted from blackcurrant waste to develop an effective new technology for coloring hair.

“We've made it possible to have great hair color, and to get it from nature in the most sustainable way possible,” said study co-author Professor Chris Rayner.

More people are coloring their hair all the time, and the industry brings in around ten billion dollars every year.

However, some of the ingredients found in the most commonly-used hair dyes are derived from petrochemicals, which are known to trigger severe allergic reactions and have even been suspected to cause cancer.

The ingredients used in permanent hair dyes, particularly those used to achieve darker colors, are the main concern. For example, some hair dye that is considered “natural” includes henna and its counterpart lawsone, which the EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety has deemed toxic.

Another concern about hair dye is that up to 95 percent of it is believed to be washed down the drain, and the potential environmental impacts from this are not yet known.

Dr. Richard Blackburn is a color chemist who heads the Sustainable Materials Research Group in the School of Design. He teamed up with Professor Rayner, who is an organic chemist, to identify natural substitutes for the chemicals in hair dye. 

“Because of issues and concerns around conventional dyes, we wanted to develop biodegradable alternatives that minimize potential risks to health and offer consumers a different option,” explained Dr. Blackburn.

The team combined expertise in extraction technology, hair science, coloration, and natural products chemistry to create a method of extracting anthocyanins from blackcurrant fruit waste.

“Anthocyanins are pigments that provide color to most berries, flowers, and many other fruits and vegetables,” said Dr. Blackburn. “They are non-toxic, water-soluble and responsible for pink, red, purple, violet, and blue and colors and are widely used as natural food colorants all over the world.”

“We knew they bound strongly with proteins - hair is a protein - so we thought if we could find an appropriate source of these natural colors, we might be able to dye hair.”

Around 90 percent of British blackcurrants are used in the production of Ribena. The berries are harvested in late summer and then pressed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floridas-citrus-trees-struggle/">juice</a>.


“After being pressed, the skins remain as a waste product. They have very high concentrations of anthocyanins, and represent a sustainable supply of raw material because of how much blackcurrant cordial we drink.”

“The extraction technology is based on sustainable concepts - the color is extracted using a water-based process and special filters collect the anthocyanins that we want. We believe that if we are extracting natural and food-grade products, we should not use any toxic or hazardous chemicals to get them.”


Professor Rayner also explained that, in an upcoming paper, his team details all of the extract’s natural compounds.


“We wanted to identify all of the natural compounds present to improve our technology and to ensure safety, which cannot be said of most 'natural' cosmetic brands, where there is little understanding of what is in ‘natural extracts.’ Natural does not necessarily equal safe.”

The researchers have now patented their technology, and the sustainable hair dyes will soon be available on the market.

The research is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/jafcau">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A new safe and sustainable hair dye developed from blackcurrants

A team of experts from the University of Leeds have...

Researchers conducting an extensive four-year field survey in the Pollino National Park in Italy came across the oldest living tree in Europe and found that it’s still growing. 

The tree, named Italus by researchers from the <a href="http://www.unitus.it/">University of Tuscia</a>, is 1,230 years old and has survived many different climate extremes.

In fact, it was discovered that the tree has thrived in recent decades, adding a series of large tree rings to its trunk even though trees in the Mediterranean region have been on the decline recently. 

Italus, which is a Heldreich’s pine, holds a lot of potential for understanding how some trees are able to withstand changes in climate and survive through droughts and encroaching human activity. 

The findings, published in the journal Ecology, could aid in accurately predicting how some forests will respond to climate change in the coming years. 

Dating the tree was not easy and required a combination of different methods that used tree ring and root data to determine Italus’ age. 

When trying to date the tree’s rings, the researchers discovered that the innermost part of the tree, the oldest part, had seemingly disintegrated.

[caption id="attachment_1214918" align="aligncenter" width="800"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/tree.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1214918" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/tree.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="600" /></a> Image Credit: Gianluca Piovesan[/caption]

“The inner part of the wood was like dust—we never saw anything like it,” Alfredo Di Filippo, a member of the research team, told <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/">National Geographic</a>. “There were at least 20 centimeters of wood missing, which represents a lot of years.”

The most common way to date a tree is through the rings it produces every year in its trunk, but since the oldest part of the tree was indistinguishable, the researchers turned to the tree’s roots.

Tree roots also form annual rings but these can contrast with the trunk’s rings and so the researchers used radiocarbon dating of Italus’ exposed roots to find out when it first germinated and age the tree from there. 

Italus germinated in 789 AD and its resilience through the years is no small feat. Neither climate extremes nor the dense human population in the region has stunted the tree’s growth and the researchers have several hypotheses for its most recent growth spurt. 

