There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

Fruits and vegetables linked to lower risk of memory loss in men. A new study published by the <a href="https://www.aan.com/">American Academy of Neurology</a> has revealed that orange and red vegetables, berry fruits, orange juice, and leafy greens all contribute to a lower risk of memory loss among men.

“One of the most important factors in this study is that we were able to research and track such a large group of men over a 20-year period of time, allowing for very telling results,” said study co-author Changzheng Yuan. “Our studies provide further evidence dietary choices can be important to maintain your brain health.”

The investigation was focused on 27,842 male health professionals with an average age of 51. Over two decades, the men reported every four years on how many servings of fruits, vegetables, and other foods they had each day.

At least four years before the end of the study, the participants were also tested for thinking and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/stress-affecting-memory/">memory skills</a> using an evaluation that was designed to detect subtle changes that would likely go unnoticed in objective cognitive tests. Any reported changes in memory would be considered precursors to mild cognitive impairment.

Overall, 55 percent of the men had good thinking and memory skills, 38 percent had moderate skills, and 7 percent had poor thinking and memory skills.

The participants were divided into five groups based on their fruit and vegetable consumption. The highest consumption rate of vegetables was about six servings per day, compared to two servings for the lowest. The top group ate about three servings of fruit per day, compared to the lowest rate of half a serving each day.

The study revealed that men who consumed the most vegetables were 34 percent less likely to develop poor thinking skills compared to the group that ate the least vegetables. In addition, men who drank orange juice every day were 47 percent less likely to develop poor thinking skills.

The experts also found that men who ate larger amounts of fruits and vegetables 20 years earlier were less likely to develop cognitive issues, regardless of whether they continued to do so up until the testing took place 16 years later.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.neurology.org/">Neurology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fruits and vegetables linked to lower risk of memory loss in men

Fruits and vegetables linked to lower risk of memory loss...

Experts are reevaluating the oldest known use of vanilla after finding three jugs in an Israeli tomb that dates back around 3,600 years to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/europeans-making-cheese-7000-years/">Bronze Age</a>. Prior to this discovery, the use of vanilla was believed to have originated in Mexico about 1,000 years ago.

According to archaeologist Vanessa Linares of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> in Israel, the jugs were found to contain traces of two chemical compounds in natural vanilla extract - vanillin and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde. Various chemical analyses also detected residues of plant oils, including a compound found in olive oil.

“Bronze Age people at Megiddo may have used vanillin-infused oils as additives for foods and medicines, for ritual purposes or possibly even in the embalming of the dead,” Linares told <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/">Science News</a>.  

Linares explained that the chemical profile of the vanillin best matches vanilla orchid species that are found today in East Africa, India, and Indonesia. Trade routes used during the Bronze Age likely facilitated the movement of vanillin from India or East Africa to the Middle East. 

Linares described the study findings at the annual meeting of <a href="http://www.asor.org/">American Schools of Oriental Research</a> on November 16 in Denver.

In the presentation, she explained: “Until now it has been commonly accepted that vanilla was domesticated in the New World and subsequently spread to other parts of the globe.”

“Once all possibilities of contamination were ruled out, a post-organic residue analysis investigation of various species within the plant kingdom from which these principle compounds could have been exploited was conducted.”

“These results shed new light on the first known exploitation of vanilla, local uses, significance in mortuary practices, and possible long-distance trade networks in the ancient Near East during the second millennium BC.”
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human were using vanilla 3,600 years ago, new fossils reveal

Experts are reevaluating the oldest known use of vanilla after...

Climate change could bring an end to the truffle industry. Truffles are a delicacy prized for their unique, musky flavor. But due to their limited growing season, difficulty to cultivate, and rare qualities, truffles are also very expensive. 

Some truffles can cost upwards of $1,500 per pound and the truffle industry is worth millions.

Reports suggest that the truffle industry could soon be worth 4.5 billion UK pounds over the next ten to twenty years, but a new study projects a much grimmer outlook for the world’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-mushrooms-truffles/">most prized mushroom. </a>

A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.stir.ac.uk/">University of Stirling</a> predicts that the truffle industry could all but disappear due to climate change in the next 50 years. 

