Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a symbol of happiness in countless cultures. For years, farmers and scientists have collaborated to refine this treasured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-could-save-the-future-of-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>, but new evidence shows there is more to its story than meets the eye.



Experts have been analyzing genetic details that trace the cacao tree’s past to a surprising point in time. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Tineo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Tineo</a>, from the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, led a study that used chloroplast genome data to examine when and how Theobroma cacao diversified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chocolate-s-place-in-nature">Chocolate’s place in nature</h2>



Cacao belongs to the Malvaceae family, which also includes hibiscus and cotton. This group of plants has a history going back millions of years, and reflecting a long process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-and-cocoa-prices-have-doubled-in-the-past-year-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> and survival.



“It can be inferred that T. cacao diverged at approximately 7.55 Ma, and it is highly likely that T. cacao populations diversified during the Pliocene or Miocene,” explained Tineo. 



Two main factors appear to have played a role in shaping the trees we see today. First, their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplast genomes</a> carry signs of gradual change, which is common in species that extend across tropical regions. Second, environmental pressures likely promoted different genetic traits in various localities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-insights-to-save-chocolate">Genetic insights to save chocolate </h2>



The chloroplast genome, often called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cpDNA</a>, is inherited in a predictable way in most plants. This trait gives scientists a clear view of family relationships, even within the same species.



One gene, named <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep08348" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ycf1</a>, turned out to be important because it showed more differences among cacao plants than other commonly studied genetic regions. By examining these differences, researchers hope to spot unique traits that may improve the flavor, resilience, or productivity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cacao varieties</a>.



This approach might help breeders develop trees that survive better in changing climates. It may also allow them to detect disease-resistant lines, thus cutting down on the need for chemical treatments and on farm losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-past-matters">Why the past matters </h2>



Farmers today face pests, diseases, and market uncertainty. Learning about cacao’s ancient lineage is not just for academic interest; it can also guide solutions that reduce farming risks.



The deeper a plant’s genetic roots, the more variation it hides in its DNA. This variation supplies fresh building blocks for traits like drought tolerance, flavor, and disease resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-benefits-for-farmers">Practical benefits for farmers</h2>



Thousands of smallholders grow cacao as a main or side income. When farmers tap into genetically diverse planting materials, their crops can adapt more effectively to different environments.



A broader gene pool also lowers the chance that a single disease outbreak will devastate cacao plants in an entire region. Strengthening genetic tools for farmers promotes stable harvests and consistently better beans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-breeding-methods">Modern breeding methods</h2>



Classic breeding methods rely on observing which trees yield the best crops. Now, molecular tools add a scientific boost by marking the genes that truly matter.



When breeders target specific genes - like ycf1 - they can make more precise matches between strong, disease-tolerant varieties and those with desired flavors. This level of detail speeds up the long process of developing improved trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-tradition-with-discovery">Balancing tradition with discovery</h2>



Farmers in Latin America, Africa, and Asia have nurtured cacao for generations. Their local expertise is valuable when it comes to spotting subtle differences among trees.



Collaboration between traditional growers and research institutions bridges technology and cultural wisdom. This approach promotes new partnerships that benefit everyone, from growers to chocolate enthusiasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-future-of-chocolate">Protecting the future of chocolate </h2>



Scientists still do not fully understand how <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05288-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear or mitochondrial data</a> compare with chloroplast results. More work is needed to fill the gaps left by incomplete samples from various parts of the tropics.



Some lines may carry rare genetic elements waiting to be explored. Locating these hidden genes could reveal new ways to manage diseases and keep farms flourishing.



Cacao stands at a crossroads of heritage, commerce, and science. Studies suggest that this plant’s DNA is more varied and ancient than was once believed, hinting that there may be more secrets in its cells.



Ongoing research may answer questions about how different cacao types emerged and how they can be preserved. The bigger picture promises a future where growers and chocolate lovers share the rewards of knowledge-driven innovation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Can chocolate survive? DNA research may help save cacao trees

Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a symbol of happiness in countless cultures. For years, farmers and scientists have collaborated to refine this treasured plant, but new evidence shows there is more to its story than meets the eye. Experts have been analyzing genetic details that trace the cacao tree’s past to a surprising point in time. Daniel Tineo, from the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, led a study that used chloroplast genome data to examine when and how Theobroma cacao diversified. Chocolate’s...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> conducted one of the largest field experiments to investigate the Darwinian theory that species located in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tropics-widening-predicted-rate/">tropics</a> and lower elevations interact more with other species than anywhere else in the world. And, as stated in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>, the team ultimately proved the theory true.

"Theory predicts that interactions among species — like predation and competition — will be strongest in the warm, productive, biodiverse ecosystems of the tropics and at low elevations," said lead author Anna Hargreaves, formerly of the <a href="https://biodiversity.ubc.ca/">UBC Biodiversity Research Centre</a> and currently a professor at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>.

“For example,” she continued, “the spectacular diversity of tropical trees is thought to result partly from stronger interactions between plants and the animals that prey on their seeds, which shapes how and where plants grow and adapt."

To test this theory, the international team of researchers left seeds outside for 24 hours to see how many would be consumed by animals. They dropped a total of seven thousand seed beds across 70 sites from Alaska to the Equator.

After several go-throughs of the same experiment, the team found that seed consumption/predation increased 2.6% for every 10 degrees latitude toward the Equator. Furthermore, seed consumption increased 0.4% for every 100-meter decline in elevation.

Overall, seed predation increased 17% between Alaska and the Equator and 17% from 4,000 meters above sea level to sea level.

"These interactions form the basis of how ecosystems function and the direct benefits of those ecosystems to human society," said team member Santiago David, a PhD student at UBC. "Understanding global patterns in key interactions between species, such as seed predation, is essential when we think about managing or restoring the ecosystems, especially in the face of climate change."

Researchers also found that this large-scale pattern is being driven by the smallest of animals — mainly insects and invertebrates.

Compared to a similar study that found that attack rates of clay model caterpillars increased in lower latitudes, Hargreaves noted that “invertebrates [appear to] play an outsized role in the community dynamics and evolution of tropical and lowland ecosystems.And yet we know relatively little about invertebrates, for example, how climate change is affecting their populations."

The team will now use fake caterpillars alongside seeds to see if this theory remains true for other forms of predation.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Interaction between species is greater towards the tropics, lowlands

Researchers from the University of British Columbia conducted one of...

Magic mushrooms are nearing their day in court for Denver, Colorado. A major grassroots movement to legalize the psychedelic has successfully put <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/09/health/denver-magic-mushrooms-trnd/index.html">decriminalization on the ballot</a> and residents will cast their vote in May of this year. 

But contrary to popular belief, Denver won’t be the first place in the United States to decriminalize magic mushrooms. In 2005, <a href="https://www.abqjournal.com/news/state/apmush06-15-05.htm">New Mexico voted</a> that you could grow them and even eat them, but you can’t possess dried mushrooms in the state.

If Denver votes to decriminalize, it could be a monumental step forward in making psilocybin, the psychedelic component in magic mushrooms, more accessible as a treatment for a range of mental disorders and diseases. 

