New research by scientists from South Africa and Brazil reveals that rival plants may compete for space on pollinators, with pollen grains vying for the chance to be carried to the next flower.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/732797" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>, suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> have developed sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate pollen placement on pollinators, similar to how some animals manipulate sperm during reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-competitive-pollen-removal-nbsp">Plants and competitive pollen removal&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike animals, where mating involves direct contact, plants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> such as birds and insects to transport pollen from one flower to another. In this context, plants need to find ways to ensure their pollen makes it to the pollinator and, eventually, to the next flower. 



According to the study’s lead author, professor Bruce Anderson of <a href="http://www.sun.ac.za/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stellenbosch University</a>, the strategy plants have developed can be compared to male-male competition in animals.



“Flowers visited by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> deposit their pollen on the hummingbird bills, but there is very little place for the pollen to be deposited,” Anderson explained. 



“Flowers have evolved a catapult mechanism where pollen is shot at the bill of the hummingbird. The force of the ballistic grains dislodges previously deposited grains from rival plants, allowing the flower to place its own grains onto a cleaner bill, thus increasing its chances of reproductive success.”



This finding supports the idea of competitive pollen removal, where flowers actively remove rival pollen from pollinators before securing a spot for their own pollen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-pollen-placement-in-action">Explosive pollen placement in action</h2>



To demonstrate this mechanism, the researchers conducted experiments with Hypenea macrantha, a red flower native to Brazil. Using slow-motion video footage, they captured the flower’s explosive pollen placement mechanism in action.&nbsp;



The flower essentially “catapults” its pollen onto the bill of a hummingbird, dislodging the pollen of competing plants in the process.



This mechanism, known as explosive pollen placement, is not new in the plant kingdom, but this study marks the first time researchers have provided empirical evidence of its effectiveness.&nbsp;



By labeling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> with quantum dots and counting how much was displaced by the explosion, the team was able to confirm the success of the mechanism.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="ZwJf9SY4md-3926185-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-floral-competition">A new perspective on floral competition</h2>



Traditionally, floral explosion has been viewed as a strategy to help plants efficiently place their pollen on pollinators or to startle pollinators into flying to other plants, thereby dispersing the pollen over greater distances.&nbsp;



However, this new research shows that explosive pollen placement may serve an additional function: removing rival pollen to improve a plant’s reproductive success.



“Our data suggest, however, that this mechanism may actually displace pollen from previous flowers, enhancing male reproductive success by increasing competition for space on the pollinators’ bodies,” said co-author Vinícius Brito, a botanist at the <a href="https://ufu.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Uberlândia</a> in Brazil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-reproduction-and-pollen-rivalry">Plant reproduction and pollen rivalry</h2>



The research highlights a previously unrecognized form of competition between plants. In contrast to animals, where males may use physical structures to remove rival sperm from females, plants must manipulate the placement of their pollen on pollinators before it reaches the next flower. 



As Anderson explained, “until recently, no one has ever thought of looking for these kinds of structures in plants.”



This form of competition occurs on the pollinator’s body. When a pollinator, such as a hummingbird, arrives at a flower, it may already be covered in pollen from previously visited plants.&nbsp;



This makes it challenging for the new flower to place its pollen, as space is limited. Even if the flower does manage to place its pollen, it must then compete with rival pollen grains for access to the ovules of the next flower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-understanding-plant-evolution">Implications for understanding plant evolution</h2>



This discovery offers new insights into how plants may compete with one another for reproductive success in ways that were previously unimagined. Anderson and his colleagues suggest that plants may evolve strategies akin to those in animals, where physical adaptations aid in removing rival sperm.



As the researchers continue to explore this phenomenon, their findings could reshape our understanding of how plants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> complex mechanisms to increase their chances of reproductive success. 



By manipulating pollen on the bodies of pollinators, flowers may be competing in a hidden but highly effective battle for space and, ultimately, for the continuation of their species.



In conclusion, this study adds a fascinating new dimension to our understanding of plant reproduction and competition. As Brito points out, these discoveries highlight the importance of further research into how plants interact with their environment, pollinators, and even each other in their quest for survival.



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Pollen wars: Plants compete for space on pollinators

New research by scientists from South Africa and Brazil reveals that rival plants may compete for space on pollinators, with pollen grains vying for the chance to be carried to the next flower.&nbsp; The study, published in the journal The American Naturalist, suggests that plants have developed sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate pollen placement on pollinators, similar to how some animals manipulate sperm during reproduction. Plants and competitive pollen removal&nbsp; Unlike animals, where mating involves direct contact, plants rely on pollinators such as birds and insects to transport...

A new study from the <a href="https://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a> indicates that cannabidiol (CBD) can make it easier for people to overcome addiction. Among individuals with a history of heroin or opioid abuse, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cannabidiol-antipsychotic-treatment/">CBD</a> reduced anxiety and cue-induced craving. 