Climate change will make for hostile conditions for truffles with temperatures expected to increase along with droughts and precipitation expected to decrease. 

If European truffle production is wiped out by climate change, the researchers say it will have a major economic impact. 

“We risk losing an industry worth hundreds of millions of pounds to the economy,” said Paul Thomas, the leader of the study which was published in the journal Science of the Total Environment. “However, the socio-economic impact of the predicted decline could be substantially larger as truffle harvesting, and related activities form a key component of local history and cultural activity.” 

Truffle production could drop by 78 to 100 percent by 2100, according to Thomas. 

“However, the decline may well occur in advance of this date, when other climate change factors are taken into account, such as heatwaves, forest fires, drought events, pests, and disease,” said Thomas.

For the study, the researchers reviewed 36 years of truffle yield records and weather data from France, Spain, and Italy. By comparing yields and weather data, the researchers were able to understand better how climate impacts truffle growth and harvest. 

Next, the researchers used the data to create climate model projections for the future and found climate change could severely decline truffle production in Europe. 

“This is a wake-up call to the impacts of climate change in the not-too-distant future,” said Thomas. “These findings indicate that conservational initiatives are required to afford some protection to this important and iconic species. Potential action could include the expansion of truffle plantations into new territories of a more favorable future climate.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>

Climate change could bring an end to the truffle industry

Climate change could bring an end to the truffle industry....

A new study has found that plants in the Arctic have been growing taller and taller through the years due to climate change-driven increases in soil moisture and temperature. 

The Arctic contains a vast flora of shrubs, grasses, and wildflowers and these plants play an important role in the region’s carbon cycle. 

Much attention has been paid to the Arctic with a heavy focus on sea ice retreat, but researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University if Edinborough</a> recently led a thorough study, the first of its kind, of native Arctic plants. 

The researchers' findings, published in the journal Nature Today, show that plants in the Arctic have been growing taller across the tundra over the past 30 years and spreading into new areas all because of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/national-parks-climate-change/">climate change</a>.

“Quantifying the link between environment and plant traits is critical to understanding the consequences of climate change, but such research has rarely extended into the Northern hemisphere, home to the planet's coldest tundra ecosystems,” said Isla Myers-Smith, a member of the research team. “This is the first time that a biome-scale study has been carried out to get to the root of the critical role that plants play in this rapidly-warming part of the planet.”

A team of 130 scientists collaborated on the study, and the researchers analyzed data from over 60,000 observations across hundreds of sites in the Arctic and alpine tundra.

The researchers studied relationships between temperature, soil moisture, and plant form and tracked plant height in the different sites. 

Of all the different plant factors, traits and environmental changes that the researchers analyzed, only plant height increased over time and these changes were driven by increases in both soil moisture and temperature. 

“Rapid climate warming in the Arctic and alpine regions is driving changes in the structure and composition of plant communities, with important consequences for how this vast and sensitive ecosystem functions,” said Anne Bjorkman who helped pioneer the Arctic plant research.

The changes don’t appear to be slowing down and Bjorkman predicted that plant height in the tundra could increase by 20 to 60 percent by the end of the century. 

The results of the study are especially concerning because much of the world’s carbon is stored in permafrost in the Arctic, and if the permafrost melts it could release huge quantities of carbon into the atmosphere. 

“Shorter plants trap more snow, which insulates the underlying soil and prevents it from freezing as quickly in winter,” said Bjorkman “An increase in taller plants could speed up the thawing of this frozen carbon bank, and lead to an increase in the release of greenhouse gases.”

Further research is needed to better understand how soil moisture levels are changing in the Arctic as this has such a huge influence on plant growth. 

“This research is a vital step in improving our understanding of how Arctic and alpine vegetation is responding to climate change,” said Helen Beadman, a member of the <a href="https://nerc.ukri.org/">Natural Environment Research Council</a> which funded the new study. “Shrub growth and expansion could have a profound impact not only on the Arctic ecosystem, but also further afield if it results in an increase in the release of greenhouse gases.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Anne D Bjorkman

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Plants in the Arctic are growing taller due to climate change

A new study has found that plants in the Arctic...