Already, significant strides are being made in easing the drug’s classification from a Schedule 1 to something less restrictive, which could help medical health professionals treat the patients they think would benefit most from psilocybin. 

For some patients, magic mushrooms provide relief for diseases and disorders that have proven resistant to traditional treatments. As we have reported, research has found that mushrooms can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-depression-emotions/">help alleviate symptoms of depression</a> and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushrooms-safest-recreational-drug/">2017 survey</a> showed mushrooms are the safest recreational drug to take.

According to the <a href="https://www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling">Drug Enforcement Administration</a> (DEA), there are five categories or schedules that drugs, substances and even the chemicals used to make drugs are classified into. A drug’s classification is based on its medicinal use and the potential for the drug to be abused. 

Psilocybin is considered a Schedule 1 among such other drugs as heroin and ecstasy. The DEA states that Schedule 1 drugs are not recognized for any medical use by the US government and there is a high risk of abuse and dependency with drugs in this class. 

For comparison, Schedule V drugs are easily accessible and carry a low risk if used as directed such as Pepto-Bismol or Robitussin. 

So what makes a magic mushroom “magic” and why is psilocybin highly illegal if treatments with it have proven successful in certain cases?

Incidentally, the term “magic mushroom” was coined in 1957 by an editor of Life Magazine when mycologist <a href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/magic-mushroom6.htm">Gordon Wasson wrote an article</a> about his experience with magic mushrooms while traveling in Mexico. The piece was called “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” and the term took off. 

There are over 100 species of mushroom that contain psilocybin, and it’s the main psychedelic component of the fungus.  Consuming magic mushrooms may result in a hallucination or a burst of euphoria.

When ingested, psilocybin breaks down into psilocin when it comes in contact with stomach acid. When psilocin makes its way to the brain, this is what drives the different sensations people experience. The drug has also been to known to influence how people perceive time. 

Research published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsif.2014.0873">Journal of the Royal Society Interface</a> in 2014 found that psilocin “hyper-connects” the brain. While scientists have long known that psilocybin binds to serotonin receptors in the brain, these researchers used fMRI imaging to show how the compound changed brain activity. 

After analyzing the brain maps of participants who had taken the drug and a control group who took a placebo, the researchers saw psilocin connected regions of the brain that are not normally connected. This hyper-connectedness could be what creates the drug’s dream-like trance. 

<a href="https://theconversation.com/magic-mushrooms-expand-your-mind-and-amplify-your-brains-dreaming-areas-heres-how-28754">Research</a> has also found that psilocin slows down brain activity in some areas, amplifies brain activity often only amplified during sleep and causes a state of expanded consciousness. 

In this state, linear thinking and planning are near impossible, but the expanded consciousness makes <a href="http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2014/10/29/brain-psychedelic-drugs/#.XGr_r-hKhPY">out of the box thinking easy.</a>

The psychedelic, brain changing, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lsd-permanently-impact-personality/">personality altering qualities</a> of psilocin have made the drug an exciting research prospect, primarily as a potential treatment for mental health disorders like depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. 

However, its negative reputation and classification as a Schedule 1 have done an excellent job of stymying studies into the psychedelic. That could soon change, though, with the recent push for decriminalization and Denver’s new ballot initiative.

Meanwhile, there are also several studies in progress examining the drug’s impacts, especially when it comes to microdosing. 

Microdosing involves taking a “mini” dose of psilocybin or another psychedelic that is too low to elicit the “trippy” symptoms a normal dose of shrooms or LSD would, but is still enough to yield beneficial results.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microdosing-mushrooms-solving-creativity/">As we have reported</a>, research has shown that microdosing can boost thinking skills, problem-solving, and creativity.

I was able to interview someone who has had great success with microdosing to get a better understanding its useful effects.

“Jim” first started microdosing to help him stay sober after rehab. He reports that the changes to his health and wellbeing were night and day. 

“My anxiety vanished, I slept incredibly well every night, and because of that, my mind began operating on a heightened level I had never experienced before,” Jim said.

Jim was also working on two startups when he started microdosing and said that it helped him explore new ideas, problem solve better, and stay calm and positive. 

“Stress and panic are great impediments to success…the cognitive mind doesn’t function properly in fight or flight mode,” Jim said. “I believe that mushrooms open neural pathways that would otherwise lie dormant, allowing your mind to think in abstract ways, finding solutions and gaining insights that would never come to you if you stay inside the dictated societal norms and never step outside of that box.”

When I asked Jim about the rising interest in microdosing and it’s popularity in <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lsd-microdosing-drugs-silicon-valley">Silicon Valley</a>, he recommended the book Stealing Fire: How Silicon Valley, the Navy SEALs, and Maverick Scientists Are Revolutionizing the Way We Live and Work by Jamie Wheal and Steven Kotler. 

“Microdosing is responsible for 90% of the technology that you use on a daily basis. The iPhone, Google, artificial intelligence, just to name a few,” Jim explained. “I don’t think those revolutionaries meant for these stories to come to light and become examples for why these substances should be legalized, but it’s hard to dispute the results of their experimentation.”

The potential of psilocybin and magic mushrooms as revolutionary treatments for treatment-resistant depression, pain, and end-of-life anxiety for terminal patients is obvious as more and more research is proving its positive effects.  

Kevin Matthews, the campaign director for <a href="https://decriminalizedenver.org/">Decriminalize Denver</a>, told <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/inside-the-push-to-legalize-magic-mushrooms-for-depression-and-ptsd/">Wired</a> that he has heard numerous accounts of how magic mushrooms benefitted Denver residents. 

“We talk to people all the time who say ‘Mushrooms have saved my life, mushrooms saved my marriage, mushrooms have broken me out of my depression, mushrooms are the only thing that works for my cluster headaches,’” Matthews told Wired. “I had a gentleman who signed the petition the other day who said it's the only thing that works for his wife's polycystic kidney disease. I had never even heard that one before.”

While there are some concerns that decriminalization will lead to a monopolization of the drug by major drug companies, the reality is that you can’t patent psilocybin because it’s found in nature and anyone can cultivate their own magic mushrooms. 

The question remains though, will growing your own mushrooms and using psilocybin as a treatment be legal and widely accessible in this lifetime? 

If Denver decriminalizes magic mushrooms, it may very well motivate other cities across the U.S. to explore the benefits of the naturally occurring plant, much in the way we’ve seen the acceptance of medicinal marijuana grow substantially over the past decade.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Medicinal benefits of magic mushrooms emphasized ahead of Denver vote

Magic mushrooms are nearing their day in court for Denver,...

The first time I saw bioluminescence in a fish, it was easy to think I might just be imagining it.  It’s never truly dark in the summer of Alaska and as I sat amid Rhinoceros Auklet burrows, the light was something like twilight.  The small, dead fish I held in my hand was taken from a parent auklet bringing food to her chicks. We took few samples so that the chicks still ate enough, but the research could conceivably impact how these birds were managed by government agencies like the one I was interning with.  I paused from my work to stare at the fish. The researchers I was working with confirmed that the fish was glowing, an interesting effect from very small organisms found in the ocean. Much more impressive night-time displays of marine bioluminescence can be found in other parts of the world.  