The use of heroin and prescription opioid medications in the United States has resulted in more than 300,000 deaths over the last decade. Despite this unprecedented epidemic, however, there are limited treatment options. 

Two of the non-opioid medications that are currently available, methadone and buprenorphine, are designed to work on the same opioid receptors as heroin. However, these medications are not only potentially addictive, but are also tightly regulated by the government. This means that the treatments are unavailable to many people diagnosed with opioid use disorder.

“To address the critical need for new treatment options for the millions of people and families who are being devastated by this epidemic, we initiated a study to assess the potential of a non-intoxicating cannabinoid on craving and anxiety in heroin-addicted individuals,” said study first author Dr. Yasmin Hurd.

“The specific effects of CBD on cue-induced drug craving and anxiety are particularly important in the development of addiction therapeutics because environmental cues are one of the strongest triggers for relapse and continued drug use.”

For the study, 42 drug-abstinent men and women were randomly assigned to receive 400 mg of CBD, 800 mg of CBD, or a matching placebo. The participants were exposed to neutral and drug-related cues immediately following administration, 24 hours later, and seven days after the third and final daily CBD or placebo administration. 

Neutral cues were three-minute videos of relaxing nature scenes, while drug-related cues were videos that showed intravenous or intranasal drug use and heroin-related paraphernalia. At different times throughout the sessions, measurements of opioid craving, anxiety, positive and negative affect, and vital signs were obtained.

The study revealed that CBD significantly reduced both the craving and anxiety induced by drug cues compared with the placebo. The positive effects of CBD persisted seven days after exposure, which suggests that the benefits of CBD as a treatment are long-lasting, even when the cannabinoid would not be expected to be present in the body.

“Our findings indicate that CBD holds significant promise for treating individuals with heroin use disorder,” said Dr. Hurd. “A successful non-opioid medication would add significantly to the existing addiction medication toolbox to help reduce the growing death toll, enormous health care costs, and treatment limitations imposed by stringent government regulations amid this persistent opioid epidemic.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/">American Journal of Psychiatry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

CBD may be an effective treatment for opioid and heroin addiction

A new study from the Icahn School of Medicine at...

Researchers from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> and <a href="https://case.edu/">Case Western Reserve University</a> have discovered that a particular plant virus, called the Tobacco mild green mosaic virus, can help deliver pesticide molecules deeper into the ground to better treat pest infestations without damaging the environment.

"It sounds counterintuitive that we can use a plant virus to treat plant health," said senior author of the study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/nnano/">Nature Nanotechnology</a>, Nicole Steinmetz, a professor of nanoengineering at the UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering. "This is an emerging field of research in nanotechnology showing that we can use plant viruses as pesticide delivery systems. It's similar to how we're using nanoparticles in medicine to target drugs towards sites of disease and reduce their side effects in patients."

The problem with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-insect-resistant-genes/">pesticides</a> is that they are incredibly sticky molecules, and bind to organic material in the soil before getting a chance to penetrate deeper into the soil. Because of this, farmers often use more pesticides, thus harming the environment, including the groundwater.

To test the efficiency of Tobacco mild green mosaic virus, the team attached a model insecticide to different types of nanoparticles. They watered each one through columns of soil. Tobacco mild green mosaic virus performed the best, having carried the pesticide down to 30 centimeters below the soil surface while other nanoparticles were only able to penetrate 8 to 12 centimeters, or carry less than the Tobacco mild green mosaic could.

Tobacco mild green mosaic’s efficiency can most likely be explained by its nanoparticle geometry and surface chemistry — it has a tubular structure and has a surface chemistry of synthetic particles like PLGA and silica, making it interact differently with the soil in comparison to other nanoparticles.

[caption id="attachment_1872883" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/plant-virus.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872883" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/plant-virus.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="433" /></a> Researchers test how far Tobacco mild green mosaic virus travels through a soil column. Image Credit: David Baillot/UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering[/caption]

"We're taking concepts we've learned from nanomedicine, where we're developing nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, and applying them to agriculture," Steinmetz explained. "In the medical setting, we also see that nanocarriers with skinny, tubular shapes and diverse surface chemistries can navigate the body better. It makes sense that a plant virus can more easily penetrate and move through the soil — probably because that's where it naturally resides."

Furthermore, Tobacco mild green mosaic is benign to plants other than those in the nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, etc.), and can only be transmitted by mechanical contact between plants rather than air. Therefore it can be used to treat fields without fear of it infecting other nearby crops.

Steinmetz and her team also developed a computer model that can be used to predict how pesticide nanocarriers will behave in soil. "Researchers working with a different plant virus or nanomaterial could use our model to determine how well their particle would work as a pesticide delivery agent," said first author Paul Chariou, a bioengineering PhD student in Steinmetz's lab at UC San Diego.

"It also cuts down on experimental workload," Chariou continued. "[Testing just one nanoparticle] takes at least one month. But with the model, it only took us about 10 soil columns and 4 days to test a new nanoparticle.”