After centuries of producing smaller rings within its trunk, the researchers noted that in the past two decades, the tree has formed wider rings. 

This is likely because of better environmental conditions including cooler temperatures and possibly a decrease in pollution thanks to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-unsustainable-future-agriculture/">European</a> regulations and rewilding efforts

“It’s difficult, because there are few studies about the impact of warm periods on Mediterranean boreal ecosystems,” Gianluca Piovesan, the lead author of the study told National Geographic. 

The researchers say the tree could potentially go on living for many more centuries and the results shed insight on the durability of ancient trees even in the face of climate extremes. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Gianluca Piovesan

Oldest living tree in Europe is still going strong

Researchers conducting an extensive four-year field survey in the Pollino...

Tropical rainforests play a vital role in regulating climate and absorbing carbon, but climate change could greatly impact Amazon forests and reduce their CO2 storage abilities. 

Already, severe droughts in recent years have caused huge swaths of tropical rainforests to die off, decreasing carbon storage and impacting species that rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazonian-neighborhood-watch-mixed-flocks/">Amazonian</a> habitats. 

Understanding how tropical rainforests respond to drought is a key part in predicting the impact of future climate change, but unfortunately, little research has existed on the drought sensitivity of tropical forests. 

But now, researchers from <a href="http://eee.columbia.edu/">Columbia Engineering</a> have found that Amazon forests are not uniform in their response to climate change, and that tree height and age influences a rainforest’s susceptibility to drought.

The results were published in the journal Nature Geoscience. 

Tropical rainforests represent the Earth’s largest terrestrial CO2 sink, and if habitat reduction in the Amazon continues due to climate change and human activities, this will greatly affect the amount of carbon that can be stored. 

Pierre Gentine, an associate professor at Columbia Engineering, led the study and found that tree height impacts photosynthesis in tropical rainforests.

Remote sensing observations of solar-induced fluorescence, precipitation, canopy height, and data on approximate forest age and biomass were all used to measure tropical forest sensitivity in the study.

The results showed that forests above 30 meters are three times less sensitive to changes in precipitation. Taller forests are also less susceptible to drought because they have deeper root systems.

However, in the face of climate change, despite the resilience of taller trees, these forests may be the most impacted by climate change driven temperature increases and atmospheric dryness. 

“Our findings suggest that forest height and age are an important regulator of photosynthesis in response to droughts,” said Gentine. “Although older and taller trees show less sensitivity to precipitation variations (droughts), they are more susceptible to fluctuations in atmospheric heat and aridity, which is going to rise substantially with climate change.”

The study sheds insight on how tree age impacts susceptibility to climate change and could help with managing and protecting older forests from habitat reduction. 

“Our study makes it clear that forest height and age directly impact the carbon cycle in the Amazon,” said Gentine. “This is especially significant given the importance of the Amazon rainforest for the global carbon cycle and climate.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Taller, older Amazon rainforests are more durable through drought

Tropical rainforests play a vital role in regulating climate and...

An international research team led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/index.html">University of Tokyo</a> has found that rising levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-dioxide-record-broken/">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2) will lower the nutritional value of rice. 

When rice was grown under the atmospheric conditions that are expected in the second half of this century, iron, zinc, protein, and vitamins B1, B2, B5, and B9 were all reduced.

Study co-author Professor Kazuhiko Kobayashi is an expert on the impacts of air pollution on agriculture.

“Rice is not just a major source of calories, but also proteins and vitamins for many people in developing countries and for poorer communities within developed countries,” said Professor Kobayashi.

People in countries with the highest rice consumption and the lowest gross domestic product could face increasing rates of malnutrition as the nutritional value of rice  and other low-cost foods decline. 

However, not all types of rice responded to the experiential conditions in the same way, which means there is a chance that scientists could identify varieties of rice that maintain their nutritional value regardless of CO2 levels.

The rice was grown at research sites in China and Japan, where researchers built 55-foot-wide plastic pipes elevated about a foot above the tops of plants within standard rice fields. Wind speed and direction were measured by a network of sensors and monitors to control how much carbon dioxide was released out of the pipes, which is a technique known as Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment (FACE).

“I first started using this technique in 1998, because we knew that plants raised in a plastic or glass house do not grow the same as plants in normal, open field conditions,” explained Professor Kobayashi. 

“This technique allows us to test the effects of higher carbon dioxide concentrations on plants growing in the same conditions that farmers really will grow them some decades later in this century.”

There were some challenges to overcome, such as the interference of wild animals.


