Everyone loves trees. If you don't, you should! Trees are nature's stalwart allies -- providing shade, natural beauty, and most importantly, working tirelessly to purify our air. 



However, recent findings prompt us to ponder if some trees might, in their unique way, contribute to air pollution. Could that oak tree you so admire in your yard be a part of the problem?



Tom Sharkey, an esteemed scientists at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>, has been studying this interesting possibility. Recently, Sharkey posed a thought-provoking question: "Should we cut down all the oak trees?" 



Don't worry, he's not serious about chopping them down. Instead, he's highlighting a complex issue uncovered by his latest research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoprene-oak-trees-and-climate-change">Isoprene, oak trees, and climate change</h2>



At the center of this discussion is a compound called isoprene. Many people haven't heard of it, but it's important in both plant biology and environmental science. 



Isoprene is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-diversity-takes-a-hard-hit-near-offshore-platforms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrocarbon</a> that trees like oaks and poplars release, especially during photosynthesis. It helps plants deal with stress like high temperatures and insect attacks, acting like a natural defense.



"Working with Tom, you realize plants really do emit a lot of isoprene," says Mohammad Mostofa, an assistant professor in Sharkey's lab. But this emission has a downside. 



While isoprene makes plants more resilient, it can also react with pollutants like nitrogen oxides -- from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">car exhausts</a> and industrial activities -- to form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground-level ozone</a> and fine particulate matter. These pollutants can lead to health problems like respiratory issues. 



The Environmental Protection Agency (<a href="https://www.epa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a>) notes that exposure to ground-level ozone can cause chest pain, coughing, and throat irritation, and can worsen conditions like bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-temperatures-and-isoprene-production">Rising temperatures and isoprene production</h2>



Sharkey and his team published their findings in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. They wanted to understand how rising temperatures and increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide levels</a> affect how much isoprene plants produce. 



"We were looking for a regulation point in isoprene's biosynthesis pathway under high carbon dioxide," explains Abira Sahu, the lead author and a postdoctoral research associate in Sharkey's group. "Scientists have been trying to find this for a long time, and finally, we have the answer."



Their experiments with poplar plants showed that while higher carbon dioxide levels can reduce isoprene production, increased temperatures have a stronger effect in boosting it. 



"By the time you're at 95 degrees Fahrenheit -- 35 degrees Celsius -- there's basically no CO₂ suppression. Isoprene is pouring out like crazy," Sharkey explained.



In fact, when a leaf experienced a temperature rise of 10 degrees Celsius, its isoprene emission increased more than tenfold. 



This suggests that as the planet warms, plants could emit significantly more isoprene, potentially making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-and-bushes-near-highways-improve-air-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> problems worse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoprene-as-an-environmental-dilemma">Isoprene as an environmental dilemma</h2>



This discovery presents a tricky situation. On one hand, isoprene helps plants survive environmental stresses, which is important as climate change brings more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-global-warmings-impact-on-extreme-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>. 



On the other hand, increased isoprene emissions can worsen air pollution, posing health risks to people and animals.



"Do we want plants to make more isoprene so they're more resilient, or do we want them making less so it's not making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-profoundly-impairs-childrens-cognitive-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> worse? What's the right balance?" Sharkey asks. 



These are tough questions without easy answers. The relationship between plant emissions and air quality is more complicated than we thought, and it requires careful consideration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-solutions">Searching for solutions</h2>



One possible solution is to be more selective about the types of trees we plant, especially in cities. 



Michigan State University, with over 20,000 trees, could set an example by planting fewer isoprene-emitting species like oaks and poplars, and choosing trees that emit less isoprene, such as certain maples or pines.



"We could be doing a better job," says Mostofa. By carefully choosing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a>, communities can help reduce isoprene emissions without losing the benefits that trees provide. 



This approach would involve cooperation between scientists, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planners</a>, and policymakers to make informed decisions.



But Sharkey has another idea. "My suggestion is that we should do a better job controlling nitrogen oxide pollution," he posits. 



By reducing emissions from vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes, we can lower the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrous-oxide-emissions-have-increased-at-an-unprecedented-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen oxides</a> that react with isoprene. 



Tackling the problem from both sides -- reducing pollution sources and managing tree types -- could be more effective.



Public awareness and policy changes are key to addressing this issue. Educating communities about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different tree species</a> impact air quality can lead to better choices in urban planning. 



Policymakers can also support efforts to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions and encourage research into plants that are both resilient and low in isoprene emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Isoprene emissions have global implications -- it's the second most emitted hydrocarbon on Earth, after methane emissions from human activities. 



While methane has been widely studied because of its impact on climate change, isoprene hasn't received as much attention. 



However, isoprene contributes to the formation of secondary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosol-formation-earths-lower-atmosphere-soas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic aerosols</a>, which affect cloud formation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate patterns</a>. These aerosols can influence the Earth's climate system in significant ways.



Understanding the role of isoprene in our atmosphere is essential as we develop strategies to fight climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Sharkey’s findings show the need for ongoing research. As climate change continues to alter natural processes, we must keep learning and adapting. 