The goal for Steinmetz and her team is to introduce Tobacco mild green mosaic virus into actual crops. But they will test it with various pesticide loads first before applying.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: David Baillot/UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering

This plant virus can actually help keep plants healthy and pest-free

Researchers from the University of California San Diego and Case...

Broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables, like cauliflower, cabbage, Brussel sprouts, and kale, contain a compound that inactivates a gene, called WWP1, that contributes to the growth of several common <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nutrients-food-supplements-cancer-risk/">human cancers</a>. 

Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.bidmc.org/research/research-by-department/pathology/laboratories/pier-paolo-pandolfi-lab">Pier Paolo Pandolfi, MD, PhD</a>, Director of the Cancer Center and <a href="https://www.bidmc.org/research/research-centers/cancer-research-institute">Cancer Research Institute at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center</a> have successfully targeted WWP1 with the broccoli compound, thus suppressing tumor growth in cancer-prone lab animals and human cells.

"We found a new important player that drives a pathway critical to the development of cancer, an enzyme that can be inhibited with a natural compound found in broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables," Pandolfi said. "This pathway emerges not only as a regulator for tumor growth control, but also as an Achilles' heel we can target with therapeutic options."

The team came to their conclusion, published in <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>, by first addressing a well-known tumor suppressive gene known as PTEN. PTEN, of which humans have two copies from both parents, is often mutated, deleted, down-regulated, or silenced in the presence of human cancers. However, both PTEN genes are rarely affected, but rather just diminished.

So, Pandolfi and his team located the molecules and compounds that regular PTEN with the intention of figuring out how to normalize PTEN levels in a cancerous setting to regenerate the gene’s suppressive traits. 

The team found that WWP1 produces the enzyme responsible for thwarting PTEN’s tumor suppressive activity. Upon further inspection of the enzyme, Pandolfi and his colleagues realized that the indole-3-carbinol (I3C) molecule, found in cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, could be the key to combating WWP1. 

And they were right. After administering I3C to cancer prone lab animals, the researchers watched the compound inactivate WWP1, thusly allowing PTEN to get back to its suppressive work.

Although there’s nothing wrong with upping your cruciferous vegetable intake in an effort to up your PTEN efficiency, first author Yu-Ru Lee, PhD, notes one would have to consume about six pounds of uncooked Brussel sprouts per day to reap any kind of anti-cancer benefit. The team hopes to further their research to use this new knowledge to develop WWP1-inhibiting treatments.

"Either genetic or pharmacological inactivation of WWP1 with either CRISPR technology or I3C could restore PTEN function and further unleash its tumor suppressive activity," Pandolfi said. "These findings pave the way toward a long-sought tumor suppressor reactivation approach to cancer treatment."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A compound found in broccoli can help suppress cancerous tumor growth

Broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables, like cauliflower, cabbage, Brussel sprouts,...

The fastest way to determine if a watermelon is ripe or not is by tapping on it. According to an international team of researchers, you can train your ears to pick up on the sound of a ripe watermelon by listening to traditional Nigerian music.

Stephen Onwubiko is a classically trained vocalist and an expert in African musical acoustics. He has identified a link between the sounds of fingers drumming on watermelons in the market and the sounds of drumming in traditional Nigerian <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/higher-sound-quality-music/">music</a>.

Onwubiko teamed up with physicist Tracianne Neilsen from <a href="https://www.byu.edu/">Brigham Young University</a> and music researcher Andrea Calilhanna from <a href="https://sydney.edu.au/">The University of Sydney</a> to further examine the watermelon-drumming phenomenon. 

“Most people don't have much idea about the noises around them or how they affect them,” said Onwubiko. “Everyday experiences, even decision-making, are influenced by the sounds around us.”

In a field known as psychoacoustics, Onwubiko is studying how watermelon sellers and consumers in Nigeria perceive the drumming sounds. Meanwhile, Neilsen is analyzing the frequency spectrum of the traditional drum, the igba, and Calilhanna is working with a mathematical approach to music theory to quantify these sounds.

The team proposes that the pitch and rhythms of traditional Nigerian music provide the perfect ear-training for watermelon identification.

“The sounds of ripe and unripe watermelons are heard in traditional music. An African drum pattern is made from the same two sounds,” said Neilsen.

“People do not realize the amount of important information that is conveyed in the sound around us and how these sounds impact cultures,” said Calilhanna. “In order to preserve cultures, we need to analyze traditional sounds and their impact on everyday life experiences.”

The research will be presented at the 177th Meeting of the <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/">Acoustical Society of America</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nigerian music drums can train your ears to pick out a ripe watermelon

The fastest way to determine if a watermelon is ripe...

A new way to improve the flavor of store-bought tomatoes. A new study from the <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">Agricultural Research Service</a> (ARS) may have pinpointed a way to give store-bought tomatoes more flavor. The researchers identified genes that are critical for crop breeding and improvement. 

