Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a symbol of happiness in countless cultures. For years, farmers and scientists have collaborated to refine this treasured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-could-save-the-future-of-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>, but new evidence shows there is more to its story than meets the eye.



Experts have been analyzing genetic details that trace the cacao tree’s past to a surprising point in time. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Tineo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Tineo</a>, from the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, led a study that used chloroplast genome data to examine when and how Theobroma cacao diversified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chocolate-s-place-in-nature">Chocolate’s place in nature</h2>



Cacao belongs to the Malvaceae family, which also includes hibiscus and cotton. This group of plants has a history going back millions of years, and reflecting a long process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-and-cocoa-prices-have-doubled-in-the-past-year-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> and survival.



“It can be inferred that T. cacao diverged at approximately 7.55 Ma, and it is highly likely that T. cacao populations diversified during the Pliocene or Miocene,” explained Tineo. 



Two main factors appear to have played a role in shaping the trees we see today. First, their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplast genomes</a> carry signs of gradual change, which is common in species that extend across tropical regions. Second, environmental pressures likely promoted different genetic traits in various localities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-insights-to-save-chocolate">Genetic insights to save chocolate </h2>



The chloroplast genome, often called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cpDNA</a>, is inherited in a predictable way in most plants. This trait gives scientists a clear view of family relationships, even within the same species.



One gene, named <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep08348" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ycf1</a>, turned out to be important because it showed more differences among cacao plants than other commonly studied genetic regions. By examining these differences, researchers hope to spot unique traits that may improve the flavor, resilience, or productivity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cacao varieties</a>.



This approach might help breeders develop trees that survive better in changing climates. It may also allow them to detect disease-resistant lines, thus cutting down on the need for chemical treatments and on farm losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-past-matters">Why the past matters </h2>



Farmers today face pests, diseases, and market uncertainty. Learning about cacao’s ancient lineage is not just for academic interest; it can also guide solutions that reduce farming risks.



The deeper a plant’s genetic roots, the more variation it hides in its DNA. This variation supplies fresh building blocks for traits like drought tolerance, flavor, and disease resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-benefits-for-farmers">Practical benefits for farmers</h2>



Thousands of smallholders grow cacao as a main or side income. When farmers tap into genetically diverse planting materials, their crops can adapt more effectively to different environments.



A broader gene pool also lowers the chance that a single disease outbreak will devastate cacao plants in an entire region. Strengthening genetic tools for farmers promotes stable harvests and consistently better beans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-breeding-methods">Modern breeding methods</h2>



Classic breeding methods rely on observing which trees yield the best crops. Now, molecular tools add a scientific boost by marking the genes that truly matter.



When breeders target specific genes - like ycf1 - they can make more precise matches between strong, disease-tolerant varieties and those with desired flavors. This level of detail speeds up the long process of developing improved trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-tradition-with-discovery">Balancing tradition with discovery</h2>



Farmers in Latin America, Africa, and Asia have nurtured cacao for generations. Their local expertise is valuable when it comes to spotting subtle differences among trees.



Collaboration between traditional growers and research institutions bridges technology and cultural wisdom. This approach promotes new partnerships that benefit everyone, from growers to chocolate enthusiasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-future-of-chocolate">Protecting the future of chocolate </h2>



Scientists still do not fully understand how <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05288-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear or mitochondrial data</a> compare with chloroplast results. More work is needed to fill the gaps left by incomplete samples from various parts of the tropics.



Some lines may carry rare genetic elements waiting to be explored. Locating these hidden genes could reveal new ways to manage diseases and keep farms flourishing.



Cacao stands at a crossroads of heritage, commerce, and science. Studies suggest that this plant’s DNA is more varied and ancient than was once believed, hinting that there may be more secrets in its cells.