A friend of mine once visited Puerto Rico and told me of seeing the whole ocean alight with moving, tossing, glowing life in waves.  According to the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian Institute</a>, glowing marine organisms live throughout the water column from the seafloor to the crest of waves.  Glowing ocean animals also live from near the shore to far out in the open sea. 

Bioluminescence is often used as a form of communication and is very common in the ocean, and given the size of the sea, may even be the most commonly used form of communication.  That said, bioluminescence is not always so noticeable. Much like the tiny fish with a faint glow I saw in Alaska, many glows are too faint to notice. With the increase in human made lights on the ocean and especially on shore, oceanic bioluminescence is even harder to see.  Natural light from the moon also makes it hard to notice the glow sometimes. Even with these obstacles, there are a few places in the world where bioluminescence is so prevalent that it’s become something of a <a href="https://www.mnn.com/lifestyle/eco-tourism/stories/5-incredible-places-where-the-ocean-glows">tourist attraction</a>.  

Puerto Rico, where my friend saw bioluminescence, along with Malta, Japan, Florida, California and Taiwan all boast their own night time spectacle of bioluminescent tides.  Researchers in Taiwan particularly looked at the bioluminescence of the Matsu Islands in Taiwan with an eye towards predicting a season for the spectacle and attracting tourism.

Since there is so much bioluminescence in the ocean, it’s no surprise that there are many different species that glow.  <a href="http://www.imas.utas.edu.au/zooplankton/image-key/noctiluca-scintillans">Noctiluca scintillans</a>, a dinoflagellate, not technically either animal or plant, was responsible for the glow on the Matsu Islands.  Dinoflagellates are phytoplankton and N. scintillans looks like a tiny (0.2 to 2mm) jellyfish.  The dinoflagellate eats its food rather than producing it through photosynthesis as a plant would, catching prey with tentacles.  N. scintillans glows when it’s disturbed, and this means if it’s attacked or if a boat passes through a group of the dinoflagellate, the ocean will appear to glow.  In the case of glowing tides, the disturbance is merely the movement of the water against land and rock. Other dinoflagellates glow as well. In <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/11/san-diego-bioluminescence-glowing-surf-california">California</a>, the dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedra, has been found to cause glowing tides as well as the phenomena known as red tide.

Red tide is caused by large accumulation or organisms like these dinoflagellates.  Often called algal bloom, the red tide is actually caused by many different organisms, including dinoflagellates, diatoms, protozoans and algae.  These organisms are preceded by upwellings of nutrient dense water from deep in the ocean, sometimes caused by storms or seasonal temperature changes.  

Red tide can be devastating.  This rich soup of organisms creates many chemicals that are toxic for many larger animals.  As we reported in 2018, Florida was hit by one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-tide-kills-sea-life/">worst cases of red tide in a decade</a>.  At least 400 sea turtles were poisoned by the red tide as well as fish, seabirds and other animals caught in the toxic algal bloom.  About 100 miles of Florida coast were affected by the red tide. The accumulation of toxins in the red tide even made beach goers cough and caused their eyes to water, according to one report from <a href="https://weather.com/science/environment/news/2018-07-28-florida-fort-myers-red-tide-dead-animals-turtles">Weather.com</a>.  It’s amazing that something so ugly during the day could look so beautiful at night.  Glowing tides aren’t always dangerous and bioluminescence certainly is not.

<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/11/san-diego-bioluminescence-glowing-surf-california">The Guardian</a> reports that the organisms responsible for that state’s red tide in May also caused incredible night time bioluminescence without being toxic.  There are many different species of dinoflagellates and other organisms glowing at night in the sea, some of them are poisonous and others are relatively harmless.  The reasons for the glowing isn’t entirely understood. Some feel that the light is meant to distract animals trying to prey on the glowing dinoflagellates. Other organisms like the nightmarish <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/bizarre-mating-practices-anglerfish/">anglerfish</a> live in constant darkness and use bioluminescence to lure prey to them.  Some squid use bioluminescence to <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2007/02/giant-squid-use-bioluminescence-to-hunt-prey-communicate/">communicate as well as to hunt</a>.  

Bioluminescence all seems to come from one chemical: luciferase.  The word has the same root as ‘lucifer’ which simply means ‘light bearer’.  Luciferase is simply an enzyme that when exposed to oxygen creates light. There are different varieties of luciferase and they’re controlled differently in different organisms.  In squid, the animal doesn’t even create luciferase itself, and is instead host to micro-organisms that glow for them. Some bioluminescent organisms can control the color and brightness of the light they produce.  

Under the sea, the process is similar to what happens inside fireflies.  Fireflies themselves are amazing animals and have been observed coordinating their lights together by the thousands.  Whole trees and hillsides flash in the dark where this happens and we don’t know exactly why, just like we don’t fully understand the dazzling display in the oceans all around us.    

The whole sea is speaking one organism to another in a language older and broader than humanity, and all we can really fathom is the simplest point of its eloquent beauty.             

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Bioluminescent Tide: What makes the ocean glow

The first time I saw bioluminescence in a fish, it...

The world’s forests and the soil from which they grow play a major role in the carbon cycle, the health and growth of vegetation, and biodiversity. If the soil is in bad shape, everything that grows out of it and lives in it suffers. 

Trees get moisture from the soil through their roots, and organic matter decomposes and breaks down thanks to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-greenhouse-gas/">microorganisms in the soil</a>. 

Forests and soils have a huge influence on climate change, which is why Thomas Crowther and <a href="http://crowtherlab.com/">Crowther Lab</a> are working to make one of the most comprehensive models of the global forest system to help better project future climate change. 

Crowther, an assistant professor of Environmental Systems Science at <a href="https://www.ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> in Switzerland presented the Crowther Lab dataset and model in a presentation at the 2019 annual meeting for the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>. 

To understand the impacts of climate change, the Crowther Lab argues that you must understand the processes that underlie the Earth’s biogeochemical cycles.

A Crowther Lab research team used the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a>, the largest global dataset of forest inventory data, and satellite data to examine the mechanisms of the global forest system. 

Tens of thousands of soil samples from the <a href="https://www.globalsoilbiodiversity.org/">Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative</a> dataset also revealed patterns in biomass and diversity within the global soil microbiome. 

Soil and satellite data helped create the first glimpse of the thriving world that inhabits the soils which the researchers used to determine soil fertility and predict future climate. 

Now, Crowther Lab can identify regions in need of conservation management and investigate how soil carbon sinks impact atmospheric CO2 levels. 

Like the ocean, as temperatures rise, the soil will release more carbon stores creating a dangerous feedback loop. 

The Crowther Lab model calculated that under a business-as-usual scenario, warming would cause the soil to release approximately 55 gigatons of carbon.

The research shows how forests and soil play a crucial role in both the carbon cycle and the rate of future climate change on Earth.

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Andrew Coelho, Unsplash Photography

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

The global forest system can help predict future climate change

The world’s forests and the soil from which they grow...

New advances will be crucial to successfully feed a growing population while using less water on shrinking acreage and while grappling with a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-2080-new-york-arkansas/">changing climate</a>.