Cultivated <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-insect-resistant-genes/">tomatoes</a> have a wide range of physical and metabolic variation, but domestication and breeding have left today's tomatoes with a narrow genetic base. Molecular biologist James Giovannoni teamed up with bioinformatics scientist Zhangjun Fei to construct the pan-genome for hundreds of different cultivated and closely-related wild tomatoes. 

The study revealed almost 5,000 previously undocumented genes that were absent from the original reference genome.

“One of the most important discoveries from constructing this pan-genome is a rare form of a gene labeled TomLoxC, which mostly differs in the version of its DNA gene promoter,” said Giovannoni. “The gene influences fruit flavor by catalyzing the biosynthesis of a number of lipid (fat)-involved volatiles - compounds that evaporate easily and contribute to aroma.”

In addition, the researchers found that TomLoxC supports the production of a group of apocarotenoids that work as signaling molecules, affecting a variety of responses in plants including environmental stress. The compounds have a variety of floral and fruity elements that influence how tomatoes taste. 

The rare version of TomLoxC was found in only two percent of older cultivated large tomato varieties, yet was present in 91 percent of currant-sized wild tomatoes.

“It appears that there may have been strong selection pressure against or at least no selection for the presence of this version of TomLoxC early in the domestication of tomatoes,” said Giovannoni. “The increase in prevalence of this form in modern tomatoes likely reflects breeders' renewed interest in improved flavor.”

The findings could inform breeders on how to quickly increase the flavor of store-bought tomatoes while preserving their most important traits.

“These novel genes discovered from the tomato pan-genome added substantial information to the tomato genome repertoire and provide additional opportunities for tomato improvement,” said Fei. “The presence and absence profiles of these genes in different tomato populations have shed important lights on how human selection of desired traits have reshaped the tomato genomes.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ng/">Nature Genetics</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Agricultural Research Service-USDA

A new way to improve the flavor of store-bought tomatoes

A new way to improve the flavor of store-bought tomatoes....

Ancient forest in North Carolina holds the oldest trees in North America. Several bald cypress trees in North Carolina are the<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-living-tree-europe/"> oldest trees</a> in eastern North America and the oldest known wetland tree species in the world, according to a new study. 

The recently documented trees were discovered in 2017 in a wetland preserve near Raleigh in North Carolina. The preserve stretches along the Black River, and the ancient ecosystem is home to trees that are over a thousand years old, with one tree dating back 2,624 years. 

David Stahle, a professor of geosciences at the <a href="https://www.uark.edu/">University of Arkansas</a>, dated the trees along with a team of colleagues using radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology, which is the study of tree rings. Ancient forest in North Carolina holds the oldest trees in North America 

Non-destructive core samples were collected from 110 trees in an area of the wetland forest that hadn’t been studied before.  

[caption id="attachment_1872550" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bald-cypress.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872550" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bald-cypress.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="910" /></a> Bald cypress. Image Credit: Dan Griffin[/caption]

Stahle published his findings in a new study in the journal Environmental Research Communications. 

The ancient trees can tell researchers a great deal about climate conditions long before recorded history and the oldest trees show what weather conditions were like 900 years before the earliest known paleoclimate records in the southeastern United States.

The tree rings show evidence of flooding and heat waves even during pre-colonial times

“It is exceedingly unusual to see an old-growth stand of trees along the whole length of a river like this,” said Stahle. “Bald cypress are valuable for timber, and they have been heavily logged. Way less than 1 percent of the original virgin bald cypress forests have survived.”

Thanks to Stahle’s long history of work and research in the area, the forest was designated as a preserve and is protected by the <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/">Nature Conservancy</a>. 

“The area of old growth bald cypress was 10 times larger than I realized,” said Stahle. “We think there are older trees out there still.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient forest in North Carolina holds the oldest trees in North America

Ancient forest in North Carolina holds the oldest trees in...

The warming temperatures in the far northeastern region of China are helping larch trees grow – for now. But in the long run, it could mean disaster for the hardy forests.

Researchers from <a href="http://en.syau.edu.cn/">Shenyang Agricultural University</a> looked at growth rings from Dahurian larch trees that grow in the permafrost of northeastern China. The trees, which also grow in Siberia and Mongolia, are Earth’s northernmost tree species and need the permafrost to thrive.

The researchers found evidence that over 10 years, from 2005 to 2014, the trees grew more than in the 40 years before that. For trees older than 400 years, it was even more drastic – they grew more in during those 10 years than in the 300 years before that.

But the heat is having a negative effect on the permafrost below the forest canopy. It’s beginning to degrade, threatening the species’ continued survival.

"The disappearance of larch would be a disaster to the forest ecosystem in this region," lead author and ecologist Dr. Xianliang Zhang said in a press release.