The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study finds. A new study has demonstrated for the first time that the calming effect of lavender is produced by smelling, and not by inhaling, the fragrant compound linalool. The research suggests that linalool could be a safer alternative to current anxiolytic drugs such as benzodiazepines, which are used to treat <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/depression-anxiety-heart-attack/">anxiety</a>.

Study co-author Dr. Hideki Kashiwadani is an expert in Neurobiology and Brain Physiology at <a href="https://www.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/en/">Kagoshima University</a> in Japan.

“In folk medicine, it has long been believed that odorous compounds derived from plant extracts can relieve anxiety,” said Dr. Kashiwadani. 

The findings of the research add to a growing collection of evidence that linalool, a scented alcohol found in lavender extracts, produces strong relaxing effects. However, according to Dr. Kashiwadani, previous investigations have failed to address the specific site where this biochemical reaction may take place. 

Many experts have speculated that linalool is absorbed through inhalation into the bloodstream, where it directly influences brain cell receptors called GABAA receptors (GABAARs). These receptors are also the target of benzodiazepines. 

Pinpointing the true mechanism that underlies the calming effects of linalool is a critical step in developing clinical treatments for humans. The research team designed a trial involving mice to investigate whether the smell of linalool, and the subsequent stimulation of olfactory neurons, may be responsible for the relaxation associated with the compound.

“We observed the behavior of mice exposed to linalool vapor, to determine its anxiolytic effects,” said Dr. Kashiwada. “As in previous studies, we found that linalool odor has an anxiolytic effect in normal mice. Notably, this did not impair their movement.” The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study finds

On the other hand, there was no anxiolytic effect found in mice who had lost their sense of smell after their olfactory neurons were destroyed. This discovery implies that the scent of linalool triggers olfactory signals that promote relaxation.

The study also revealed that the anxiolytic effect in normal mice disappeared when they had been treated with flumazenil, which blocks GABAA receptors.

“When combined, these results suggest that linalool does not act directly on GABAA receptors like benzodiazepines do - but must activate them via olfactory neurons in the nose in order to produce its relaxing effects,” explained Dr. Kashiwadani.


Further research is needed to establish how and where linalool could be safely and effectively administered before human trials can be developed.

“These findings nonetheless bring us closer to clinical use of linalool to relieve anxiety - in surgery for example, where pretreatment with anxiolytics can alleviate preoperative stress and thus help to place patients under general anesthesia more smoothly,” said Dr. Kashiwadani. “Vaporized linalool could also provide a safe alternative for patients who have difficulties with oral or suppository administration of anxiolytics, such as infants or confused elders.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience">Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study finds

The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study...

Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the heat. An international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> has found that tropical forests across the Andes Mountains are migrating to higher, cooler elevations in response to rising temperatures. The study, which is the most comprehensive of its kind,  also revealed that the trees are not moving fast enough to avoid functional collapse. 

The research has confirmed for the first time that trees across the Andean and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/president-brazil-amazon-rainforest/">Amazon forests</a> of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and northern Argentina have been moving upward due to climate change - just like many other plant and animal species. Tropical trees, however, are encountering some environmental roadblocks as they move into higher elevations that are threatening their migration efforts. 

“In the Andes, the ecosystems can change very fast and very dramatically, for example, from sunny and dry premontane forests to sopping-wet cloud forests. These changes, called ecotones, appear to be blocking species migrations,” explained study lead author Belén Fadrique. “These ecotone barriers make it hard for plants to relocate their populations - and if they can't relocate, they will go extinct.”

Fadrique teamed up with study co-author Professor Kenneth J. Freeley and 18 other experts around the world to create a new database that tracks thousands of highland trees in 186 plots of land located in what is known as the Tropical Andes Biodiversity Hotspot.


The plots, which are at elevations from 300 to over 3,000 meters above sea level, are about the size of an American football field and have been inventoried multiple times over the past couple decades. According to Professor Keeley, these forest plots contain more diversity than all of the United States and Canada combined.Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the heat

The research team used newly developed modeling techniques to combine the data from all the plots into a single comprehensive analysis. The results confirmed that tropical trees are seeking more optimal conditions by migrating to higher and cooler altitudes.