But according to recent research published in <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/363/6422/eaat9077">Science</a>, a new method increased crop growth by 40 percent after scientists created a shortcut for a glitch that affects most food crops.

Donald Ort, the Robert Emerson Professor of Plant Biology and Crop Sciences at Illinois’ <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a>, will present the breakthrough this weekend at the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (AAAS) annual meeting, which, this year, is themed around “<a href="https://aaas.confex.com/aaas/2019/meetingapp.cgi/Session/21190">Science Transcending Boundaries.</a>”

"Plants have to do three key things to produce the food we eat: capture sunlight, use that energy to manufacture plant biomass, and divert as much of the biomass as possible into yields like corn kernels or starchy potatoes," Ort said. "In the last century, crop breeders maximized the first and third of these, leaving us with the challenge to improve the process where sunlight and carbon dioxide are fixed — called photosynthesis — to boost crop growth to meet the demands of the 21st Century."

This breakthrough is part of the <a href="https://ripe.illinois.edu/">Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency</a> (RIPE) project, in which scientists are engineering crops to photosynthesize more effectively to sustain worldwide food productivity growth.

[caption id="attachment_1867891" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Breakthrough-to-increase-crop-growth-can-help-feed-growing-population.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867891" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Breakthrough-to-increase-crop-growth-can-help-feed-growing-population.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="530" /></a> Image Credit: Claire Benjamin/RIPE Project[/caption]

"Land plants evolved with a biochemical glitch whereby a photosynthetic enzyme frequently captures oxygen instead of carbon dioxide, necessitating a convoluted and energy-expensive process called photorespiration to mitigate this glitch," Ort, deputy director of the RIPE project, explained. "Crops like soybean and wheat waste more than 30 percent of the energy they generate from photosynthesis dealing with this glitch, but modeling suggested that photorespiratory shortcuts could be engineered to help the plant conserve its energy and reinvest it into growth."

Researchers borrowed genes from algae and pumpkins to create three alternate routes to replace the circuitous native photorespiration pathway in tobacco. Having achieved this, the team hopes to try the exact same engineering process on soybean, cowpea, rice, potato, tomato, and eggplant crops.

"It is incredible to imagine the calories lost to photorespiration each year around the globe," Ort said. "To reclaim even a portion of these calories would be a huge success in our race to feed 9.7 billion people by 2050."

Ort added that it will take at least 15 years to translate these new technologies to food crops and approve the process to be used by farmers. However, when that does happen, RIPE and its sponsors will ensure that smallholder farmers, specifically those in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, will obtain royalty-free access to this engineering process.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

New method to increase crop growth can help feed growing population

New advances will be crucial to successfully feed a growing...

Glyphosate is one of the most commonly used weed killers on the market today, and it’s the main ingredient in the herbicide <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cancer-suit-weedkiller-roundup/">Roundup</a>.

While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roundup-california-river/">glyphosate herbicides</a> are useful in the backyard, there has been increasing unease that exposure to the chemical increases the risk of cancer. 

Now, a new meta-analysis review study of previous research on glyphosate’s associated cancer risk confirmed these fears as the results show that glyphosate exposure may increase the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, an immune system cancer, by as much as 41 percent. 

The study, published in the journal Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> who reviewed past glyphosate studies including the <a href="https://aghealth.nih.gov/">Agricultural Health Study cohort.</a>

While Monsanto, the producers of Roundup, the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/glyphosate">Environmental Protection Agency</a>, and the <a href="http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/glyphosate">European Food Safety Authority</a> have maintained that glyphosate is non-carcinogenic, according to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/14/health/us-glyphosate-cancer-study-scli-intl/index.html">CNN</a>, the <a href="https://www-prod.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/MonographVolume112-1.pdf">World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer</a> says otherwise. 

There has been a string of lawsuits against Monsanto which was acquired by Bayer in 2018 and CNN reported that thousands of people are suing Monsanto alleging that exposure to glyphosate caused their cancers. 

For this study, the researchers found that in the highest exposure groups, referring to people with the highest reported exposure to the chemical in the different studies reviewed, exposure to glyphosate raised the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. 

“All of the meta-analyses conducted to date, including our own, consistently report the same key finding: exposure to GBHs (glyphosate-based herbicides) are associated with an increased risk of NHL,” the researchers wrote. 

The team also reviewed previously published animal studies that dealt with glyphosate to help confirm their meta-analysis findings. 

There are several limitations to the study’s findings as there is little data available on the correlation between glyphosate exposure and cancer risk. 

The researchers also said the studies were varied in terms of the levels of glyphosate exposure each study participant experienced which makes drawing any firm correlations between studies challenging. 

Even with the limitations of the meta-analysis, the study calls attention to an important potentially dangerous carcinogenic and calls for further studies that explore glyphosate’s cancer risk. 

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exposure to weed killer glyphosate raises cancer risk by 41 percent

Glyphosate is one of the most commonly used weed killers...

Plants can generate electricity… and we may be able to use it. If, as a child, you were lucky enough to build a <a href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/scientific-experiments/how-to-make-a-potato-clock.htm">clock powered by a potato</a>, you may not be surprised to learn that plants generate electricity.  Given the billions of years put into its development, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/photosynthesis-plants-started/">photosynthesis</a> is unsurprisingly much more efficient at generating energy from the sun than solar panels.  Plants are nearly 100% efficient at converting photons from sunlight into electrons. New solar panels by comparison are being developed with a 30 to 36% efficiency, according to <a href="https://www.pv-magazine.com/2018/08/23/researchers-propose-doubling-todays-solar-panel-efficiency-using-two-weird-tricks/">PV Magazine</a>, which almost doubles the efficiency of current solar panels.  
In 2013, the <a href="https://news.uga.edu/power-plants-uga-researchers-explore-how-to-harvest-electricity-direct/">University of Georgia</a> reported on research allowing scientists to tap into electricity created through photosynthesis before it’s used by the plant.  The procedure basically takes electricity from the plant with nanotubes that are almost 50,000 times smaller than the thickness of a human hair.  Thylakoids, the part of a plant where energy from the sun is stored, are disrupted and nanotubes conduct electricity away from the plant. The key is capturing electrons from the plants before the energy is stored as sugar.  Once the electricity is siphoned off from the plant, the electricity can be used for any human application that electricity is usually used for. It’s been suggested that genetic engineering could be used in tandem with the technology to create plants specifically designed for electricity generation.  The idea of creating usable electricity from plants only continues to grow.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> have conducted similar work on plants to generate electricity.  There, electrical engineers designed a circuit that when attached to plants converts the plant’s natural energy into usable electricity.  When attached to maple trees, the circuits were able to create 1.1 volts, less than a typical 1.5 volt battery such as the normal AA cell.        

There are companies like <a href="https://www.plant-e.com/en/">Plant-e</a> already poised to capitalize on plant electricity generation.  Plant-e explains that not all of the energy a plant creates is used for itself.  Many plants actually improve soil content through the creation of ‘excess’ organic material that is secreted into soil and taken up by bacteria.  The idea behind the ‘Plant Microbial Fuel Cell’ technology (P-MFC) is to collect and use electrons created by the breakdown of this organic material by soil bacteria for the generation of electricity.  