Ongoing research may answer questions about how different cacao types emerged and how they can be preserved. The bigger picture promises a future where growers and chocolate lovers share the rewards of knowledge-driven innovation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Can chocolate survive? DNA research may help save cacao trees

Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a symbol of happiness in countless cultures. For years, farmers and scientists have collaborated to refine this treasured plant, but new evidence shows there is more to its story than meets the eye. Experts have been analyzing genetic details that trace the cacao tree’s past to a surprising point in time. Daniel Tineo, from the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, led a study that used chloroplast genome data to examine when and how Theobroma cacao diversified. Chocolate’s...

Experts at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> have identified a remarkable way that tropical forests manage to maintain their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/reviving-deforested-areas-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a> without certain species taking over or others dying out. The scientists have found that their are natural “enemies” in the form of fungi and arthropods that kill seedlings in the soil surrounding the host tree, which prevents a tree species from becoming dominant. 

Seed dispersal also plays a critical role in promoting biodiversity across tropical forests. Seeds have a chance to become established when mammals or birds carry them to a new region where the fungi and arthropods in the soil target other tree species.

According to the researchers, the restriction of tree recruitment near the adult trees creates a long-term stabilizing effect that favors rare species and hinders common ones.

“In many North American forests, trees compete for space and some have a niche that allows them to outcompete others,” said study lead author Taal Levi. “Douglas-firs are the species that grow best after a fire. Hemlock thrives in the shade and grows well under a canopy. Some species do well at elevation.”

“But in the tropics, all of the tree species appear to have a similar competitive advantage. There is an abundance of species, but few individuals of each species. The chances of blinking out should be high. But there has to be a mechanism that keeps one species from becoming common, becoming dominant. And it is these natural enemies that have a high host-specificity.”

Egbert Leigh of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute pointed out that a half square-kilometer of forest in Borneo or in the Amazon contains as many tree species as 4.2 million kilometers of temperate zone forest in Europe, North America, and Asia combined. 

Levi said some tropical forests have as many as 1,000 different tree species living in the same general area. The study authors, which are also from the University of Florida and James Cook University in Australia, found that this close relationship between trees and their natural enemies is the key driver of this diversity.

“There is a 'seed shadow' around adult trees and some escape the curve and get out, allowing recruitment in other areas until the host-specific enemies get established in the new location,” said Levi. “That's why it is critically important to maintain the biodiversity of birds and mammals in these forests, or recruitment eventually will decline - especially in over-hunted areas.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Oregon State University

Soil composition plays a major role in tropical forest biodiversity

Experts at Oregon State University have identified a remarkable way...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> has revealed that plants not only sense changes in their environment, but they also have a memory of them. The scientists have identified a mechanism that gives plants the ability to coordinate their development in response to stress or extended seasons.

The research could ultimately lead to the development of new plant varieties, including cereals and vegetables, that can adapt to different environmental conditions. 

Many plants have a memory of prolonged winter weather, which helps to guarantee that they bloom when <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/earlier-springtime-hinders-plant-growth/">spring</a> arrives with warmer temperatures. It was previously established that a group of proteins called the PRC2 work together to tell the plant when it is time for flowering. However, the mechanism underlying the PRC2 switch has not been fully understood. 

The current study, which also included experts from the Universities of Oxford, Nottingham, and Utrecht, provides new insight into how PRC2 senses the environment.

The team discovered that a key protein of the PRC2 complex called VRN2 is extremely unstable. When oxygen is plentiful and temperatures are warm, VRN2 continually breaks down. However, when environmental conditions are challenging - such as when a plant is flooded and oxygen is low - VRN2 becomes stable and promotes survival. 

The researchers also found that the VRN2 protein accumulates in the cold, allowing the PRC2 complex to trigger flowering once temperatures rise. There was a surprising similarity between plant responses to cold and the low oxygen that they experience during flooding.

“Plants have a remarkable ability to sense and remember changes in their environment, which allows them to control their life cycle,” said study lead author Dr.  Daniel Gibbs. “VRN2 is continually being broken down when it is not needed, but accumulates under the right environmental conditions. In this way, VRN2 directly senses and responds to signals from the environment, and the PRC2 remains inactive until required.”