"The more we understand, the more effectively we can answer these fundamental questions," Sharkey says. 



Future studies might explore ways to reduce isoprene emissions without harming plant resilience or find plant varieties that emit less isoprene but still thrive.



Combining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-sleap-creating-new-plants-that-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant biology</a>, atmospheric science, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-plastics-treaty-tackles-the-pollution-problem-directly-at-the-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental policy</a> will be crucial in developing strategies to manage isoprene emissions and their impact on air quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-isoprene-and-our-warming-world">Trees, isoprene, and our warming world</h2>



To sum it all up, the relationship between trees, pollution, and climate change is complex. It's not about cutting down all the oaks or poplars, but about finding solutions that balance the benefits and drawbacks of isoprene emissions. 



With continued research, smart urban planning, and effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-composition-of-us-air-pollution-has-changed-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution control</a>, we can aim for a future where our forests stay healthy and our air is clean.



Tom Sharkey and his team at Michigan State University are leading the way in understanding these complex interactions. 



Sarathi Weraduwage, a former postdoctoral researcher in Sharkey's lab and now an assistant professor at Bishop's University in Quebec, also contributed to the research. 



Their work emphasizes the importance of looking deeper into how our environment works. By balancing the roles of trees as both helpers and potential polluters, we can develop strategies that support both nature and human health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2309536120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Should we cut down all the oak trees? Disturbing question, strange answer

Everyone loves trees. If you don't, you should! Trees are nature's stalwart allies -- providing shade, natural beauty, and most importantly, working tirelessly to purify our air. However, recent findings prompt us to ponder if some trees might, in their unique way, contribute to air pollution. Could that oak tree you so admire in your yard be a part of the problem? Tom Sharkey, an esteemed scientists at Michigan State University, has been studying this interesting possibility. Recently, Sharkey posed a thought-provoking question: "Should we cut down...

Biologists and engineers from The Netherlands and Mexico are describing studies and field observations around the Caribbean Sea that demonstrate just how effective seagrass beds are in protecting tropical beaches from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-beach-erosion-threatens-protected-marine-areas/">erosion</a>. The experts report that seagrass beds can reduce the need for the expensive beach nourishments that are currently used. 

Study lead author Rebecca James is a PhD-candidate at the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en">University of Groningen</a> and the <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en">Royal Dutch Institute for Sea Research</a> (NIOZ).

“A foreshore with both healthy seagrass beds as well as calcifying algae, is a resilient and sustainable option in coastal defense,” said James. “Because of erosion, the economic value of Caribbean beaches literally drains into the sea.”

The study authors focused on beaches of the Caribbean Sea, where economies largely  depend on revenue from tourism that is centered around the beaches. 

“With the increase of coastal development, the natural flow of water and sand is disrupted, natural ecosystems are damaged, and many tropical beaches have already disappeared into the sea,” explained study co-author Rodolfo Silva.

“Until now, expensive coastal engineering efforts, such as repeated beach nourishments and concrete walls to protect the coast, have been made to combat erosion. Rising sea-level and increasing storms will only increase the loss of these important beaches.”

The team conducted a simple experiment to determine to what extent seagrass beds are able to hold sand and sediment on the beach foreshores. 

“We showed that seagrass beds were extremely effective at holding sediment in place,” said James. “Especially in combination with calcifying algae that ‘create their own sand,’ a foreshore with healthy seagrass appeared a sustainable way of combating erosion.”

Study co-author Dr. Brigitta van Tussenbroek said the team discovered that the amount of erosion was strongly linked to the amount of vegetation. At beaches where seagrass beds were destroyed, there was an abrupt increase in erosion, which created a need for expensive modifications. 


Bas Roels of World Wildlife Fund Netherlands said: “To date, seagrass beds are too often regarded as a nuisance, rather than a valuable asset for preserving touristically valuable coastlines. This study could change this perspective completely.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience">BioScience</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seagrass plays an important role in preserving beaches

Biologists and engineers from The Netherlands and Mexico are describing...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> are urging other experts to take advantage of the massive data resources that are available to help predict how plants will respond to human-induced <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-bodies-increasingly-polluted/">environmental changes</a>. The researchers are also asking their colleagues to help answer longstanding questions about plant diversity. 

“Using big data to address major biodiversity issues at the global scale has enormous practical implications, ranging from conservation efforts to predicting and buffering the impacts of climate change,” said study co-author Doug Soltis. “The links between big data resources we see now were unimaginable just a decade ago. The time is ripe to leverage these tools and applications, not just for plants but for all groups of organisms.”

For several centuries, natural history museums have accumulated massive collections with billions of specimens and much of their associated data is now available online. New technologies such as remote sensors and drones give scientists the opportunity to monitor plants and animals and share data in real time. In addition, citizen scientists are documenting their observations using digital tools such as iNaturalist.

As all of these databases have grown, so have the computational tools needed to analyze and link them. The development of systems such as GenBank, which stores DNA sequences, makes it possible for a study that was previously focused on a single plant community to be expanded on a global level. 

Study co-lead author Julie Allen is an assistant professor in the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/">University of Nevada-Reno</a> Department of Biology.