“At our first field site, we learned we have to keep all of the pipes and tubes above the ground because raccoons kept chewing through everything and jeopardized the experiment,” said Professor Kobayashi.


Researchers analyzed a total of 18 different varieties of rice to look for protein, iron, and zinc levels, while nine varieties of rice grown in China were used for testing levels of vitamins B1, B2, B5, and B9.

Six hundred million people in regions such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Madagascar get at least 50 percent of their daily protein directly from rice. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rice will lose nutritional value as carbon dioxide levels rise

An international research team led by the University of Tokyo...

A team of scientists has revealed that dinosaurs were not the only casualty of the catastrophic asteroid event 66 million years ago. The experts have discovered that the world's forests were also completely destroyed, which caused the extinction of tree-dwelling birds.

Study co-author Regan Dunn is a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago.

“Looking at the fossil record, at plants and birds, there are multiple lines of evidence suggesting that the forest canopies collapsed,” said Dunn.

Lead author Daniel Field explained that the team used a combination of techniques for the investigation. 

“We concluded that the temporary elimination of forests in the aftermath of the asteroid impact explains why arboreal birds failed to survive across this extinction event,” said Field. “The ancestors of modern arboreal birds did not move into the trees until forests had recovered from the extinction-causing asteroid.”

Study co-author Antoine Bercovici is a pollen expert at the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian Institution</a> and the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, Bercovici analyzed microscopic fossils of pollen and spores to determine that the planet's forests were destroyed. 

“After a disaster like a forest fire or a volcanic eruption, the first plants to come back are the fastest colonizers - especially ferns,” said Dunn. This is due to fact that ferns do not sprout from seeds, but from small spores that are made up of just a single cell. 

"Spores are minuscule, the size of a grain of pollen, so they're easily dispersed. They get picked up by the wind and go further than seeds can, and all they need to grow is a wet spot.”

"The spores are tiny - you could fit four across a single strand of your hair. To see them, we take a sample of rock from the time frame just after the collision and dissolve it in acid. Then we purify it so that all that remains is the organic debris, like pollen, spores and little leaf bits, then we look at them under a microscope.”


Immediately after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-asteroid-struck/">asteroid</a> collided with the Earth, the fossil record showed the charcoal remains of trees, and then, tons of fern spores. 

“Our study examined the fossil record from New Zealand, Japan, Europe and North America, which showed there was a mass deforestation across the globe at the end of the Cretaceous period,” said Bercovici.

The researchers found that the only birds that survived were ground-dwellers. Their fossilized remains contained strong legs like modern ground birds such as kiwis and emus. Tree-dwelling birds have delicate legs that are designed for perching on branches, and they had no place left to live.

“Today, birds are the most diverse and globally widespread group of terrestrial vertebrate animals--there are nearly 11,000 living species,” said Field. “Only a handful of ancestral bird lineages succeeded in surviving the mass extinction event 66 million years ago, and all of today's amazing living bird diversity can be traced to these ancient survivors.”

Dunn pointed out that fossil plants are critical in reconstructing the history of life on earth. 

“Plants are everything, plants are the context in which all terrestrial life evolves and survives. They're primary producers, they make energy available to all life forms by capturing it from the sun--we can't do that.”


Dunn also emphasized that the loss of life resulting from the mass extinction 66 million years ago is relevant today.


“The end-Cretaceous event is the fifth mass extinction - we're in the sixth,” said Dunn. "It's important for us to understand what happens when you destroy an ecosystem, like with deforestation and climate change--so we can know how our actions will affect what comes after us."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

image Credit: Regan Dunn, The Field Museum

Forests and tree-dwelling birds died when dinosaurs vanished

A team of scientists has revealed that dinosaurs were not...

A new long term study has demonstrated how a seemingly harmless single invasive species can cause declines in biodiversity and alter entire ecosystems.

Eastern hemlock, a tree species native to North America, has been facing serious declines due to the hemlock woolly adelgid. The non-native insect hails from East Asia and feeds off the sap of hemlock trees.

The <a href="https://www.michigan.gov/invasives/0,5664,7-324-68002_71241-367635--,00.html">waxy secretions</a> of the pest decrease the growth of Hemlock trees and put a large amount of stress on older trees that can then easily succumb to drought or climate change. 

A new study, conducted by researchers from <a href="http://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a>, reveals how invasive adelgids are killing off trees and impacting bird populations that were specialized to the hemlock habitats. 

The research was published in the journal The Condor: Ornithological Applications and is one of the most thorough long-term studies examining how tree decline of a single species affects birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climate-threatens-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a>. 