“It is possible that this mechanism could be targeted to help create plants that are better adapted to different environmental scenarios, which will be important in the face of climate change.”

Professor Michael Holdsworth, who co-led the study, added, “It will now be important to investigate how cold leads to increased VRN2 stability and why this response is similar to plant responses to flooding.”


“This system appears to have evolved specifically in flowering plants. Perhaps it gives them more flexibility in their ability to adapt and respond to environmental change, which is important since they are fixed in the ground and can't move."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flowering plants have a memory of changes in their environment

A new study led by the University of Birmingham has...

A new study highlights the role of Jewish culture in the widespread adoption of citrus fruit by early societies. This finding was discovered when researchers used genetic analysis to trace the acidless mutations in citron, which was the first citrus species to be cultivated in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-forests-destroyed/">Mediterranean</a>.

Dr. Eugenio Butelli of the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Centre</a> is the study's first author.

“Some people thought that this was a recent mutation that originated in Corsica, or somewhere in the Mediterranean, but we have found that this is not new,” said Dr. Butelli. “It's an ancient mutation that is present in Chinese fingered citrons known as Buddha's Hands and those used in the Sukkot Jewish ritual.”

For centuries, the acidless mutations that appear in many citrus varieties have captivated botanists and breeders. Citrus fruit that has no acid has also lost the ability to produce the anthocyanin pigments that add dark red to the leaves, flowers, and flesh of some fruit.

The researchers identified a specific gene that is critical in the regulation of acidity. The experts found that this gene, which they named Noemi, collaborates with another gene named Ruby to control anthocyanin production.

The study identified specific mutations affecting the Noemi gene in several acidless citrus species and hybrids. These acidless fruits are highly prized citrons used in the Jewish harvest festival of Sukkot.

One of these mutations matched those found in citron varieties that were first cultivated in China 3,300 years ago - a mutation that originated before the arrival of citron into the Mediterranean.

“Citron was first cultivated for its medicinal properties in China and its rind was used as a medicinal product, not as a food,” explained study co-author Professor Cathie Martin.

“By the time it reached the Mediterranean in Roman times, citron was a luxury item used for its fragrance to keep linen fresh. The presence of white flowers in the acidless mutation seems important because they are a symbol of purity and we speculate that there was a strong selection for the loss of anthocyanins, which normally add colour to leaves and flowers.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Mathulack Photography

Jewish culture played a big role in the spread of citrus fruit

A new study highlights the role of Jewish culture in...

Every year, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-housing-demand/">global fires</a> release two billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere, along with other pollutants including ozone (O3) and aerosols such as fine particulate matter (PM2.5). A new investigation into the ecological consequences of fire air pollution has revealed that fires also have an impact on the photosynthesis of unburned forests, altering the land carbon budget. 

Rising levels of ozone and aerosols have the opposite influence on plant health. While ozone is phytotoxic and reduces plant photosynthesis, aerosols can promote photosynthesis by enhancing diffuse radiation. The research team set out to estimate the net impacts of these pollutants on gross primary productivity (GPP), which represents the total photosynthesis of forests.

The experts combined three state-of-the-art models and a full set of observations from ground sites, satellites, and literature. The study revealed that the net impact of fire air pollution is dominated by ozone, leaving an overall reduction of 0.6 percent in annual production.

On a regional scale, fire air pollution causes even more damage to forest productivity. For example, the 2006 large fire in Indonesia reduced the local GPP by 3.6 percent. 

In regions where there is already a high level of ozone from human activities, such as in eastern China or the United States, it only takes a small fire to have a substantial effect. Across these areas, just a minor increase in ozone can cause a notable decline in GPP.

“Such negative impacts may exacerbate in the future as fire activities are expected to escalate in a warming climate,” said study first author Xu Yue, who is a professor at the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>. 