“We're in this exciting and terrifying time in which the unprecedented amount of data available to us intersects with global threats to biodiversity such as habitat loss and climate change,” said Professor Allen. “Understanding the processes that have shaped our world - how plants are doing, where they are now and why - can help us get a handle on how they might respond to future changes.”


“We can't survive without plants,” said co-lead author Ryan Folk. “A lot of groups evolved in the shadow of flowering plants. As these plants spread and diversified, so did ants, beetles, ferns and other organisms. They are the base layer to the diversity of life we see on the planet today.”

In addition to using and growing plant data resources, the researchers hope the scientific community will address one of the toughest remaining obstacles, which is finding a way for these large databases to work smoothly with each other.

“This is still a huge limitation,” said Professor Allen. “The data in each system are often collected in completely different ways. Integrating these to connect in seamless ways is a major challenge.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Big data can help monitor plant health and protect biodiversity

Scientists at the Florida Museum of Natural History are urging...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.sussex.ac.uk/">University of Sussex</a> have found that using a rose-scented blast of fragrance in cars could literally save lives. The researchers claim that exposing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/teen-drivers-text/">drivers</a> to a calming scent can alert them to dangers on the road and reduce the number of car accidents.

The study was focused on an experiment in a simulated driving rig. The scientists connected a spraying device to the center of the steering wheel which released a fragrance when the imitation vehicle approached any danger, such as an unpredictable driver or cyclist.

The researchers tested out several different scents, such as rose, lemon, and civet. The study revealed that the smell of rose reduced simulated car crashes by 64 percent. The musky smell of civet was also found to reduce the number of accidents by 46 percent.

According to the researchers, the use of fragrances in cars may be capable of alerting the brain more quickly than a visual signal because people naturally react faster to smells. 

While many cars already offer fragrances at the touch of a button, the new system will not be ready for real-world application until an artificially intelligent device is developed to detect various hazards in proximity to a vehicle. 

“The idea was inspired by trends in the auto industry - the use of different in-car perfumes,” said study co-author Dmitrijs Dmitrenko. “Obviously smell is very hard to investigate, it's very hard to control and hard to get it right.”

“People in the industry are put off by the idea because they don't know how to control the olfactory stimuli [scents]. But we built this equipment that enables this.”

“One of the advantages of smell over sight is that smell is quicker at reaching the brain. Smells take a while to reach the nose, but once the smell molecules reach the nose, the transition to nose and brain is quicker than eyes and ears.”

The researchers pointed out that a rose-scented air freshener would lose its effect because the nose would become accustomed to the smell. A puff from time to time, however, is much more powerful.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rose-scented fragrance could keep drivers alert, prevent accidents

Experts at the University of Sussex have found that using...

Christmas tree pine needles could soon be used in an array of products including paint and sweeteners, thanks to new research from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a>.  

The Christmas pine tree is a staple in many households this time of year, but as 2019 fast approaches, that same Christmas tree quickly turns from festive holiday decoration to a blight and fire hazard. 

Some cities offer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmentally-friendly-christmas-tree/">Christmas tree recycling programs</a>, and trees are usually ground up into free mulch that residents can use in their yards and gardens. 

It’s a wonderful idea, and more and more cities are offering free tree recycling programs after the holidays every year. However, for every tree that’s recycled, millions more end up in landfills and pine needles take a long time to biodegrade. 

In the US alone, around 25 to 30 million real Christmas trees are sold every year, according to the <a href="http://www.realchristmastrees.org/dnn/Education/Quick-Tree-Facts">National Christmas Tree Association</a>, and in the UK around seven million of the eight million trees used to decorate homes for the holidays end up in a landfill. 

Pine needles emit large amounts of greenhouse gases as they decompose and so even though Christmas trees are biodegradable, they are still contributing to atmospheric greenhouse gas levels every year and adding to a city’s or country’s carbon footprint. 

Researchers from the University of Sheffield have developed a new solution for recycling Christmas trees and found a way to break down the complex polymer in pine needles. 

Once this polymer, known as lignocellulose, is broken down, it could be used in many different products such as adhesives and food sweeteners. 

“My research has been focused on the breakdown of this complex structure into simple, high-valued industrial chemical feedstocks such as sugars and phenolics, which are used in products like household cleaners and mouthwash,” said Cynthia Kartey, who headed the new research. “Biorefineries would be able to use a relatively simple but unexplored process to break down the pine needles.”

Kartey discovered that heat and solvents like glycerol which are environmentally friendly help break down the lignocellulose into liquid bio-oil and solid bio-char. 

The bio-oil has many useful chemicals like glucose and phenol acids, and overall the process is completely sustainable.

Recycling pine trees this way would help keep trees out of the landfills and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from pine needles in landfills. 

“The use of biomass - materials derived from plants - to produce fuels and chemicals currently manufactured from fossil resources will play a key role in the future global economy,” said James McGregor, a member of the research team. “If we can utilise materials that would otherwise go to waste in such processes, thereby recycling them, then there are further benefits.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Christmas tree pine needles can be turned into sweeteners and paint

Christmas tree pine needles could soon be used in an...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> has identified more than 50 Australian plant species that could vanish over the next decade. According to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk">The Guardian</a>, only 12 of these species are classified as critically endangered under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, and 13 of the species are not even listed. 