To reach their conclusions, Zhang and his team studied the rings of more than 400 larch trees in China’s old growth forests. They found that warmer soil temperature during the winters is probably fueling the growth spurts.

In other areas of the world, come permafrost is melting and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thawing-permafrost-global-warming/">becoming wetlands</a> and swamps. Zhang and his colleagues worry that if that happens in northeastern China, it could damage the larch trees’ roots and cause them to decay.

As the permafrost warms, it could release more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-permafrost-warming/">carbon into the atmosphere</a>, feeding the trend of warming air temperatures. Melting permafrost has also <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/melting-permafrost-is-causing-landslides-across-the-arctic/">caused landslides</a> in some areas of the world.

"If the larch forests retreat in this region in the future, it is also not a good sign for the whole boreal forest," Zhang said.

The study has been published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2018JG004882">Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Larch trees in far north feeling effects of climate change

The warming temperatures in the far northeastern region of China...

Madagascar’s forests are beautiful but embattled.  Humans arrived on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rescue-madagascars-wildlife/">Madagascar</a>, the world’s fourth largest island, for the first time only about 2,000 years ago.  Since the arrival of humans the island, home to unique and strange wildlife, has changed radically. Giant flightless elephant birds went extinct, most likely due to hunting.

<a href="https://www.wildmadagascar.org/conservation/historic_deforestation.html">Wild Madagascar</a> reports that many wild animals that died off after human contact went extinct for a number of reasons, but many of them directly related to people.  Animals that are now extinct include 15 species of lemurs, giant tortoises and hippos. One of the contributing factors to the extinction of these animals is deforestation.  

Portrayals of the island in films like the cartoon <a href="https://www.imdb.com/list/ls020739443/">Madagascar</a> often grossly misrepresent it as little more than a paradisiacal, wild jungle.  Instead, the island is a complex landscape comprised of various habitats, all threatened by humans and our desire to extract as much as possible from forests.  Madagascar has lost <a href="https://www.eoi.es/blogs/guidopreti/2014/02/04/deforestation-in-madagascar-a-threat-to-its-biodiversity/">80%</a> of its original forest.  

If you drive south from Antananarivo, the extent of the destruction is obvious.  Only after most of two days of riding on public transportation do you see a break in the wall of humanity and a glimpse of the wild forest for which the island is known.  Slash and burn agriculture locally known as ‘tavy’ is common in Madagascar. In some places you can stand on a hill top and watch a piece of forest burning somewhere below almost every night.

Madagascar’s forests are also incredibly stunning.  Little fragments are protected by being located in close proximity of tombs, which imbue the surrounding woods with their sanctity by local customs.  Other fragments of forest are protected by law as parks. Shade grown coffee plantations give imperfect but useful habitat to some species. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2011/12/madagascar-tree-diversity-among-the-highest-worldwide/">Mongabay</a> reports that in the habitat that remains, there are at least 10,000 species of trees and shrubs, 90% of which are found nowhere else on earth besides Madagascar.

The trees and other plants that make up the forests of Madagascar also support impressive wildlife.  All of the world’s lemurs are native to Madagascar and more species of chameleon are found on the island than anywhere else.  It’s not surprising that some of the trees found in Madagascar, despite their place in the ecosystem, have a high value for lumber. 

Rosewood, a member of the Dalbergia family, is a slow growing tree found in Madagascar.  The wood is red and fragrant, used often to create high end furniture. The trees are also protected by international law from being collected in the wild in Madagascar where the harvest is unsustainable.  Unfortunately, like many parts of Madagascar, there is a shortage of jobs in many of the areas where rosewood grows. The Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project (<a href="https://www.occrp.org/en/investigations/8480-the-fate-of-madagascar-s-endangered-rosewoods">OCCRP</a>) reports that a former rosewood logger made between $2 and $3 felling two trees a day.  This number seems pitifully low, but $5 a day is often considered a fair wage in Madagascar.  

Most loggers paid low wages never meet those financing their operations who can sell rosewood for as much as $20,000 to $25,000 per ton.  It’s estimated that in 2013, $250 million to $300 million in illegal lumber, mainly rosewood, was exported from Madagascar. Although logging and exporting rosewood is illegal, government corruption and involvement of officials in the trade keeps enforcement of such laws low.  And it isn’t only in Madagascar that the illegal trade gets a pass either. 

Much of the rosewood poached in Madagascar is exported to China or other friendly locations where it is made into furniture to be sold for high prices.

<a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2014/06/singapore-intercepts-massive-illegal-shipment-of-madagascar-rosewood/">Mongabay</a> reported in 2014 that Singapore authorities captured 29,000 illegal rosewood logs equally about 3,000 tons.  The logs were imported from Madagascar by a business man Wong Wee Keong and his Singapore-based company, Kong Hoo.  The logs were part of a stockpile created by a surge in illegal logging that took advantage of a 2009 coup in Madagascar.  Some of the logs showed signs of being previously seized by the Malagasy government, suggesting the involvement of government officials from Madagascar.  This was the largest bust in rosewood and perhaps the largest intercepted illegal shipment of a protected species to date. 