The research introduces a missing pathway of fire impacts on the global carbon cycle. The decline in ecosystem productivity not only occurs in the vicinity of the fire, but also in regions located downwind of the fire. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ozone pollution from fires negatively impacts forest productivity

Every year, global fires release two billion tons of carbon...

According to a new report put forth by the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, archaeologists have discovered plant fossils in present-day Jordan in the Middle East that date back to before the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/permian-mass-extinction/">Permian Extinction</a> — about 250 million years ago. 

The new fossils push back the age of previously discovered and studied seed lineages and suggest that these lineages actually survived the mass extinction. 

Furthermore, researchers are now calling this Permian-age tropical habitat a “hidden cradle” of plant evolution — a cradle that housed ancestors of many of our modern plants, such as Podocarpaceae, the second-largest family of modern conifers.

Patrick Blomenkemper, from the <a href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/en/">University of Münster</a>, and his colleagues state in their report that the plant fossils found within this hidden cradle are all early ancestors of seed lineages that would become the dominant plant species in the Mesozoic period. 

Their findings prove that ancient equatorial ecosystems were, in fact, “evolutionary cradles” with lush biodiversity, thus leading to the evolution of modern biodiverse tropical regions. The existence of evolutionary cradles was simply a hypothesis, but now with the presence of these new Permian-era fossils, experts can now confirm that drought-prone tropical habitats were evolutionary cradles for plant life.

And, armed with the knowledge that these seed lineages survived the Permian Extinction, researchers believe that these species are much more resilient than previously thought.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

“Hidden cradle” of early plant evolution found in present-day Jordan

According to a new report put forth by the American...

As global warming continues to lengthen growing seasons, there are two possible scenarios for coniferous forests. First, additional tree cover could develop as a result of extended mild temperatures and help remove <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-co2-emissions/">carbon dioxide emissions</a> from the atmosphere at a faster rate. On the other hand, the rate of growth could decrease as a result of less moisture or heat stress, and carbon absorption would decline. 

A large number of studies on the issue has produced contradictory results, and a team of experts at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> set out to investigate. Study lead author David Barnard is a researcher with the U.S. Geological Survey.

“Nobody can say for certain what a growing season 'is,' due to all the variation in how forest behave and how the start and end of the growing season is characterized,” said Barnard. “Even in winter, forests in warmer areas can still be growing. There's less of a distinct on/off switch.”

The research team examined data from eleven western sites in the AmeriFlux and Long-Term Ecological Research networks, a set of monitoring stations supported by the Department of Energy and National Science Foundation.

By applying different methods for characterizing growing season length to past studies, the researchers found that many previous datasets could be made to produce results that predicted both forest growth and forest decline. 

“This work shows how the result of any given study may be subject to methodological bias, especially in colder, more northerly ecosystems where climate is changing the fastest,” said Barnard. 

He added that it could still be years before there is a conclusive answer for whether a longer growing season is good, bad, or somewhere in-between for forests.

“Every forest behaves differently,” said Barnard. “There is still a good bit of uncertainty about what increasing growing seasons will do for forest growth, but we do know that they are crucial to understanding the global carbon cycle.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Longer growing seasons spell uncertainty for coniferous forests

As global warming continues to lengthen growing seasons, there are...

Stewart Strand and Lab assistant Long do work to genetically modify house plants to remove airborne pollutants from the air space

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> have genetically modified a common houseplant to remove chloroform and benzene from the surrounding air. The plants have been engineered to express a protein that is capable of transforming these hazardous compounds into molecules that the plants can use to support their own growth.

Chloroform and benzene are potentially harmful substances that are commonly found in homes, and these molecules are too small to trap with air filters. 

“People haven't really been talking about these hazardous organic compounds in homes, and I think that's because we couldn't do anything about them,” said senior author Professor Stuart Strand. “Now we've engineered houseplants to remove these pollutants for us.”