The findings of the study, which was the first major investigation into Australia's flora in over 20 years, suggest that the country’s endangered list is not a reliable indicator of which species need the most urgent attention. 

The researchers evaluated the rate of decline among 1,135 species that qualified for either a critical or endangered listing. They reviewed all known literature on the plants, including peer-reviewed research, and interviewed over 100 experts.

The study revealed that 55 species had fewer than 250 individual plants or only a single population remaining. These species could completely disappear in the next ten years.

The researchers also found around 56 species of plants that are currently listed as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/giraffe-subspecies-critically-endangered/">critically endangered</a> that were not in a state of decline and, in some cases, were increasing in population size. 

“This points to a clear need for re-evaluation and standardization of current lists, and consistent application of IUCN listing guidelines,” wrote the study authors. “There is also a need to collect systematic, repeatable field data for most of [the] species, to back up suspected and projected declines and provide a stronger basis for investment in recovery actions.”


Study lead author Jennifer Silcock said that many of the most endangered species were concentrated in specific regions.

“Some of these species, it would just take a grader truck from a council to accidentally run over them to destroy a whole population,” Silcock told The Guardian. “Some of these areas are only a couple of meters wide.”


Silcock pointed out that the fate of Australia's flora does not yet appear as doomed as Australian fauna.

“Australian plant conservation is not the disaster zone that mammal conservation is,” she told The Guardian. “A lot of the species are doing quite well but it’s not a reason for complacency because a lot of these species are right on the edge. It’s a good news story in that there are things we can do, but it’s a call to action because if we don’t do something there are species that will be lost.”

The research is published in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/journal/0067-1924_Australian_Journal_of_Botany">Australian Journal of Botany</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

55 Australian plant species could vanish over the next decade

A new study from the University of Queensland has identified...

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cacti-birds-sonoran-desert/">Sonoran Desert</a> is towered over by one of the most iconic of plants.  <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_cactus_.php#columnar">Saguaro cacti</a> (Carnegiea gigantea) are so unique that seeing one in a photo, a painting or in person brings to mind scenes of the old west and wild desert.  The saguaro is unsurprisingly, the largest cactus found in the US and it’s certainly one of the easiest to recognize, nothing very similar is found through most of the saguaro’s range in the US.  

There of course are organ pipe cacti of the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/orpi/index.htm">Organ Pipe National Monument</a> but organ pipe cactus appear more like a cluster of cactus-like tentacles erupting from the ground than the singular trunk with arms of the saguaro.  If you drive south of the border, the simple image of the giant columnar cacti painted in Arizona becomes complicated. 

The Mexican giant cardon (Pachycereus pringlei) might be confusing as it’s found just south of the border in Sonora, Baja California and Baja California Sur; the cardon grows much larger than even the saguaro though.  Throughout the Americas, there are approximately <a href="https://uapress.arizona.edu/book/columnar-cacti-and-their-mutualists">170 species</a> of columnar cacti.  Columnar cacti can be found even in the Andes, where driving from the Amazon and cresting the mountains a transition into stark desert where rain is rare can be shocking.  Even with the broad range of columnar cacti as a group, it’s hard not to be impressed by what amounts to a very dry forest made of towering cacti surrounded by various ‘shrubs’ that are also a half-dozen species of cacti.  This is the magic of the Sonoran Desert in Arizona.

Saguaros are an important part of the Sonoran desert as something of a keystone species.  Saguaros are pollinated by bees, birds and less commonly by bats. Coyotes and other wildlife eat the saguaro fruit.  Gila woodpeckers peck nests into the outer part of saguaros while gilded flickers hammer deeper into the cactus for their homes.  The Gila causes no serious damage but the gilded flicker is a less friendly woodpecker and can cause real harm to its host. Stems weakened by gilded flicker homes may break in storms and eventually cause the death of a saguaro.  

Many invertebrates make good use of the saguaro for a home as well and empty woodpecker burrows are used by owls.  Hawks and other larger birds sometimes make nests where the saguaro arms meet with the main trunk as they would with a tree.  Native peoples have long collected saguaro fruits for food as well as wine. Some native people also used the waxy ‘boots’ that form when a woodpecker makes a hole in the saguaro to carry water or food in.  Ribs from dead saguaros are good for creating shaded ramadas, furniture and can sometimes be handy walking sticks. 

The main cause of death for the saguaro in their upland habitat in Arizona where they’re most plentiful is freezing.  A saguaro that survives a freeze is marked with a pinched section drawn around its trunk. Lighting also hits some saguaros, causing a tremendous explosion of the cactus.  Saguaros like all plants must die, but is the future for the entire species threatened?

There is a persisting tale of a slow demise of the saguaro.  <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_cactus_.php#columnar">The Desert Museum</a> reports that the first fear of saguaro extinction dates back to the 1940s and it explains why there is an eastern and western unit to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/sagu/index.htm">Saguaro National Park</a>, on either side of Tucson Arizona.  The eastern section of Saguaro National Park was first selected because the area was full of large, impressive, mature saguaro cacti.  These were older individuals nearing the end of their 150 to 200 year life span. 