Wong Wee Keong’s trial took many turns.  In 2015, the court found there was a lack of evidence and acquitted the business man.  After other court hearings, Wong Wee Kong was fined S$500,000 and sentenced to three months jail time.  The company, Kong Hoo, was fined an additional S$500,000 and the logs were considered forfeit property, <a href="https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/managing-director-jailed-fined-illegally-importing-rosewood">Today</a> reported.  Unfortunately, this wasn’t the end to the trial.  

A higher court issued a ruling on April 8 of this year, <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/04/singapore-acquits-trader-in-worlds-biggest-rosewood-bust-worth-50m/">Mongabay</a> reports, that reversed the earlier verdict and sentencing.  Wong Wee Keong and his company have been acquitted of all crimes and the logs have been ordered returned as soon as practicable.  It may take some time for the logs to be returned as the Singapore government will have to pay a hefty fee for their storage. There is a chance that the logs won’t be returned yet due to ongoing legal proceedings, but it’s unlikely.

The government of Madagascar filed a civil suit in addition to the criminal trial but it seems to be moving to slowly to be of any practical use.  In fact, the government of Madagascar is a big reason that this case, which should have been simple to prosecute, failed to punish obvious illegal trade in a protected species.  

Madagascar failed to prove in court that it was illegal for the logs to be exported from Madagascar.  Initially, a fake document was verified as a permit for exporting the logs and by the time a correction was made, the Singapore court was ignoring documents from Madagascar.  Instead, the ruling was based on whether it was legal to import the logs into Singapore rather than illegal to export them from Madagascar. 

The case brings up questions as to whether international agreements to protect species have any real strength.  The logs must still be exported for a profit to be turned on them but it’s likely that in small shipments to China, the logs will slowly be turned into furniture and money.  Meanwhile Madagascar’s forest goes away one tree at a time.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

International agreements fail to protect Madagascar’s rosewood trees

Madagascar’s forests are beautiful but embattled.  Humans arrived on Madagascar,...

Voters approve measure to decriminalize magic mushrooms in Denver. Denver, Colorado has now become the first city in the United States to pass a ballot measure that decriminalizes psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms. 

When Initiative 301 was put on the ballot, there was clear support for the campaign, but at the beginning of the three week voting period, it seemed like the referendum wouldn’t pass. 

That all changed on Tuesday, according to the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/crime-law/2019/05/08/denver-voters-apparently-reject-decriminalization-magic-mushrooms/?utm_term=.f2fbb270922c">Washington Post</a> which reported on the landmark vote, and the measure passed with 50.6 percent of 176,000 Denver citizens voting yes, and 49.4 voting no. 

The <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2019/05/08/denver-psychedelic-magic-mushroom/">Denver Post</a> reports that the final votes were 89,320 in favor and 87,341 against. The vote will be certified on May 16th as the city is still accepting ballots from overseas and military personnel. 

The vote won’t make magic mushrooms available in dispensaries or legal in the city limits. Instead, the ballot is aimed at law enforcement officials directing police to make psilocybin possession the lowest priority when it comes to law enforcement. 

Psilocybin mushrooms will still be illegal in Denver, and Colorado and keep their Schedule 1 classification under Federal law. 

Part of Initiative 301 is the implementation of a review panel that will examine the impacts of decriminalization on public safety and health. 

“We’re sending a clear signal to the rest of the country that America is ready to talk about psilocybin,” Kevin Matthews, the leader of the Decriminalize Denver movement, told the Washington Post. “We have work to do, we’re ready for it and we couldn’t be happier.” Voters approve measure to decriminalize magic mushrooms in Denver

Psilocybin has been found to help treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-vote-medicinal-benefits/">treatment-resistant depression</a> and a range of mental disorders. 

More and more research is being done on the potential treatment options that psilocybin and other psychedelics offer, and measures to decriminalize may help make research and studies more feasible in the future.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Voters approve measure to decriminalize magic mushrooms in Denver

Voters approve measure to decriminalize magic mushrooms in Denver. Denver,...

When houses, shopping malls, or parking lots are built, often the land must first be cleared of the vegetation living there.  This is most obvious in forested areas where trees must be cleared to make room for buildings, roads and other human structures.  

Less often do <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/desert-plants-extreme-heat/">deserts</a> come to mind when thinking of land clearing for development, but they offer a unique advantage. Often cacti and small bushes can be dug up and removed from the land alive to make way for development instead of killing them wholesale.  Obviously, even in arid environments, not all plants can be saved, and in forest environments it may be impossible to transplant adult trees but smaller plants might be rescued. 

Several organizations promote this type of rescue as a part of natural gardening or appreciation and conservation of native plants.  However, there are some limitations to the practice.