The team wanted to test a protein called cytochrome P450 2E1, which is present in the human liver and in all other mammals.  Inside of our bodies, 2E1 converts benzene into a chemical called phenol and turns chloroform into carbon dioxide and chloride ions.

“We decided we should have this reaction occur outside of the body in a plant, an example of the ‘green liver’ concept,” said Professor Strand. “And 2E1 can be beneficial for the plant, too. Plants use carbon dioxide and chloride ions to make their food, and they use phenol to help make components of their cell walls.”

The researchers developed a synthetic version of the gene that regulates the form of 2E1 found in rabbits. They distributed it throughout the common houseplant pothos ivy so that each cell in the plant expressed the protein.

“This whole process took more than two years,” said study lead author Long Zhang, who is a research scientist in the UW Civil and Environmental Engineering Department. “That is a long time, compared to other lab plants, which might only take a few months. But we wanted to do this in pothos because it's a robust houseplant that grows well under all sort of conditions.”

To test the detoxifying capacity of their modified plants, the team put the plants alongside regular pothos ivy in test tubes and then added either benzene or chloroform gas to each tube. The researchers then monitored the concentration of the pollutants in the tubes for 11 days.

Among the regular plants, the concentrations of benzene and chloroform did not change over time. For the modified plants, however, the concentration of chloroform dropped by 82 percent after three days, and it was almost undetectable after six days. By day eight, the benzene concentration had dropped by around 75 percent.

According to Professor Strand, the purifying plants will work best in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/toxic-chemical-lurking-homes/">home</a> if they are paired with something to move the air around like a fan. 

“If you had a plant growing in the corner of a room, it will have some effect in that room,” he said. “But without air flow, it will take a long time for a molecule on the other end of the house to reach the plant.”

The team is now enhancing the plants' capabilities by adding a protein that can break down formaldehyde, which is another hazardous molecule found in the home.

“These are all stable compounds, so it's really hard to get rid of them,” said Professor Strand. “Without proteins to break down these molecules, we'd have to use high-energy processes to do it. It's so much simpler and more sustainable to put these proteins all together in a houseplant.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science and Technology</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Mark Stone/University of Washington

Scientists have created a plant that can detoxify your home’s air

Researchers at the University of Washington have genetically modified a...

A new study following the aftermath of Hurricane Maria reveals how forests adjust to recover from such powerful storms.

Hurricane Maria was one of the most damaging and deadliest hurricanes on record and was the worst natural disaster to affect a U.S. territory. The storm’s <a href="https://www.weather.gov/sju/maria2017">75 mph winds</a> pummeled Puerto Rico’s forests and stripped many trees bare which hindered photosynthesis. 

Researchers from <a href="http://www.clemson.edu/">Clemson University</a> saw a unique opportunity to study how <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/hurricane-maria-transformed-the-forests-of-puerto-rico/">Puerto Rico’s tropical dry forests</a> adapt and recover following a hurricane. 

The researchers observed 13 dry forest species one month, eight months, and twelve months after the hurricane and compared the structure and composition of the leaves to leaves collected before the storm hit.

Following up for so many months after the hurricane helped the researchers determine if the changes leaf growth were temporary in response to the storm or sustained for months after. 

“Our study took us to the Guánica State Forest in southwest Puerto Rico, which comprises one of the best parcels of native dry forest in the Caribbean,” said Tristan Allerton, a member of the research team. “Rainfall here is extremely erratic, with huge variability within and between years. As a result, organisms are uniquely adapted to cope with unpredictable water availability.” 

The researchers monitored the shape and structure of new leaves after the hurricane and also attached sensors to the leaves to record CO2 storage. 

After Hurricane Maria, the researchers recorded an increase in CO2 uptake in eleven out of the thirteen species of trees examined.

Changes in leaf growth also showed that the trees after the hurricane were able to still capture enough light without expending any unnecessary energy on leaf growth. 