The researchers were surprised to learn that, while this phenomenon of thermophilization is widespread across the Andes, the rates of the change in forest composition are not uniform across elevations.

“Thermophilization is a mouthful of a word but it means that forests are becoming more heat-loving over time because, as the world warms up, the species that prefer the cold are being kicked out or are dying off and the heat-loving species are moving up and taking their place,” said Professor Feeley. “Everything is moving up the mountain so the species near the tops of the mountains are running out of places to go and may soon face the risk of mountain-top extinction.”

The team hopes to conduct follow-up studies to investigate how specific Andean species are being impacted by climate change, and what the consequences will be if they are lost.

“Tropical forests are one of the most important players in the world's global carbon cycle,” said Professor Feeley. “They slow down climate change by taking a lot of carbon out of the atmosphere and putting it into their growth. So the faster climate change happens, the faster we will lose our tropical forests, which in turn means that climate change will happen even faster.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the heat

Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the...

A study focused on how non-native insects and diseases invade U.S. forests has identified strong relationships between the diversity of native tree species and the number of invasive pests, which threaten the nation's forests both economically and ecologically.

Study co-author Kevin Potter is a professor in the Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>.

“Every few years we get a new exotic insect or disease that comes in and is able to do a number on our native forests,” said Professor Potter. 

“Emerald ash borer is clobbering a number of ash species in the Midwest and increasingly in the South. The chestnut, a magnificent tree that had immense ecosystem value as well as economic value in the South and North, is pretty much gone because of a pathogen. And hemlocks are under attack by the hemlock woolly adelgid from the Northeast along the Appalachian Mountains into the South.”

The researchers tested two conflicting ideas about <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-dictates-biodiversity-hotspots/">biodiversity</a>. One theory is that having more tree species can facilitate the diversity of pests by providing more places for them to become established. Another idea is that tree biodiversity can have protective effects for forests by diluting the concentration of host trees and making it harder for pests to flourish.

“We found that both facilitation and dilution seem to be happening at the same time,” said Professor Potter. “What we found is that native tree biodiversity really is important, but it's important in different ways at different times.”

The study revealed that relationships between tree diversity and pest diversity followed a hump-shaped curve.

“As you have an increasing number of tree species, you have an increasing number of pest species, up to an inflection point where that relationship changes,” explained Professor Potter. “Then you have a decreasing number of pest species as the number of host tree species increases.”

According to the researchers, forests that have 30 to 40 different host tree species tend to have the most non-native pests. The extent of this effect depends on whether the invader is a specialist that can infest only a single tree species or a generalist that can spread to many different hosts.

“What we see is that forests in the Midwest and up into New England are at the middle part of that hump-shaped curve in terms of the number of host tree species, and those are places where there have been a lot of insect and disease problems,” said Professor Potter.

“Out West we have fewer insect and disease pests, but in some cases they still do a lot of damage because the forests are not diverse. If you have a specialist pest come in and knock back one of the major components of your biodiversity, then that can have a greater impact. An example of how that works would be Sudden Oak Death, a disease in California that's affecting oaks there.”

Professor Potter said that tree biodiversity was a better predictor of non-native pests compared to other factors such as human population density and environmental conditions. “The unfortunate reality is that a lot of times we don't notice these exotic pests and diseases until they've gotten established and start having an impact on our native species, when it's almost too late.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Kevin M. Potter, North Carolina State University

Forests with higher tree diversity also have higher pest diversity

A study focused on how non-native insects and diseases invade...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tyrannosaurus-rex-big-run/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>, who is famous for being a deadly carnivore, was likely assisting in the widespread dispersal of fruit seeds. A recent report in <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a> suggests that T Rex was inadvertently planting fruits across the landscape in its droppings after devouring plant-eating animals.

Plants produce brightly-colored, seeded fruits to entice herbivores to eat them and disperse the seeds in their waste. Carnivores also become seed dispersers after consuming the herbivores.

A team of researchers led by Tetsuro Yoshikawa at the <a href="https://www.nies.go.jp/index-e.html">National Institute for Environmental Studies</a> set out to investigate if the carnivorous dinosaurs of the Cretaceous period may have been seed dispersers. 