 Because of ranching in the area, much of the Palo Verde and other bushes that create shade where young saguaros start their lives were absent.  There were very few young or middle aged saguaros in the original Saguaro National Park. So the older cacti started dying in large numbers and the park officials panicked.  

The western unit of Saguaro National Park was founded on the other side of Tucson in hopes of protecting the cacti even if all the saguaros in the east died of a mysterious disease.  Dead cacti were bulldozed and buried in the desert in hopes of stopping an unknown pathogen. Over time, the idea of the decline of the saguaro has surfaced again and again, due to bad science and sensationalized journalism.  Again, the idea of a mass saguaro die off is in print and it’s fair to ask whether this time is different.

<a href="https://tucson.com/news/local/after-decades-of-watching-saguaros-couple-finds-fewer-seedlings-is/article_28a5296a-8b64-5637-9cde-1eb19fa114e9.html#tncms-source=infinity-scroll-summary-siderail-latest">Tucson.com</a> reported on December 10, 2018 that scientific monitoring is finding fewer saguaro seedlings than usual.  Tom Orum and his wife Nancy Ferguson have monitored saguaro cacti in the eastern unit of Saguaro National Park for forty years.  The scope of their work is looking at 600 individual saguaros spread over 60 acres. The saguaros have been continuously monitored since 1941.  Tom and Nancy are the third generation of monitors. Since the 1990s, it seems like the couple might’ve noticed a decline in young saguaro numbers.  

A 2018 study shows that indeed there are fewer saguaros on both sides of the National Park. According to Pinal Central, a survey headed by National Park biologist Don Swann found only 70 saguaros younger than 15 years in 10,000 saguaros in the whole park.  Older saguaros are well adapted to the hot, dry climate of the Sonoran desert. Younger cacti are more dependent on the two rainy seasons of the region.

Arizona has been in a drought since 2000 and it’s unclear whether climate change is causing the drier conditions.  A recent study found that since 1950, Saguaro National Park has warmed by roughly 1.2 degrees Celsius. Saguaros are dependent on specific climatic conditions; the change in temperature could presage a slow march to higher elevation by the cactus.  Eventually the high ground would run out if conditions continued to warm and then the saguaro would die out. 

 As bleak as that scenario is, it’s far from certain.  It’s good to remember history and be cautious. Tom Orum, the cacti monitor, himself a retired plant pathologist thinks more research is needed before we cry wolf.  Saguaros have been monitored for only a very short period, especially for a plant that can outlive a person by 100 years or more under good conditions. Scientists have jumped the gun in crying doom for the saguaro more than once before.  Let’s hope this time it’s another case of no news for the west’s most iconic cactus. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The decline of the saguaro?

The Sonoran Desert is towered over by one of the...

For over 150 years, scientists have been working to solve the mystery of the primrose plant and its two unique flowering forms. Famed naturalist Charles Darwin was drawn to the primrose and the inner workings of the plant's reproduction.

Now in a new study published in the journal Scientific Reports, researchers from the<a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/"> University of East Anglia</a> have successfully sequenced the complete <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-fern-genome-sequencing/">genome</a> of the primrose. 

The results help shed some light on the puzzling biology of the plant. 

“We started many years ago with a packet of seeds and a vision to understand the molecular genetics and developmental biology of the reproductive system Darwin described in 1862,” said Philip Gilmartin, a member of the research team. 

Primula vulgaris flower with a long style and low anthers or short style and long anthers. The style of a plant is one of the main parts of the reproductive organs and allows pollen to reach the ovary via a tube. Anthers produce pollen in the plant. 

Researchers have wondered why plants like the primrose flower these two ways, but after sequencing the primrose genome, it was discovered that the answer lies in the in a cluster of genes known as the S (style length) locus. 

In the new study, the researchers found that the S-locus controls many genes responsible for development but is absent from half of the plants in the primrose species.

The different patterns of gene expression and activated genes depends on the S-locus which is why there are two different flowering forms. 

“Completion of the genome sequence paves the way to identify the genes that are regulated by the S locus, and adds more pieces to the puzzle,” said Gilmartin. “A long line of scientists, from Darwin in the 1860s through Bateson in the early 1900s, to Haldane and Fisher in the mid 1900's have been gripped and we continue to unravel the mystery piece by piece.”

The researchers plan to continue their investigations and see if there are similar underlying mechanisms at work in buckwheat plants, which also have two distinct flowering forms.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How the primrose flowers in such unique formations

For over 150 years, scientists have been working to solve...

Federally mandated fire suppression tactics have caused forests to become more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/determining-ecosystem-sensitivity-to-environmental-stress/">drought and fire</a> intolerant across the US. 

Researchers from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University </a>and <a href="http://www.usu.edu/">Utah State University</a> examined tree rings in Central Oregon to understand the impacts of fire suppression and increasing levels of atmospheric CO2 on tree growth, drought tolerance, and forest composition. 