For the study, the researchers used surveys of Eastern hemlock forests conducted in 2000 before adelgids had caused any decline. Data from the surveys were then compared to new data from the same forests taken in 2015 and 2016. 

Native bird species were also considered and the researchers analyzed data showing how different bird populations were affected by the invasive pests. 

The researchers discovered that as the Eastern hemlocks declined, specific bird species that are particular to the area also declined and were replaced by other bird species normally found in more general hardwood forests. 

“Invasive species, climate change, and land-use change are all similar in that they make our world a less diverse place, and this study helps greatly in understanding how the loss of the eastern hemlock plays its own role in the degradation of biodiversity,” said Morgan Tingley, a professor from the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut </a>who was not associated with the research. 

The study shows how damaging even just one invasive pest can be and how important conservation efforts are to manage and reduce invasive pests from non-native areas. 

“To sum up, to people who are saddened by the loss of hemlocks and the birds that rely on them, I would say one thing: We cannot turn back the clock--we cannot un-introduce the hemlock woolly adelgid; but we absolutely possess the power to prevent this story from repeating itself,” said Matthew Toenies, the study’s lead author. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Image Credit: D Williams

One invasive pest species can alter an entire ecosystem

A new long term study has demonstrated how a seemingly...

A new study published in the journal Psychopharmacology has found that psilocybin, the main substance in magic mushrooms, may potentially help patients with severe depression process emotions.

Previous research has found that magic mushrooms show promise as a treatment for depression, with one <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/health-41608984">BBC report</a> saying that psilocybin acts like a “lubricant for the mind” and resets the brain. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-depression-brain/">Magic mushrooms</a> seem to be especially helpful for patients who have not had any success with other traditional medications for anxiety and depression. 

The drug helps with changing mood and perceptions, and this recent study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College</a> and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> found that psilocybin was effective for helping depressed patients process and understand others emotions. 

Often times, patients with depression are not able to interpret social cues and read expressions as negative. 

For the study, researchers administered a psilocybin treatment and psychological support to 17 patients with treatment-resistant depression. 16 control patients were also given a placebo treatment as part of the study. 

The participants were shown a series of photographs of 12 male and female actors that had been doctored so each face portrayed an emotion such as happiness, sadness, or anger. 

After receiving the psilocybin treatment, the patients were able to read the faces and categorize the emotions. The control patients, however, had no improvement and were not able to read the faces any better. 

“Prior to treatment with psilocybin, depressed patients in this trial were shown to have a global deficit in processing emotional faces as compared with healthy controls, as reflected in longer reaction times to identify all emotion types,” the researchers said. “We observed a reaction time improvement post-treatment for all emotion types in depressed patients.”

Magic mushroom treatments are still a long way off, even though some researchers claim they are the safest recreational drug to take. 

The study itself was also relatively small and more in-depth research will be needed to better understand how psilocybin affects depression. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Magic mushrooms help people with depression process emotions

A new study published in the journal Psychopharmacology has found...

A handful of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotics-soil-killing-superbugs/">soil</a> contains millions of bacteria and fungi, which are competing for space and food. Most are essential in creating healthy soil, but a few of these organisms cause devastating crop diseases. A new study has revealed how some harmful microbes use chemical warfare in response to threats from pesticides as well as from neighboring organisms.

Nancy Keller is a professor of Medical Microbiology and Immunology at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> who has studied the interactions among soil pathogens for years, investigating the chemical signals that are sent back and forth among them. 

Keller’s team has managed to interpret a signal from the fungal pathogen Fusarium fujikuroi, which responds to an attack by the bacterial wilt species Ralstonia solanacearum by generating a host of antibacterial compounds to defend itself.

“Ralstonia is a lethal wilt pathogen worldwide and attacks over 200 plants,” said Keller. Fusarium species are also a major cause of fungal wilt diseases in crops.

In a previous study, Keller’s students noticed competition between Ralstonia and Fusarium. A closer inspection revealed that Ralstonia caused the nearby fungi to produce chlamydospores, which help the fungus survive stress. The distinctive structures turned a unique shade of rusty red.

In the current study, the team identified the red compound as bikaverin, a chemical that helps prevent infection from bacteria.

The researchers demonstrated that Ralstonia secretes a compound that causes Fusarium to produce chlamydospores. Next, Fusarium produces antimicrobial agents, including the red bikaverin, to protect the chlamydospores from invasion. 

The scientists discovered that inhibiting the ability of Fusarium to produce bikaverin allowed Ralstonia to successfully invade the spores. 

An unrelated fungal species that is also a damaging plant pathogen, known as Botrytis, genetically acquired the ability to produce bikaverin from Fusarium. Botrytis has the same response to an attack by Ralstonia and produces chlamydospores.