The team analyzed data on the body weight and diet of 51 living bird species that are the closest living relatives of T. rex. Using this information, the experts developed a computer model to estimate how long seeds persist in a bird’s gut before being excreted.

The model enabled the researchers to predict how long seeds may have remained inside of a T. rex. The study revealed that seeds would likely have persisted for five to seven days before passing through the digestive system.

According to Yoshikawa, the fact that T. rex was highly mobile means that the dinosaur dispersed seeds across a large area. Yoshikawa told New Scientist that further research is needed to understand T. rex’s role in seed dispersal. “Our result is a first step to the modelling, and the estimates for dinosaurs are quite rough.”

Yoshikawa added that the model could be improved with more information on the type of seeds that were consumed and with a better understanding of T. rex’s diet.

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.oikosjournal.org/">Oikos Journal</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tyrannosaurus rex ate meat but also accidentally planted fruit

Tyrannosaurus rex, who is famous for being a deadly carnivore,...

A team of biologists at the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> has found that during prolonged periods of heat with low rainfall, some plants and trees waste valuable soil moisture in an effort to cool themselves off. According to the researchers, this behavior can actually intensify <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/drought-ozone-pollution-levels/">drought</a> conditions. 

"We show that the actual physiology of the plant matters," said study co-author Professor William Anderegg. "How trees take up, transport and evaporate water can influence societally important extreme events, like severe droughts, that can affect people and cities."

Through his research, Professor Anderegg previously discovered that some plants are built to slow down the movement of water to help minimize water loss when it is hot and dry. Other plants, however, have a system that is much more conducive to the movement of water, including large openings on their leaves. 

In past studies, Professor Anderegg examined how these traits may impact the ability of trees and forests to endure drought conditions. For the current study, the researchers set out to investigate how these traits may affect the drought itself.

"We've known for a long time that plants can affect the atmosphere and can affect weather," said Professor Anderegg. The water that is drawn out of the soil by plants and trees is released into the atmosphere as water vapor. In the Amazon rainforest, for example, an excess of water vapor can jumpstart precipitation. 

At 40 sites around the world, the team used instruments to collect data on the flow of heat, water, and carbon in and out of the air. The researchers also noted which tree species were most prevalent around the instruments. By comparing this information with a database of tree traits, the experts were able to determine which traits corresponded with droughts becoming more intense.

The first trait that was identified was the maximum leaf gas exchange rate, or the rate at which leaves can pump water vapor into the air. The second trait that most often correlated with more intense droughts was water transport, or how much water the tree can move to the leaves. 

The study revealed that in cooler regions, trees slowed down their water usage in response to declining soil moisture. In hotter climates, however, some plants and trees with high water transport and leaf gas exchange rates worked harder to keep cool when the soil got dry. As a result, they lost more and more water while depleting the remaining soil moisture.

"You end up getting to these conditions that are hotter and drier much faster with those plants than with other plants," said Professor Anderegg. 

Although hotter climates have more plants with these water-intensive traits, some plant species can intensify drought conditions regardless of the climate. "Failing to account for this key physiology of plants would give us less accurate predictions for what climate change is going to mean for drought in a lot of regions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants and trees can intensify droughts by drawing up large amounts of water

A team of biologists at the University of Utah has...

A desire for sweet foods is hard-wired into each and every human. Sugar is the simplest form of energy for our bodies, and our brains. As a result, we are programmed to seek out sweet foods and even gorge on them when they are abundant. This may have made sense when humans spent days searching for their next meal, but in our modern society sugar is always available. 

Sugar is now the ingredient that <a href="https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2013/03/04/Mintel-Shoppers-more-concerned-about-total-sugar-than-HFCS">consumers are most worried about avoiding</a>. This concern is well founded. The prevalence of sugar has led to a huge array of health problems, from obesity, to type 2 diabetes and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2769828/">has even been implicated as a cause of alzheimer’s disease</a>. 

In light of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/that-sugar-film-sugar-consumption/">concerns surrounding high-sugar foods</a>, many people choose artificial sweeteners. Products such as Diet Coke and Splenda offer a calorie-free alternative to sugar. However, there are growing concerns about the safety and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-sugar-sweeteners/">effectiveness of these products</a>. 