The <a href="http://nanps.org/plant-rescues/">North American Native Plant Society</a> (NANPS) sometimes schedules plant rescues, yet discourages people from thinking anything good comes from the development that such rescues are inevitably linked to. 

“Plant rescues are a last resort to salvage a few vestiges of what is about to be destroyed,” the organization says. “They are not a panacea for development. The inter-relationships between plant communities and wildlife are thousands of years in development and cannot be re-created in our backyards merely by transplanting a few species. A plant rescue is not a triumph…it is an admission of failure to protect these habitats.”

Because of this, NANPS encourages people to only engage in plant rescue after conservation efforts have failed.  

The first step is to talk to the developer.  

If the developer is uncooperative, it’s sometimes valuable to talk to your local government.  Some development agreements include provisions for native plants and this can allow you to rescue plants even if the developer is uncooperative.  

So after you’ve taken adequate care and dug up the plants, what are you to do with them?

It’s not wise to transplant the plants into undisturbed environments.  <a href="http://wildones.org">Wild Ones</a>, an organization promoting environmentally sound landscaping, suggests in their guidelines to native plant rescue, to use rescued plants in your own landscaping, 

“We… have the privilege of taking these wonderful plants home to add to the beauty of our own landscaping, to appreciate their earthly purpose and to shelter them for future generations…”

Wild Ones also suggest donating some of the plants to an organization dedicated to planting natives in the area.  Because of the cost of permits in Arizona for dealing with certain plants, the <a href="https://www.tucsoncactus.org/html/cactus_rescue.html">Tucson Cactus and Succulent Society</a> sells the cacti and other native plants they rescue to those who want to grow native plants on their own land.  The organization claims that since 1999, they’ve rescued 92,184 native plants in Arizona. Of course rescuing native plants is about more than just the plants themselves.

Native plants provide an important habitat for insects, birds and other small animals.  

Native plants may even help larger animals passing through urban environments.  Deer, moose and other large ungulates all move through neighborhoods depending on the region.  Coyotes, rabbits, frogs all are common urban and suburban animals. Native plants can help all of these animals and allow more migrations through developed areas more successful.  Saving plants and replanting them does recreate a flawed but still useful environment for some animals. 

Unfortunately, most landscaping in the United States involved non-native plants.

This is most evident from sprawling golf courses in the desert to European trees lining streets.  According to <a href="https://www.audubon.org/content/why-native-plants-matter">The Audubon Society</a>, lawns which are basically mono cultures lacking in much biodiversity cover more than 40 million acres of land in the US.  The Audubon Society also points out that native plants help combat climate change. 

For the arid west, another important factor is that native plants require less water.  

Xeriscaping is the practice of landscaping in a way that requires a minimum of water.  This can be done with native or non-native plants from similar dry environments. It’s very easy to do with native plants though because it takes a lot of the work out of it.  Native plants are adapted to the conditions of the local environment, normally the local precipitation is enough to keep native plants alive and you don’t have to wonder how your rain fall compares to that in Australia, for instance.  

According to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/xeriscaping/">National Geographic</a>, xeriscaping has become popular in the arid western US, with Denver Colorado being one of the first cities to encourage the practice.  The city of Novato, California offered residents incentives to take up xeriscaping and estimated that those who did saved an average of 120 gallons of water per day.  An added benefit to using native plants requiring no additional water is often less maintenance in general. 

Without adding water to a garden of cactus, agave, yucca or desert juniper, you can expect less weeds to pop up as well.  

Usually surrounding the plants with gravel or other nutrient lacking substrate is enough to stop most weeds from growing in hot and dry environments.  Along with no weeds is no mowing, no expanses of grass means you don’t need to constantly mow the lawn to keep things looking nice. The most important part of using native plants comes back to habitat.  

When native plants are cleared from land for development, they mostly die and are replaced with asphalt, concrete, buildings and grass.  Along with the native plants go the pollinators – bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, bats – that depend on them for food.  The caterpillars that ate from the plants before growing into butterflies go along with the destruction of plants. There aren’t seeds for birds and squirrels.  

By rescuing plants from development or buying native plants and putting them on your own land, you can create a small pocket of habitat for wildlife.  It’s even possible to have your tiny habitat certified as such. The <a href="https://www.nwf.org/Garden-for-Wildlife/Certify">National Wildlife Federation</a> offers certifications for wildlife habitat in parks, yards and other places.  The application fee for the certification goes to planting trees. We can’t always save an entire landscape from destruction, but perhaps we can start inviting more plants and animals into our own personal landscapes.               

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How native plants can be rescued from human development projects

When houses, shopping malls, or parking lots are built, often...

Native Americans were using psychoactive plants 1,000 years ago. While there is well-documented evidence of cultures using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-microdosing-benefits-mental-health/">psychoactive plants</a> for spiritual and medicina. l use throughout human history, pinpointing the exact origin of ritualistic psychotropic plant use is tricky. 