So far, this type of electricity generation has only produced exceedingly small amounts of electricity.  However, the technique has some obvious advantages. Unlike with the use of nanotubes and some other techniques, the plant itself isn’t disturbed.  As with all schemes to use plants to generate electricity, the distribution of plants is more even globally than say fossil fuels. The method is also clean when compared to fossil fuels.  

Land used for agriculture could also be used to produce electricity.  The method typically requires use of plants that grow in waterlogged conditions, which would work with crops such as rice or cranberries but is also a limitation, especially in arid environments.  Research and development are needed if the use of plants to generate electricity is to become practical in any real sense. 

Another company, <a href="http://voltreepower.com/index.html">Voltree Power</a>, holds the patent to this technology and was first to develop a tree-powered circuit. Voltree has tested using trees to power low voltage sensors to detect forest fires.  Unfortunately, the sensors still require traditionally batteries. The trees merely extend the battery life of the sensors, making the system less than impressive.      

<a href="https://www.iit.it/">Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia</a> (ITT) in Pisa, Italy reported on new research to use plants for the generation of electricity.  Researchers found that they can generate more than 150 volts of electricity from a single plant.  The electricity generated is enough to power 100 of the highly efficient LED light bulbs. The researchers created a sort of cyborg tree made of natural and artificial leaves which generate electricity from wind.  The research was headed by Barbara Mazzolai who previously created the world’s first ‘robot plant’ in 2012. 

Structures in plant leaves are able to generate electricity from the leaf simply moving in the wind.  This electricity is then transmitted through plant tissue. This new research aims to plug into the plant tissue and use this electricity, rather than electricity generated through photosynthesis as previous methods attempted.  

Researchers used a nerium oleander tree in an experiment, by adding artificial leaves that touch the trees natural leaves.  The <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adfm.201806689">research</a> was published in October 2018, ushering in a new way to potentially generate electricity from plants.

There are still real obstacles to overcome before electricity can be widely generated by plants and it seems doubtful whether all our electrical usage could be supplied from plants, at least at current levels.  It’s also unclear which method of electricity generation using plants will rise to the top as the most practical. Another problem less often looked at by scientists is one of ethics. 

The ethical dilemma of genetically modifying organisms is one that is sometimes raised.  Still widespread use of GMO technology in plants has gone forward without much of a broad public discussion.  GMO crops are commonly grown now. According to the <a href="https://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/issues/311/ge-foods/about-ge-foods">Center for Food Safety</a>, currently 92% of US corn is genetically modified as is 94% of soybeans and 94% of cotton.  The technology has vastly outpaced our ability to discuss its consequences rationally as a society or create laws to regulate it.  

Whether using GMO technology or simply marrying electrical technology with natural plants, using plants to generate electricity represents engineering the natural.  The act of using a plant to generate electricity is an act of modifying the life of intrinsic organism for our own purposes. It means changing another life without regard to that life’s ability or inability to give consent.  This may seem trivial to some, as plants are not highly regarded. We still don’t have any idea of the consequences involved in modifying a plant in this way. We once had no idea of the consequences of burning fossil fuels to generate electricity.  We’re clever at using the environment for short term gain but not so good at guessing at the long term consequences of our actions. With many simple but demanding solutions, humans have a knack for creating complex ways to solve our problems. Scientists also can’t ask a plant how it feels about being made part of an electrical generator.            

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Plants can generate electricity… and we may be able to use it

Plants can generate electricity… and we may be able to...

Americans have a tendency to think they have the biggest and best of everything.  If you think of the world’s largest trees, you probably think of the sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum) of California.  You’d mostly be right in this case.  

The world’s largest individual tree is a tree named General Sherman located in Sequoia National Park in Tulare County, California.  General Sherman is estimated to be 52,500 cubic feet in volume and is 2,000 years old in an expected life span for giant sequoias of over 3,000 years.  General Sherman is only 274.9 feet tall compared to the tallest tree which measures 379.7 feet (115.7 m) tall. The world’s tallest tree, a redwood named Hyperion, is also in California.  But California is just one of many homes for giant trees. 

Tasmania, the island south of mainland Australia, has its own giant trees.  One fabulous thing about the giant eucalypt trees of Tasmania is that many of them are hollow.  As these trees grow older, the heartwood in the middle of the tree naturally dies and eventually the tree rots into a living hollow cylinder.  I’ve stepped in through a hole in the trunk of one of these trees to find a dim interior space where ten people could easily sleep shoulder to shoulder.  These trees are often homes to bats and insects, making them less than ideal camping spots for many. The hollow space actually serves a useful purpose. Bat guano as well as dead insects create amazing fertilizer, delivered right to the base of the tree.  In fact, in Tasmania, more bats dwell inside hollow trees than in the island’s relatively chilly caves.

[caption id="attachment_1867658" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/general-sherman-.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867658" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/general-sherman-.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> General Sherman in Sequoia National Park, Image Credit: Songquan Deng/Shutterstock[/caption]

The tallest of Tasmania’s Eucalyptus regnans trees named Centurion measures 99.6 meters (roughly 326.7 feet) tall, according to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-01-24/photographing-one-of-the-worlds-tallest-trees-in-styx-valley/8206910">ABC News</a>.  Even though the tree is a eucalypt, the species is commonly referred to as mountain ash or swamp gum.  The enormous Eucalyptus regnans tree has a couple of distinctions that the redwoods and sequoias in California don’t have.  For one, the Eucalyptus is a flowering plant unlike the cone bearing giants in California. Centurion is actually the tallest flowering plant in the world and has a much faster growth rate than the California trees.  The giant trees in Tasmania are only about 300 years old compared to the thousands of years it takes for a tree like General Sherman to reach its proportions. 

There is a greater diversity in the Tasmanian trees than those in California.  There are five species of Tasmanian Eucalyptus that have been known to reach heights <a href="https://tasmaniasgianttrees.weebly.com/">of 85 meters</a> or more.  The Tasmanian trees are the largest known trees in the southern hemisphere.  Mostly Tasmania’s Eucalypts don’t live long enough to quite reach the size of redwoods.  <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2013/02/australias-tallest-trees/">Australian Geographic</a> reports that in many cases, older inaccurate measurements of trees are still used officially, which opens up the possibility that another tree will claim the title of the world’s highest.  There are other giant tree regions in the world that could possibly contend for the title of biggest. 

Borneo is an outlier as a location for giant trees.  Tasmanian and Californian trees both grow in relatively cool, temperate rainforests.  The tropics, counter to much popular opinion, are not the best place to find the world’s largest or even oldest trees.  Trees seem to grow larger in temperate regions for the most part. Borneo seems to be the exception to the rule. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2016/11/worlds-tallest-tropical-tree-discovered-along-with-nearly-50-other-record-breakers/">Mongabay</a> reported in 2016 on the discovery of the world’s tallest tropical tree.  Initially it was reported that a Yellow Meranti (Shorea faguetiana) discovered in Borneo was the world’s tallest tropical tree.  Within a few months however, another researcher reported finding 50 trees that were taller, also in Borneo.  The tallest tree in the group is 94.1 meters tall (roughly 294 feet). Unfortunately, giant trees aren’t always allowed to stand as beautiful living beings in their own right.  Deforestation is rampant in Borneo and across the world.