“A key finding was that the leaves of some of the species contained less chlorophyll than prior to the hurricane,” said Skip Van Bloem, who helped oversee the Allerton’s research. “Even though new leaves were better suited structurally to capture valuable resources, lower leaf quality could reduce leaf lifespan and the trees’ ability to produce energy.”

The results indicate that Carribean tropical dry forests can recover and adapt after a hurricane, but the question is if this trend can continue under the projected impacts of climate change and an increase in severe hurricanes. 

The composition of tropical dry forests will likely change under the added stresses of climate change as not all species will be able to recover or adapt as well as others, according to the study. 

“This would be a huge shame as Caribbean dry forests are known to have a higher proportion of endemic species than mainland dry forests. Many trees found there are also incredibly ancient, making these forests a living museum of biodiversity,” said Allerton.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hurricane Maria research reveals how trees recover from storm damage

A new study following the aftermath of Hurricane Maria reveals...

In a broad sense, taxonomy is the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy">science of classification of living things</a> including organisms that have long since gone extinct. Our need to classify species and bring order to the living world has been a driving desire for thousands of years, but the roots of classification and taxonomy begin with Aristotle.

Some of Aristotle's writing contains the first examples of classification and separating animals based on their physical traits. Aristotle’s ideas about the classification of living things heavily influenced future scientists and documentarians of nature, but it is with Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, where we see the makings of modern taxonomy. 

In fact, Linnaeus is considered the<a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carolus-Linnaeus"> father of modern taxonomy</a> and it was his hierarchical classification system that became the basis for the taxonomic system used today. Linnaeus is perhaps most famous for creating binomial nomenclature which uses both species and genus to name an organism. 

For example, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-climate-change-2/">polar bears</a> are known by the scientific name Ursus maritimus, Ursus meaning bear and maritimus referring to the bears’ preferred Arctic marine habitats. 

Over his lifetime, Linnaeus would go on to name over <a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html">4,000 animals species and 7,700 plant species using binomial nomenclature</a> and publishing his findings in a series of pamphlets called “Systema Naturae” (The System of Nature). 

Later, Charles Darwin’s work on evolution was heavily influenced by taxonomy, which gave scientists a new perspective with which to look at the animal kingdom. 

Darwin himself grew up believing in creationism or the idea that all life on Earth was created by a higher power, but taxonomy was always a major part of his life. 

It could be argued that taxonomy may have had a leading role in Darwin's transition from creationist to believing in the branches of evolution. 

In a paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27756822?read-now=1&amp;seq=3#page_scan_tab_contents">Taxon</a>, Mary Winsor discusses how taxonomy influenced Darwin’s work on evolution. What started as a boyhood hobby, taxonomy and the classification of living things would go on to provide the foundation for Darwin’s studies and his expeditions to the Galapagos, according to Winsor.  

As much as we know about the animal kingdom and the living world, it’s only a sliver of the complexities, inner workings, and history of life on Earth. But how does taxonomy work and who decides what’s what?

Thankfully, years of trial and error and continual advancements and discoveries have created a fundamental framework for classifying animals with the goal of not only labeling and neatly organizing animals, but also finding common ancestors to trace back to. 

The modern taxonomic classification system has <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/levels-of-taxonomy-1224606">eight main levels</a>. Domain is at the top with the least number of groups. The three domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. We, as homo-sapiens, belong to the domain Eukarya and any organism that has cells with a nucleus belongs to that same domain. 

Next under Domain is Kingdom, and there are six Kingdom groups: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Homo-sapiens are part of the Animalia kingdom.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/taxonomy.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-1863866" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/taxonomy-1024x819.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="560" /></a>

After Domain comes Phylum, and in each category, the number of groups increases to help narrow down which species are which. Currently, there are <a href="http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150325-all-animal-life-in-35-photos">35 individual phyla </a>that a species can belong to. 