The study was published in the journal Global Change Biology, and the results present a clear picture of how dense forest growth due to fire suppression tactics has changed how trees photosynthesize and take in water. 

Fire suppression also makes forests more susceptible to pests, disease, and wildfires, according to the researchers. 

In 1910, wildfire suppression became a federal policy and as such young, fire and drought intolerant grand firs were allowed to flourish among ancient ponderosa pines in Central Oregon. 

Not only did this increase fire risk because forests grew thicker, but the added competition for water over the past century forced trees to take in a heavier carbon isotope rather than the preferred lighter one. 

The researchers collected and analyzed tree-ring data from 2,800 hectares of mixed-conifer forests to find physiological evidence that fire suppression negatively impacted tree growth over  the years. 

Tree rings not only tell the age of a tree, but the color and chemical composition of each ring can also reveal what environmental and climate conditions were like during the year each ring was formed and what carbon isotopes the tree had to rely on for photosynthesis. 

“We've known for a long time that fire suppression has led to crowded forests, which means more competition for resources,” said Andrew Merschel, a co-author of the study. “We've known that because of that, trees are more prone to drought, which makes sense - there's less water reaching deep below ground and more trees pumping it out. Our research shows in a physiological way what's happening. We thought there would be signals in the annual tree rings, and there are.”

Denser forests also mean less snowpack which is another major risk factor for drought and wildfires. 

The researchers say that unless significant policy changes are implemented to decrease fire suppression and allow forests to go back to their natural, less dense states, drought, and wildfires will become more frequent. 

“We cannot predict exactly how all of these factors affecting forests will interact in the future, but it is certain that lower-density forests will have more snow and less drought stress,” said Steven Voelker, the lead author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fire suppression tactics have resulted in drought-sensitive forests

Federally mandated fire suppression tactics have caused forests to become...

Earlier this month, Congress passed the 2018 Farm Bill with strong support from both Democrats and Republicans in an effort to give American farmers some reprieve from the ongoing trade war with China.

The $867 billion farm bill includes new subsidies for farmers and legalizes hemp production. Something that could have a huge impact on agriculture across the United States. 

Industrial hemp is widely used in thousands of products. You can find hemp in everything from cosmetics and beauty products, to food and beverages, to fabrics and textiles, to automotive parts. 

According to <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidcarpenter/2018/12/20/legal-hemp-in-2019-may-be-a-boon-for-stressed-out-american-farmers/#324e363c8f3b">Forbes</a>, industrial hemp is widely used in over 25,000 products. 

However, production of hemp in the US has been tightly restricted in the past because it was listed as a controlled substance, along with all varieties of cannabis, in the Controlled Substances Act for 50 years. 

Now farmers can freely grow and transport hemp across state lines as per the rules defined into the new bill, and this opens up a wealth of new opportunities for the agricultural industry. 

As climate change-induced drought and extreme weather events continue to strain water resources and limit crop yields, hardy, frost resistant crops like hemp will soon become a staple as more and farmers look for sustainable crop options to meet demand. 

The 2014 Farm Bill allowed some hemp pilot programs, and in 2018, over 3,500 participants in that program had planted more than 77,000 acres of hemp across the US, according to <a href="https://www.votehemp.com/hemp-news/hemp-in-the-farm-bill-what-does-it-mean/">Vote Hemp</a>, a hemp advocacy group. 

Vote Hemp says that the tight regulations of the pilot program were “burdensome” and the new bill lifts those previous restrictions. 

With the new bill, more farmers can invest in hemp crops that have high levels of CBD or cannabidiol, which research has shown has many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-treats-migraines-better/">positive health impacts. </a>

That’s not to mention the economic benefits of CBD collected from hemp, the sales of which could increase to 5.7 billion, according to the cannabis and CBD research group <a href="https://www.brightfieldgroup.com/">Brightfield. 
</a>

“The hemp CBD industry is growing exponentially and presents a real opportunity for rural economic development, with tremendous enthusiasm from consumers,” William Hilliard, CEO of the Hemp growers group Atalo, told Forbes. “Our intention is to attract the best and brightest, innovative farmers and offer them a long-term relationship rather than a spot-market.”

Hemp farmers can also soon enjoy other benefits like crop insurance and acquiring loans through banking services. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why the legalization of hemp spells good news for American farmers

Earlier this month, Congress passed the 2018 Farm Bill with...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> has revealed that plant roots can sense the availability of moisture in the surrounding soil and adapt their shape for optimal water uptake. The discovery could lead to the development of crops that can adapt to changing environmental conditions such as water scarcity.

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-regenerate-growth/">Roots</a> are critical in providing plants with water and soluble nutrients from the soil. Water is required for plant growth, but acquiring moisture from the soil can be very challenging in dry conditions. While it was already known that plants can adapt to different soil moisture conditions by altering their root structure, it was not fully understood how they manage to do so. 

Using an adaptive response known as “hydropatterning,” branches are formed when the plant roots are in direct contact with soil moisture. The researchers discovered that hydropatterning is controlled by a branching master gene called ARF7.