The redwoods and sequoias are but a slim reminder of a grander forest now lost.  In 2015, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/01/150119-california-forests-shrinking-climate-drought-science/">National Geographic</a> asked the question of California’s forests, “Where have all the big trees gone?”  The answer is a complex one. The <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/na0519">World Wildlife Fund</a> reports that less than 4% of California’s original virgin redwood forest still remains with less than 2.5% of that portion protected.  Some of this loss came from floods but the flood damage was worsened by deforestation in neighboring watersheds. Logging for wood of course plays a role in forest loss but so does conversion of land for farming and grazing.  Encroachment of neighborhoods and poor fire management techniques have also contributed to forest loss, but National Geographic reports that climate change may be most to blame.  Since the 1930s, water loss from increased temperature has been a leading factor in the death of giant trees in California.  The giant trees in the rest of the world face similar threats.

Borneo, the forest with the largest tropical trees, a place magical enough to partially inspire <a href="https://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5466">Avatar</a>, has one of the highest deforestation rates of anywhere in the world.  According to <a href="http://www.borneofutures.org/deforestation">Borneo Futures</a>, in 1973, 75.7% of the tropical island was covered in forest.  By 2010, only 52.8% of Borneo had forest cover. From 2000 to 2010 alone, 12% of the 2000 forest cover was lost.  More wood is harvested from Borneo than from Africa and the Amazon combined. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/borneo-has-lost-30-percent-its-forest-cover-past-40-years-180952072/">Smithsonian</a> reports that the deforestation rates in Borneo are twice those of other tropical forests.  This amounts to a loss of 30% of the forest by 2014. Sadly, the forests in Tasmania aren’t safe either.     

Tasmania, home to the southern hemisphere’s largest trees, has long been a battleground between environmentalists and logging.  <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/mar/21/plans-to-log-tasmanias-world-heritage-forests-dropped-after-un-criticism">The Guardian</a> reported in 2016 that the Australian Government had planned to log inside a World Heritage designated forest.  The plans were dropped on recommendations from the UN, and it shows a distinct disregard for an incredibly unique forest.  According to a 2009 report from <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2009/07/a-tasmanian-tragedy-how-the-forestry-industry-has-torn-an-island-apart/">Mongabay</a>, 78% of Tasmania’s original forest has already been cleared or is open to logging.  Most of the trees cut in Tasmania aren’t even used for wood but made into paper.

The topic of widespread destruction of plants older than many nations brings with it the weight of morality.  How can we who are small and young be so destructive to entire microworlds teeming with insects, orangutans, mosses, birds, and entire tree bound ecosystems?                  

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Earth’s largest trees stand tall amid multiple threats

Americans have a tendency to think they have the biggest...

They say letter writing is a lost art. But a few mentally unstable individuals keep it alive and... interesting. It’s not their scintillating prose or florid penmanship, though, that sustains the epistolary tradition. With a simple dash of white powder, once a year or so, these troubled correspondents bring the quaintest form of communication back into the news for all the wrong reasons. 

Sometimes they get really ambitious and season their greetings with anthrax, but easier to come by is ricin, a poison made from the castor bean (Ricinus communis). It’s Latin name, bestowed by Carl Linnaeus, means “tick,” a reference to its prickly fruiting bodies. Though called a “bean” it is not actually a legume; it is in the family Euphorbiaceae. The plant that produces the seed, a common ornamental native to Africa and Asia, can be grown in any old backyard and the process of refining the deadly lectin for which it is known only requires a <a href="https://archive.org/stream/Cyanide_and_Ricin_Homemade/Cyanide_and_Ricin_Homemade_djvu.txt">few easily available ingredients</a>. Patented by the U.S. Army in 1962, the recipe is still easily found online. Farm to table, indeed.

These attempts at murder by mail would be more troubling if these poison pen pals were more competent. But oftentimes their attempts to distill the poison meet with limited success. In 2018, one would-be assassin even tried <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/suspected-ricin-laced-letters-did-not-contain-finished-form-poison-n916271">sending crushed castor beans</a> to President Donald Trump and Senator Ted Cruz without even having tried to isolate the poison they contained. The seeds are only toxic if ingested and it would take more than a few to have any serious effect on most people. 

Though ricin is certainly toxic when inhaled, it must be in a very finely ground powder to have significant effect. Ten to twenty micrograms per kilogram of body weight are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441948/">potentially lethal</a> when inhaled or injected. The purified poison is also effective if ingested; one to twenty milligrams per kilogram can kill a person. If administered in adequate doses, it is among the most potent known poisons. However, while it can irritate the skin, it doesn’t absorb through the epidermis particularly well. In 1991, a homegrown terrorist cell in Minnesota planned to use dimethyl sulfoxide, a solvent, to facilitate the absorption of ricin through the skin of its victims when they touched contaminated door handles. It wouldn’t have worked. The molecules of ricin are too large.

The symptoms of ricin poisoning—ricinosis—vary according to the method of administration. If untreated, all can be fatal if sufficient amounts of the toxin are absorbed. When inhaled, ricin causes coughing, difficulty breathing, and fluid accumulation in the lungs, and can culminate in respiratory failure. When ingested, nausea and vomiting are common, as is diarrhea. This can result in dehydration. The heart rate may be elevated and seizures may be experienced. Further, the liver, kidney, and spleen may shut down, leading to death. Symptoms of the injected poison are similar. Victims usually begin feeling the effects within a few hours, though it make take up to 12 in some cases. Death usually occurs within three days. 

Discovered in 1888 by German researcher Peter Hermann Stillmark, ricin is a glycoprotein lectin composed of two parts, an A chain and a B chain, connected by a disulphide bond. The B chain attaches to carbohydrate receptors expressed on the surface of a cell, accounting for the poison’s unique mechanism of action. In addition to causing the agglutination, or clumping, of red blood cells, liver cells, and skin cells, killing them, it also facilitates the entry of the A chain into the cell to which it attaches. 

Once inside, the A chain wreaks havoc. It shears off an adenine base from a ribosome, inactivating it and making it incapable of protein synthesis. It then moves on to the next ribosome and can do the same to some <a href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P02879">1,500 of them</a> in a single minute. A single molecule of ricin is capable of killing a cell. This mechanism is shared by other ribosome-inactivating toxins such as Shiga toxin, from the Shigella dysenteriae bacteria. While Stillmark was the first to have noted the agglutinating properties, a toxic mechanism observed as early as 1860 when rattlesnake venom was introduced to pigeon blood, it wasn’t until 1987 that the ribosome-inactivating function was pinpointed.

While there is no generally effective antitoxin, supportive measures often save victims’ lives if initiated early enough. Those who have ingested the poison are typically subjected to gastric lavage, especially if they have not already vomited. Steroids may be administered to reduce inflammation and supplementary fluids can mitigate the effects of dehydration. Breathing support may also be provided. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232219480_The_Production_and_Evaluation_of_Ricin_Antitoxins">Antibody therapies</a> are moving closer to production, though they would need to be administered soon after exposure to be effective. <a href="https://www.biospace.com/article/soligenix-discusses-ricin-toxin-vaccine-/">At least one vaccine</a> is awaiting approval for use in humans. 