But recent excavations of a human burial site in the dry Sora River valley in southwestern Bolivia have unearthed a ritual bundle of psychotropic plants providing clear evidence that Native Americans in the area used multiple plants, perhaps in different combinations, to induce hallucinations as early as 1,000 years ago. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> discovered the human burial site and ritual bundle while looking for evidence of ancient occupation of the region. 

“We already knew that psychotropics were important in the spiritual and religious activities of the societies of the south-central Andes, but we did not know that these people were using so many different compounds and possibly combining them together,” said Jose Capriles, an assistant professor of anthropology at Penn State. “This is the largest number of psychoactive substances ever found in a single archaeological assemblage from South America.”

The bundle contained two snuffing tablets, a snuffing tube, and a pouch made from fox snouts. The snuffing tablets would have been used to grind psychotropic plants into snuff which then would have been smoked with the snuffing tube. 

Radiocarbon dating revealed that the bundle is around 1,000 years old.

[caption id="attachment_1872268" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/fox-snout-pouch.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872268" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/fox-snout-pouch.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> Psychoactive compounds were found in an animal-skin pouch made of three fox snouts stitched together. Image Credit: Jose Capriles, Penn State[/caption]

The researchers carefully collected tiny scrapings from the fox-skin pouch and used liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry to analyze its contents. 

“This method is highly sensitive and very effective for detecting the presence of minute amounts of specific compounds from very small samples,” said Melanie Miller, the researcher responsible for analyzed the samples. 

The pouch once contained multiple psychoactive plants as the analysis identified many different psychoactive compounds including cocaine, harmine, dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and possibly psilocin (the main hallucinogenic compound in magic mushrooms).

The presence of both DMT and harmine suggests that the owner of the pouch used the ingredients to make ayahuasca. 

“Some scholars believe that ayahuasca has relatively recent origins, while others argue that it may have been used for centuries, or even millennia,” said Capriles. “Given the presence of harmine and DMT together in the pouch we found, it is likely that this shaman ingested these simultaneously to achieve a hallucinogenic state. This finding suggests that ayahuasca may have been used up to 1,000 years ago.”

It is possible that the pouch and burial site where it was found belonged to a shaman, but the discovery only produces more questions than answers as many of the plant compounds discovered in the pouch were not native to the nearby region.

[caption id="attachment_1872269" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/snuffing-tablet.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872269" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/snuffing-tablet.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="892" /></a> Snuffing tablets used to pulverize psychotropic plants. Image Credit: Jose Capriles, Penn State[/caption]

“The presence of these compounds indicates the owner of this kit had access to at least three plants with psychoactive compounds, but potentially even four or five,” said Miller. “None of the psychoactive compounds we found come from plants that grow in this area of the Andes, indicating either the presence of elaborate exchange networks or the movement of this individual across diverse environments to procure these special plants.”

The recent findings were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Jose Capriles, Penn State

Native Americans were using psychoactive plants 1,000 years ago

Native Americans were using psychoactive plants 1,000 years ago. While...

The fungal disease Black Sigatoka has been ravaging banana groves around the world since it emerged from Fiji in the 1960s.

Also known as black leaf streak disease, the fungal infection soon spread to other areas in the tropics.

Now, researchers from the University of Exeter have compelling evidence that the spread of Black Sigatoka was boosted by climate change.

Changes in average temperature and moisture in Latin America and the Caribbean has boosted the risk of banana trees being infected by the fungus by as much as 44 percent, the scientists said in a press release.

"Black Sigatoka is caused by a fungus (Pseudocercospora fijiensis) whose lifecycle is strongly determined by weather and microclimate," said Dr. Daniel Bebber of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. "This research shows that climate change has made temperatures better for spore germination and growth, and made crop canopies wetter, raising the risk of Black Sigatoka infection in many banana-growing areas of Latin America.”

The disease is believed to have first entered Latin America in Honduras, where it was first seen in 1972. It reached Brazil in 1998, and the Caribbean in the 2000s.

Pseudocercospora fijiensis spreads through aerial spores. It creates streaked lesions on leaves followed by cell death when the fungus is exposed to light.

The researchers studied data on the fungal infections, combining that with climate data from the past 60 years.

While Black Sigatoka is flourishing in areas where moisture levels have risen, that’s not universally the case, the team found.

"Despite the overall rise in the risk of Black Sigatoka in the areas we examined, drier conditions in some parts of Mexico and Central America have reduced infection risk," Bebber said.

However, the team noted that drying trends that reduced infection were also likely to leave banana trees thirsty.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0269">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>. Funding was provided by the <a href="https://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/">UK Global Food Security programme</a> and <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/en">Horizon 2020</a>, a program of the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/index_en">European Commission</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Banana disease Black Sigatoka boosted by climate change

The fungal disease Black Sigatoka has been ravaging banana groves...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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