“Plants are relatively immobile and therefore their growth and development is very much dependent on their environment. Our research has identified the particular protein which can modify, and even inactivate root branching, therefore limiting plant growth and development,” explained Professor Ari Sadanandom from <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>.

“This is hugely exciting as it opens up the possibility for us to adapt this protein interaction and potentially develop plants that could continue to branch roots even in challenging conditions such as water scarcity.”

The study revealed that plant roots lacking ARF7 were no longer able to hydropattern. The researchers determined that when roots are exposed to moisture, ARF7 stays active and promotes root branching. When exposed to the air, however, ARF7 is deactivated and root branching is blocked.

“Water is critical for plant growth, development and, ultimately, their survival. Surprisingly, understanding how plants sense water availability has eluded scientists until now,” said Professor Malcom Bennett. 

“By studying how plant roots modify their branching in response to water availability, we have uncovered a novel molecular mechanism. This represents a major step forward and opens the way for breeders to develop new crops better adapted to climate change and helping deliver global food security."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How plants alter their roots to adjust to soil moisture

A new study from the University of Nottingham has revealed...

Two new species of morning glories, previously unknown hedgehog mushrooms, and a tree that likely went extinct before it was ever described are all among the most significant discoveries made by the <a href="https://www.kew.org/">Royal Botanic Gardens Kew</a> in 2018.

Overall, the Kew team described 128 plants and 44 species of fungi this year. The largest plant discovered was an 80-foot tree from Guinea, West Africa, where it is endangered by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/amazon-new-deforestation-threats/">deforestation</a>. Dr. Martin Cheek is the senior research leader at Kew Gardens and is credited with the discovery of this tree, which was named Talbotiella cheekii in his honor. 

Another tree introduced by the experts is known as Vepris bali, which was found in Cameroon in 1951. Based on samples collected at that time, the tree has finally been described by Kew scientists. However, V. bali is believed to be extinct due to land clearance by farmers, and has not been spotted since its discovery in 1951.

In a waterfall in Sierra Leone, a new genus of plant was found and named Lebbiea grandiflora. The plant, which is described as having bizarre pillar-like structures, is already classified as endangered.

A new fungus, Hydnum melitosarx, is one of 22 new species of hedgehog mushrooms found in the woodlands of northern North America and Western Europe. Many of these mushrooms are thought to be edible.

Two species of morning glory were documented in Bolivia, one of which was found in dry bush-land after heavy rainfall with beautiful pink flowers. The second species was found on a steep slope in the Andes Mountains with delicate white flowers. 

“It seems unbelievable that we scientists are still discovering species of plants and fungi new to science out in the wild - often in the most unlikely of places,” said Dr. Cheek.

“Many of these new species have potential benefits for humanity, from beautiful pot plants to new medicines or crops, but sadly we are finding that most of these new species are threatened with extinction due to habitat destruction, or are even likely extinct already.”

More information on the 13 biggest discoveries of 2018 by Kew Gardens can be found on their website <a href="https://www.kew.org/blogs/in-the-gardens/top-13-species-discovered-in-2018">here</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.kew.org/blogs/in-the-gardens/top-13-species-discovered-in-2018">Royal Botanic Gardens Kew</a>

Kew Gardens reveals the top plant discoveries of 2018

Two new species of morning glories, previously unknown hedgehog mushrooms,...

Mistletoe is undoubtedly an icon of Christmas.  It’s that little plant hanging harmlessly over a doorway that encourages couples everywhere to kiss underneath it.  According to <a href="https://www.livescience.com/32901-why-we-kiss-under-mistletoe.html">Live Science</a>, the kissing tradition goes way back, back to a time before <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/color-vision-rudolph-reindeer/">Christmas</a> even existed in fact.  

The tradition comes from ancient Greece where mistletoe was associated with fertility.  Kissing under mistletoe is said to go bag to the pagan festival of Saturnalia, a festival honoring the god Saturn.  The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnalia">festival</a> was originally held on December 17 but later expanded with festivities running until December 23.  A sacrifice to Saturn was followed by a banquet and a tradition of gift giving; sounds familiar, right?  In Rome, treaties between warring parties were signed under mistletoe, associating the plant with peace. 

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnalia">The Spruce</a> reports another origin of the kissing under mistletoe tradition.  <a href="https://norse-mythology.org/tales/the-death-of-baldur/">Norse mythology</a> has a place for mistletoe but some of it is decidedly darker than the Saturnalia in Greece.  According to one myth, the death of Baldur, a beloved son, was presaged to his father Odin in a dream.  In fear the gods made all sorts of physical objects, trees, rocks, water, promise not to hurt Baldur. Mistletoe, being a small and inconspicuous plant, was overlooked.  

When the gods thought that Baldur was safe, they celebrated by throwing things at him and laughing as they harmlessly leaped away.  During this festive atmosphere, Loki crept up to Hodr, the blind god with a dart he’d made out of mistletoe, offering it to Hodr to throw at Baldur.  When Hodr threw the dart as part of the celebration, Baldur was killed. After a failed attempt to bring Baldur back from the dead, it was agreed that any passing under mistletoe would exchange a kiss in memory of the dead god.  More interesting perhaps than the origins of the kissing tradition, though, is the plant mistletoe itself.