Interestingly, ricin was among the first substances to be tested in the pioneering field of immunology. In 1891, Paul Ehrlich began administering small doses of ricin to mice, increasing them over time until the animals had built up a tolerance to the substance. He measured the quantities of what he termed antibodies (Antikörper) in the animals’ blood and determined that their bodies were responding to and neutralizing the poison. His work was highly influential on the fledgling field of immunology.

Ricin is, of course, far more well-known for its malign uses. Beginning in 1918, the U.S. War Department began investigating the possibility of employing ricin in warfare, either as a coating for bullets or as a dust cloud. Ricin, however, deteriorates when heated and the bullet idea was scrapped. The dust was never deployed, as it was feared that it might affect U.S. troops and there was no antidote. Nonetheless, research continued into World War II and bombs containing ricin were tested at the Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah in 1944. They were never used in battle. By 1972, the poison had been designated a schedule 1 toxic chemical by the Biological Weapons Conference and was thus deemed illegal to use in warfare. It was, nonetheless, possibly used by Iraq in the 1980s and was discovered in Afghanistan following the fall of the Taliban in 2001. 

Though it never gained much traction as a large-scale weapon, the use of ricin to assassinate individuals has persisted—with varying success. Perhaps the most famous of these incidents occurred in 1978. Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov was walking to a bus stop in London when a man jabbed him in the leg with an umbrella. The next day, he fell ill and was transported to a hospital. Despite his claim that he had been shot by a poison bullet, no diagnosis was made and three days later, he died. A post-mortem examination discovered a small platinum-iridium sphere, formerly a watch bearing, that had been filled with an unknown substance. Comparison of Markov’s symptoms with those experienced by a pig injected with ricin corroborated his claims of having been poisoned. 

Two Soviet defectors later confirmed the involvement of the KGB and a stockpile of weaponized umbrellas was later discovered in the offices of the Bulgarian interior ministry. Two weeks prior, another Bulgarian dissident, Vladimir Kostov, had been shot in the back in Paris with a similar pellet fired by a contraption hidden inside a briefcase. After hearing about Markov’s death, he went to the hospital and the pellet was extracted. It was found to contain ricin. A wax coating that was supposed to dissolve upon entry to his body had remained mostly intact, keeping the poison from entering his body and thus saving his life. Three years later, an attempt was made on the life of Polish double agent Boris Korczak using the same method.

Poisoned epistles, with their lower overhead and ease of delivery, have proven even more popular than the James Bond-style gadgets of the Cold War. In October and November 2003, two threatening letters were detected by law enforcement; one was headed for the White House. Written by a person using the pseudonym Fallen Angel, they claimed that if trucking regulations that reduced the time a driver could spend behind the wheel were not repealed, ricin would be used to turn Washington, D.C. into a “ghost town.” Both letters contained vials of ricin. The culprit was never discovered. 

In <a href="https://www.gq.com/story/paul-kevin-curtis-elvis-impersonator-ricin-assassinations">April 2013</a>, a Mississippi tae kwon do instructor attempted to frame his enemy, an Elvis impersonator, by sending envelopes of ricin to a local judge, Senator Roger Wicker, and President Barack Obama. His version of ricin, however, contained less than 1 percent of the toxin. Amusingly, he was a member of Mensa. A scant month later, actress Shannon Richardson <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2014/07/16/justice/texas-ricin-actress-sentenced/index.html">was arrested for having mailed ricin</a> to Obama, then-New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg, and Mark Glaze, an anti-gun activist. She had been attempting to frame her estranged husband. And <a href="http://time.com/5046324/ricin-wake-robin-betty-miller-vermont/">in 2017</a>, a Vermont retiree, taking a more direct route, was arrested after confessing that she had tested ricin on her fellow residents at an assisted living facility, ultimately hoping to use it on herself.

For all of its use in spycraft and murder plots, ricin has actually shown promise as a cancer treatment. By modifying the type of receptors to which it binds, researchers have successfully induced it to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26349746">selectively kill cancer cells</a>. But for now, ricin remains the ultimate sign-off for homicidal scribes.

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By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

What makes ricin toxic: A complicated history

They say letter writing is a lost art. But a...

A recent <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/romaine-lettuce-not-safe/">E. coli</a> outbreak caused by contaminated romaine lettuce was declared by federal investigators to be over, as there had been no cases of illness caused by the bacteria known as O157:H7 for over a month. 

However, the investigators who announced the end to this outbreak have let on that the investigation did not go as they had hoped. They were unable to confirm the source of the bacteria that led to over 90 people becoming ill. This is now the third failed investigation into romaine lettuce E. coli outbreaks in the last year.

Due to this inability to pinpoint the causes of these outbreaks, there hasn’t been a concentrated effort to make any changes that can prevent future issues – and there may be a reason behind the inability to solve contamination issues with lettuce. According to a report from <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/can-lettuce-survive-climate-change/">WIRED</a>, there is a growing concern within the industry that extreme weather events are making crops more vulnerable to contamination. If this is true, the effects of climate change are likely only to make things worse in the future.

After a major E. coli outbreak occurred in bagged raw spinach back in 2006 (resulting in 199 illnesses and three deaths), the industry passed major reforms in California and Arizona – the two main lettuce-growing states. Ensuing outbreaks have been smaller, but in the past year there has been a resurgence of outbreaks.

The proximate cause of the 2018 outbreaks was E. coli found in water used on farms, potentially due to the proximity of the water sources to livestock (although this was not supported by tests done on the suspected cows). As a solution, buffer zones where lettuce cannot be grown on farms near livestock operations were tripled in size, and open water sources have begun to be disinfected. But the extreme weather hypothesis held amongst some growers and investigators would not be addressed by those changes.

The outbreak in the spring of 2018 (210 illnesses and five deaths) was traced back to farms in Yuma, Arizona. While the suspected contaminated lettuce was still on the field, there was an extreme weather occurrence involving unusual frost followed by strong winds. It’s hypothesized that the freeze blistered the leaves, then the winds blasted bacteria into these blisters and allowed the pathogens to work their way into the vascular channels of the leaves where they could not be washed away.

According to <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/can-lettuce-survive-climate-change/">WIRED</a>, weather is not solely responsible for contamination. Rather, it can be thought of as “an amplifier,” according to Trevor Suslow, a plant pathologist and president of food safety for the Produce Marketing Association. He told <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/can-lettuce-survive-climate-change/">WIRED</a> that weather is ““something that shifts either the plant’s level of exposure or the conditions under which the E. coli can multiply.” According to Suslow, grows may have to monitor the air and water on their farms more closely, keeping an eye out for pathogens that could be transported onto their farms. They should also be watching the weather to be able to protect plants from damage. 

Given these recent outbreaks, the focus needs to be on protecting the consumer from deadly bacteria, rather than attempting to salvage the produce that’s left behind.

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Is extreme weather behind the recent E. coli outbreaks?

A recent E. coli outbreak caused by contaminated romaine lettuce...