The researchers were surprised to find that Ralstonia could induce bikaverin in both of the fungal species regardless of the environment. Fusarium and Botrytis normally produce the red pigment under very different conditions, primarily based on what nutrients are available. 


Keller said that these call-and-response offensive and defensive maneuvers are certainly just a small part of the chemical signals passed between microbes hidden from view.

“How these microbes interact and talk with each other is still in its infancy,” said Keller. “We really don't know how they talk to each other. And that's where we want to go in our lab.”

A greater understanding of the messages among the microbial communities in soil could help scientists find ways to respond to persistent threats to crops.

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://mbio.asm.org/">mBio</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Soil microbes communicate and battle with chemical attacks

A handful of soil contains millions of bacteria and fungi,...

A study of several plant fossils has uncovered new revelations about the evolutionary history of sweet potatoes, finding that they are not native to the Americas after all.

It had been previously thought that sweet potatoes were native to Central and South America, but although some scientists had argued that the sweet potato plant family actually originated in the Old World and not the Western Hemisphere. 

Now, new research conducted by David Dilcher, a paleobotanist from the<a href="https://www.indiana.edu/"> Indiana University Bloomington</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sweet-potatoes-emerged-before-humans/">sweet potatoes</a> actually came from Asia. 

The study was led by Dilcher along with a team of colleagues from India and the results were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Dilcher and his team studied 57-million-year-old fossils from eastern India that were part of the plant family Convolvulaceae, which includes both morning glory flowers and sweet potatoes. 

Although previous fossil evidence pointed to the morning glory family originating in North America, Dilcher discovered that the plant family actually originated much earlier in the late Paleocene epoch in the East Gondwana landmass that would later become part of Asia. 

The researchers analyzed 17 fossils from the morning glory family that were discovered in northeastern India. The fossils included both morning glories and nightshade and are the earliest recorded fossils of the morning glory family ever found. 

Dilcher and the research team used microscopic analysis of the shape and structure of the leaves to compare the fossil’s leaf veins and cells with other known plants in the same genus.

“We don't know that these were sweet potatoes,” said Dilcher. “We can't say there were delicious sweet potatoes there. There may have been, or there may not.”

This method of analyzing plant fossils to better understand evolutionary relationships is a specialty of Dilcher's. 

The fossils were in the Ipomoea genus which contains both sweet potatoes and morning glories, potentially showing that sweet potatoes originated in Asia much earlier than previously realized. 

“I think this will change people's ideas,” said Dilcher. “It will be a data point that is picked up and used in other work where researchers are trying to find the time of the evolution of major groups of flowering plants.”

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Sweet potatoes are native to Asia, not the Americas, study finds

A study of several plant fossils has uncovered new revelations...

Plants can fight back against pathogens that cause disease like a fungus that takes over a fruit or vegetable with gray mold disease.

The way that plants ward off unwanted pathogens is a subject of much interest to researchers as it could help ensure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printing-food-industry/">food security</a>. 

Both plants and the pathogens that infect them use molecules called small RNAs which are important for invasion and defense. 

This process of using RNAs as a defense mechanism is called cross-kingdom RNA interference. Small RNAs can interfere with gene expression and this can work in the favor of the plant when the pathogen takes in small RNAs that inhibit its ability to infect. 

A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> shows how these RNAs are packaged and delivered from the plant to the pathogen, something that previously had been a mystery. 

The results were published in the journal Science. 

Hailing Jin, a professor of microbiology and plant pathology at the University of California, Riverside led the study. 

The researchers focused on the fungus Botrytis cinerea in order to determine how small RNAs moved across the cellular boundaries between host and pathogen. 

After studying infected plants, the researchers found that after being infected with Botrytis cinerea, plant cells package small RNAs inside sacs called exosomes which are delivered from the cells to the site of infection. 

The fungus takes in the exosomes and the RNAs stops the disease by inhibiting the expression of certain fungal genes. The researchers call these exosomes “battling bubbles” because of their round shape and effective use as a defense mechanism. 

Jin has been working with RNAs,  plant immunity, and disease in an effort to develop effective and eco-friendly ways to control plant diseases that will aid in ensuring food production security. 

“The discovery of the role of exosomes in cross-kingdom RNA interference will help us develop effective delivery methods to target plant pathogens with artificial sRNAs, with the goal of controlling plant diseases in crops,”  said Jin.

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Rasbak (CC BY 3.0)

The secret weapon plants use to battle deadly fungus

Plants can fight back against pathogens that cause disease like...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...