Below Phylum, we have class. There are many different classes, but some of the most familiar classes include mammals, reptiles and birds. 

Continuing down the classification pyramid, there’s Order, and there are hundreds of Orders. The further down you go, the less precise the numbers of groups in a category becomes. 

After Order, there’s Family and Genus, and if you’ve made it this far, next comes the individual species. 

According to <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2011/110823/full/news.2011.498.html">Nature</a>, there are 8.7 million eukaryotic species on Earth and millions more waiting to be discovered. 

Taxonomy is broad, it’s messy and inexact, and our understanding of the natural world continues to evolve every day with new discoveries and lost species. But having a classification system, even if it isn’t perfect, lends a little order to the chaos. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How did humans begin to classify and name all of life on Earth?

In a broad sense, taxonomy is the science of classification...

Scientists at the <a href="http://naturalhistory.si.edu/">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History</a> are rewriting the history of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/corn-industry-fertilizer-efficiency/">corn</a>, one of the world's most important crops. Based on genetic and archaeological evidence, the researchers have determined that a predecessor of today's corn plants was brought to South America from Mexico more than 6,500 years ago.

According to the new study, farmers in Mexico and the southwestern Amazon improved corn over thousands of years until it was fully domesticated in each region. The findings are providing scientists with new insight into the shared history of humans and corn plants. Study lead author Logan Kistler explained that this understanding is critical for managing our fragile relationships with the plants that feed us.

“It's the long-term evolutionary history of domesticated plants that makes them fit for the human environment today,” said Kistler. “Understanding that history gives us tools for assessing the future of corn as we continue to drastically reshape our global environment and increase our agricultural demands on land around the globe.”

Microscopic pollen and resilient plant remains found in ancient sediments indicate a history of fully domesticated maize use by around 6,500 years ago in the southwest Amazon and coastal Peru. Initially, the experts assumed the fully domesticated plant was carried there by people who were migrating south.

“As far as we could tell before conducting our study, it looked like there was a single domestication event in Mexico and that people then spread it further south after domestication had taken place,” said Kistler.

When geneticists sequenced the DNA of 5,000-year-old maize found in Mexico, however, it turned out that the story was not so simple. The genes were a mixture of those found in corn’s wild ancestor called teosinte and those of the domesticated plant.

“But you've got continuous cultivation of maize in the southwest Amazon from 6,500 years ago all the way up through European colonization,” said Kistler. “How can you have this flourishing, fully domesticated maize complex in the southwest Amazon, and meanwhile, near the domestication center in Mexico the domestication process is still ongoing?”

To investigate, the team reconstructed the plant's evolutionary history by conducting a genetic comparison of more than 100 varieties of modern maize that grow throughout the Americas, including 40 varieties that have just recently been sequenced. The genomes of 11 ancient corn plants were also included in the analysis. 

After mapping out the genetic relationships between the plants, several distinct lineages were identified, proving that the final stages of corn domestication happened more than once in more than one place.

“This work fundamentally changes our understanding of maize origins,” said study co-author Robin Allaby from the University of Warwick. “It shows that maize did not have a simple origin story, that it did not really form the crop as we know it until it left its homeland.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Fabio de Oliveira Freitas

Corn was domesticated more than once in different regions

Scientists at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History are...

Biofuels are often proposed as a solution to help reduce fossil fuel emissions and combat climate change. But while renewable energy is important for future climate change mitigation, a new study shows that expanding the production of crops like oil palm and corn could have drastic consequences on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-key-measure-success/">biodiversity</a>. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>, the <a href="http://www.bik-f.de/root/index.php?page_id=57">Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre</a> and the <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/">Technical University of Munich</a> found that setting aside large amounts of land for bioenergy crops could be just as harmful to vertebrate biodiversity as climate change. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Climate change, habitat degradation, and human activities have already caused sharp declines in biodiversity and studies have shown that we are in the midst of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warning-imminent-mass-extinction/">sixth mass extinction</a>. 