According to <a href="https://blog.nwf.org/2012/12/12-things-to-know-about-mistletoe/">National Wildlife Federation</a>, there are actually many plants that can be called ‘mistletoe’.  Worldwide, there are as many as 1,300 mistletoe species. According to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/mistletoe">Britannica</a>, all mistletoe species come from three plant families, Loranthaceae, Misodendraceae, and Santalaceae but especially from three genera in the Santalaceae family.  The contiguous US and Canada together are home to 30 species of mistletoe. The name mistletoe comes from ancient Anglo-Saxons, the word ‘mistel’ means ‘dung’ while the word ‘tan’ (later changed to ‘toe’) means ‘twig’.  Dung twig may seem like an odd name for a plant, but it makes a lot of sense if you know a bit about the life history of mistletoe. 

Despite its association with Christmas and smooching, there’s no way around a dark truth, mistletoe is a parasite.  Mistletoe can be found growing on trees throughout the world. The mistletoe I’m most familiar with is a green scaly thing that’s easy to miss on a juniper tree in the high desert of the Colorado Plateau.  In context, this mistletoe actually looks like an overgrown clump of the plant’s own foliage at first glance, perhaps a sign of cancer in the tree. 

When the mistletoe grows berries, it becomes a bit more obvious.  The white berries of mistletoe attract birds which apparently find them tasty.  The seeds hidden in the berries hold a secret that allows mistletoe to disperse to the limbs of other trees so effectively.  

Mistletoe seeds are sticky.  Sometimes a bird gets a seed stuck to its beak and wipes a seed off onto a tree branch where it sticks, reading to grow its roots into the tree and parasitize it.  Other times, the seed passes through the bird’s digestive tract and sticks to the tail feathers of the bird. When this happens, the bird usually wipes the lucky seed off onto a branch, or twig.  This is why ‘dung-twig’ is actually a pretty good name for mistletoe. An atypical mistletoe, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/dwarf-mistletoe">Dwarf Mistletoe</a>, actually shoots its seeds away, hopefully towards another host plant using water pressure.  The life of mistletoe is largely determined by how good of a host plant it’s rooted to. 

Mistletoe sends its roots directly into the host plant, sucking away water and nutrients.  An infestation of mistletoe can eventually kill a host plant. Mistletoe does have chlorophyll, so it makes some of its own food, not taking a completely free ride from its host plant but when that host plant dies, so does the mistletoe, not able to pull entirely its own weight.  Not everything about the life of mistletoe is bleak; it provides life as well as takes it. 

Many birds nest directly in mistletoe, and according to <a href="https://blog.nwf.org/2012/12/12-things-to-know-about-mistletoe/">National Wildlife Federation</a>, 43% of Spotted Owl nests in a single forest were associated with mistletoe.  64% of Cooper’s Hawk nests in northeastern Oregon were in mistletoe. Squirrels sometimes nest in mistletoe also.  Three species of butterfly depend on mistletoe, their caterpillars feeding on the plant exclusively. 

According to the <a href="https://xerces.org/2017/08/11/the-secret-life-of-a-mistletoe-butterfly/">Xerces Society</a>, the Johnson Hairstreak butterfly’s caterpillar is perfectly camouflaged in the foliage of Dwarf Mistletoe where it lives in the Pacific Northwest.  Butterflies and native bees also feed on the nectar of mistletoe. The <a href="https://www.anbg.gov.au/mistletoe/butterflies.html">Australian National Botanical Gardens</a> reports that in Australia and Africa, there are entire genera of butterflies that feed almost exclusively on mistletoe.  

Australia’s also home to an interesting bird, the Mistletoebird; <a href="http://www.birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/mistletoebird">Bird Life Australia</a> shows the male bird as a small bird with black plumage and a bright red throat and grey belly.  The female birds are a lighter grey color with no red. The bird lacks the gizzard many birds have, instead having a simpler digestion system adapted to easy to eat mistletoe berries, the sticky seeds of which it spreads to branches.  The bird sometimes also catches insects and eats other plants but it’s pretty dependent on mistletoe as a staple. Interestingly it’s not just the Mistletoe bird or a few butterflies that benefit from the plant. 

A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241132379_Effects_of_mistletoe_on_diversity_A_case-study_from_southern_New_South_Wales">study</a> published in 2002 carried out in New South Wales Australia showed some ecological benefit to mistletoe.  A survey of birds in woodlands was carried out at the start of the study and species numbers carefully recorded.  Mistletoe was then removed from a portion of the woodlands being studied and the area re-surveyed as well as another area with mistletoe intact.  Interestingly, the area with mistletoe showed a greater number of bird species than the area without mistletoe. 52 bird species were found in the area denuded of mistletoe while 61 species were found in the area with mistletoe.

It’s not clear exactly why more birds would be found near mistletoe, perhaps it’s because of greater numbers of insects feeding on the plant.  Whatever the reason, maybe the ancient Greeks were onto something when they associated a simple parasitic plant with fecundity. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How mistletoe became an icon of Christmas

Mistletoe is undoubtedly an icon of Christmas.  It’s that little...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...