Poppy flowers grow in splashy, stunning reds, yellows, oranges and even white – but with their thin petals, how do they manage to be so bright?

Dr. Casper van der Kooi and Dr. Doekele Stavenga of the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en">University of Groningen</a> set out to crack the code, using microscopy and mathematical modeling. They got an inside look at how light interacts with the super-thin petals of poppy flowers to create their vibrant colors.

Poppy petals are made up of just three layers of cells, but that doesn’t dim their colors.

“The common poppy is an extreme case. It has very thin petals that nevertheless cause a very high scattering of light. Poppies also contain high concentrations of pigments,” van der Kooi said.

The researchers collected a selection of petals from a variety of poppy species, then studied their structures. What they found was surprising: the color is only found in the outer two layers of cells, not the middle layer. Additionally, the outer cells were oddly shaped.

“This creates many air-filled gaps between the cells, which cause the reflection of light on the cell/air boundary,” van der Kooi said.

Despite that, the petals contain an enormous amount of pigment. In fact, the black markings in the center of some red poppy flowers isn’t black at all – it’s super-saturated red.

“They are among the highest concentrations that I have ever measured in any flower,” van der Kooi said.

In the case of European poppies, which reflect ultraviolet light, the color adaptations may have come as a way to attract bees, the flower’s main pollinator in Europe. In the Middle East, where beetles are the major pollinators of poppy flowers, the color must attract the bugs as Middle Eastern poppies don’t reflect ultraviolet. Bees can’t see red very well, but can see ultraviolet light; the Middle Eastern beetles see the colors poppies sport.

“Moreover, previous studies have shown that the black spots at the heart of some poppies mimic the presence of a female beetle. This is a way for the flowers to attract male beetles. A case of sexual mimicry, as occurs in other plants such as orchids,” van der Kooi said.

The study has been published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00359-018-01313-1">Journal of Comparative Physiology A</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Poppy flowers are bright and splashy – here's why

Poppy flowers grow in splashy, stunning reds, yellows, oranges and...

New research published by <a href="https://www.unl.edu/">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a> shows that in Earth’s largest mass extinction, plants were likely killed off before animals started to wink out.  While this pattern of death is somewhat intuitive, it has real implications to our lives today.

About 252 million years ago, 70% of land vertebrates like you and me died off.  Along with animals living on land, 96% of ocean life also died off. The cause of the extinction seems to be from massive volcanic eruptions in what is now modern Siberia triggered by collision of tectonic plates.  

The volcanic eruptions threw ash and other pollutants into the air, creating a global cooling event, similar to a hypothetical nuclear winter.  Nickel from the eruption in particular may have killed off plants now fossilized in Australia 400,000 years before most of the marine extinctions occurred.  Scientists with University of Nebraska-Lincoln have been studying pollen fossils in the sea cliffs of Australia’s Sydney Basin where high levels of nickel have been found associated with pollen.  The scientists hypothesize that the nickel was turned into an aerosol by the volcanic eruptions in Siberia, and rained down on plant life, poisoning it and kicking off the mass extinction event. Unexpectedly high levels of nickel have been recorded in other parts of the world as well.    

The extinction, commonly called the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/permian-mass-extinction/">end Permian extinction event</a>, came along at a time of great change in the history of life on Earth.  In the Permian oceans, there was a rich diversity of shellfish. There were cephalopods that looked much like the modern nautilus with coiled snail-like shells enclosing bodies more like squids.  On land, enormous primitive dragonflies were fearsome predators. Mammals were just on the verge of evolving from reptiles. The whole planet was alien to modern eyes but full of an abundance of wildlife.  Plants of the time were mainly ‘primitive’; flowering plants not having evolved yet. Still the primitive forms supported entire ecosystems and filled niches later occupied by more ‘advanced’ forms. Ferns, mosses, gymnosperms and equisetum are a few examples of the plants that dominated the Permian landscape.      

If nickel did indeed kill off large amounts of plants, it’s easy to see how this would devastate whole ecosystems.  When there are no plants, herbivores starve and die. When there are no herbivores, carnivores starve and die. It’s a pretty straightforward connection between the extinction of plants and the extinction of animals.

An earlier paper in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818110002286">Global and Planetary Change</a> discusses how plant composition changed at the extinction at the end of the Permian.  Before the end Permian extinction event, gymnosperms seem to be the most prevalent plants.  Gymnosperms are best represented today by conifers such as pine trees, that is plants bearing cones are gymnosperms as opposed to flowered plants.  Gymnosperms are more often pollinated by wind than insects like flowering plants. After the end Permian extinction event, there is a shift from a dominance of gymnosperms in the fossil record to a dominance of lycopods.  Lycopods are plants much more easily missed than gymnosperms. Commonly known as ground pines or creeping cedars, lycopods reproduce via spores, similar to ferns. Lycopods are small and inconspicuous for the most part, looking a little like mosses with small cones that bear their spores sticking above the soil.

Interestingly, the shift from gymnosperm dominance to that of lycopods was relatively short-lived.  Despite plants being the first to die off, they also seem to be some of the first organisms to rebound from the massive extinction.  All major plant groups ended up surviving the end Permian extinction and helps to explain the lesser extent to which land animals died off when compared to marine organisms.  Perhaps even more interestingly, the turnover of different plant regimes and the rebound of plant diversity are linked to carbon in the atmosphere. 

A study published in <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6419/eaat1327">Science</a> suggests that indeed, it was carbon and related ocean warming that drove the extinction of marine species.  The research shows that oceans at the end of the Permian rose in temperature by a staggering 20°F, and caused the loss of 80% of the ocean’s oxygen.  This change in temperature and dissolved gases obviously had devastating effects on life. In the long run, we can say that the oceans ‘recovered’ meaning that an abundance of new species evolved and again filled the waters with life.  In another view, something was lost forever. Individual species lost are lost forever but diversity can again recovery over extremely long periods of time. It’s easy to think of it like this – an individual child may die and the parents of that child might have three more.  We can say that on some level the family recovered from the loss of the child but we know on another level, they will never be the same.

An article in <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/priyashukla/2018/12/10/what-we-can-learn-from-a-252-million-year-old-ocean-extinction/#535a08f4706e">Forbes</a> asks, ‘What can we learn’ from the Permian extinction?  As we are in a new age of mass extinction, partially caused by carbon emissions, there is a lot we can learn.  One disturbing takeaway is that ocean life may suffer more from climate change than terrestrial biota. Another lesson is that plant life is of utmost importance to the resilience and survival of terrestrial biodiversity.  It’s disturbing that along with carbon emissions, humans are also destroying millions of acres of forests. We’re also massively altering plant communities with agriculture. Sadly, we can only learn so much from the end Permian extinction because it happened at a much slower pace than our current extinction event.  The Permian event was on a scale of millions of years, now we’re working on a scale of hundreds or thousands of years. Beyond climate, habitat destruction, resource overuse, overhunting, and many more human created problems are driving our current extinction event. Only time will tell if plants can lead another rebound in diversity of life once humans are done wreaking destruction.      

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The plants go first: Lessons from Earth’s largest mass extinction

New research published by University of Nebraska-Lincoln shows that in...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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