If bioenergy crops pose a threat to global biodiversity, then it’s crucial for researchers and policymakers to consider these risks before investing in biofuel production.

“We found that the combination of climate change and large-scale expansion of bioenergy crops would together threaten about 36% of the habitats of all global vertebrate species, including many that are already the subject of significant conservation work,” said Stephen Willis, an author of the study. “While bioenergy is clearly an important tool for climate change mitigation, the potential impacts on biodiversity must not be ignored.”

For the study, the researchers compared to two climate scenarios. One scenario projected warming of 1.5 degrees Celsius by 2100 with biofuels being used to their fullest extent, and the second scenario had warming of three degrees by 2100 but very little biofuel use. 

While the first scenario had less warming, the researchers discovered that even expanding bioenergy crop production would not be enough to compensate for the losses in biodiversity. 

The researchers found that expanded bioenergy crop production under the first scenario would result in significant species declines.

For example, the hedgehog could undergo 44 percent population loss, the red squirrel would experience 46 percent population loss, and the common starling would suffer 15 percent population loss.

[caption id="attachment_1863682" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Biodiversity-could-suffer-if-bioenergy-crop-production-grows.jpeg"><img class="wp-image-1863682" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Biodiversity-could-suffer-if-bioenergy-crop-production-grows-1024x768.jpeg" alt="" width="700" height="525" /></a> Hedgehog, Image Credit: Professor Stephen Willis, Durham University[/caption]

Bioenergy crop production is already impacting biodiversity across the world with oil palm plantations damaging local ecosystems in tropical regions, and expanding corn production in temperate regions leading to habitat declines for birds and other farmland mammals. 

The study shows that biodiversity needs to be considered in the bioenergy discussion and other alternatives for reducing emissions must be found. 

“A strong reliance on bioenergy to combat climate change could result in outcomes for biodiversity that are little better than would occur if we didn't implement bioenergy strategies, despite the consequent climate change implications,” said Willis. “Instead, we should be thinking about how to swiftly and significantly reduce energy consumption if biodiversity is to be protected.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Christian Hof

Paid for by Earth.com

Biodiversity could suffer if bioenergy crop production grows

Biofuels are often proposed as a solution to help reduce...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Centre</a> are providing new insight into how catnip produces the substance known as nepetalactone that sends <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cats-ineffective-rat-numbers/">cats</a> into a state of ecstasy. The research could ultimately give experts easier and faster access to cancer fighting medications.

According to the research team, understanding the series of events that leads to the production of nepetalactone could be particularly useful in helping to identify how plants synthesise other chemicals like vinblastine, which is used for chemotherapy.


Nepetalactone belongs to a class of organic compounds known as terpenes, which are typically formed by a single enzyme in plants. The researchers have discovered that terpenes are produced in catnip through a two-step system. In this process, an enzyme activates a precursor compound which is then obtained by a second enzyme to produce the terpenes.

This is the first time that this two-step process has ever been observed, and the scientists believe that a similar process is responsible for the synthesis of the anti-cancer drugs vincristine and vinblastine.

Dr. Benjamin Lichman, who conducted the work while he was a postdoctoral researcher at John Innes Centre, is now a lecturer at the University of York.

“We have made significant progress in understanding how catnip makes nepetalactone, the chemicals that sends cats crazy,” said Dr. Lichman. “Catnip is performing unusual and unique chemical processes, and we plan to use these to help us create useful compounds that can be used in treatment of diseases such as cancer.” 

“We are also working to understand the evolution of catnip to understand how it came to produce the cat-active chemicals."

Study co-author Professor Sarah O'Connor added, “Nepetalactones have potential use in agriculture as they participate in certain plant-insect interactions. In future work we will explore the roles that these compounds have in plants.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nchembio/">Nature Chemical Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Catnip may give experts insight into cancer fighting treatments

Researchers at the John Innes Centre are providing new insight...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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