As a result, many consumers are looking for a healthier and more natural way to reach the sweetness we’ve grown accustomed to. There are a few big contenders in the race for the best natural sweetener.
<h2>Stevia - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/stevia-rebaudiana/">Stevia rebaudiana</a></h2>
Stevia has dominated the world of natural sugar alternatives in the last few decades. This small shrub from the daisy family (Asteraceae) is native to Paraguay where it has been used for centuries as a sweetener. The leaves of this plant contain compounds called steviol glycosides that are <a href="https://www.purecirclesteviainstitute.com/healthy-lifestyle/great-taste/how-sweet-is-stevia">up to 300X sweeter than sugar by weight</a>. 

The artificial sweetener industry sees Stevia as the most hopeful natural sweetener. There are already multiple stevia based sweeteners on the market including Cargill’s Truvia, as well as some mid-calorie sodas. Current products are made from the natural rebaudioside-A. However to get close to the flavor of sugar, it needs to be mixed with other sweeteners. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/05/magazine/the-quest-for-a-natural-sugar-substitute.html">Research is under way into how the sweeteners in stevia can be improved.</a>
<h2>Monk Fruit (Lou han guo) - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/siraitia-grosvenorii/">Siraitia grosvenorii</a></h2>
Monk fruit is the second most popular natural sugar alternative. It has garnered some commercial attention and is used in Cumberland Packaging’s Monk Fruit in the Raw sweetener. 

However, monk fruit is far more expensive to produce than stevia, and therefore has lagged behind its more popular competitor. In addition, the active chemicals (mogrosides) work far better in a neutral pH, making them less versatile for sodas and coffee. Some mixtures combine monk fruit and stevia <a href="https://www.foodbusinessnews.net/articles/9592-be-wary-of-new-natural-sweeteners">to take advantage of the best parts of each</a>.
<h2>Chinese Blackberry (Chinese Sweet Tea) - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/rubus-chingii-suavissimus/">Rubus suavissimus</a></h2>
The Chinese Blackberry is a close relative of the blackberries that grow in North America. However, the Chinese Blackberry has more sweetness to offer than just its berries. The leaves of this plant are brewed into a tea that is sweet, despite having no sugar at all. This plant is less well-researched than some other natural sweeteners. It is believed that it owes its sweetness to compounds <a href="https://examine.com/supplements/rubus-suavissimus/">similar to the steviol glycosides found in stevia</a>. There may be a lot of potential in this sweet leaf, but it still needs to be studied more extensively.
<h2>Miracle Berries - <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/synsepalum-dulcificum/">Synsepalum dulcificum</a></h2>
A different type of sweetener exists in the boldly named miracle berry. This fruit contains a protein called miraculin, which causes sour foods to taste sweet. After eating miracle berries, lemons and vinegar will taste excessively sweet. 

This fruit may seem like a great way to add sweetness to a sour meal, but as a food additive it isn’t practical. For it to work, you must coat your mouth before consuming the sour food. In addition, it cancels out the sour flavors that are essential in many delicious meals.

Miracle berries make a much better party trick than a natural sweetener, but their unique properties make them worth mentioning.
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
The amazing diversity of the plant world offers up quite a few different natural sweeteners, though they each have their unique shortcomings. In addition, there is no guarantee that a chemical produced by a plant is any safer than one created in a lab. These plant sweeteners still need to undergo extensive testing before they are considered safe as a food additive.

To make matters worse, it has not been proven that artificial sweeteners actually improve health. Although they don’t have the fattening calories of sugar, as we have reported, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweeteners-obesity-diabetes/">they may still contribute to obesity and diabetes</a>. The only proven solution to the dangers of sweetness is eating food that isn’t quite so sweet.

--

By <a href="mailto:casey.hofford@gmail.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Which plant-based natural sweetener is the best pick?

A desire for sweet foods is hard-wired into each and...

An international team of researchers has found that online behavior mimics the natural rhythms of the real world. In particular, the experts discovered that online interest in plants and animals often changes with the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/infectious-diseases-seasonal/">seasons</a>. 

The study was focused on a massive dataset of 2.33 billion views on Wikipedia, which involved 31,715 species over the course of three years. The team identified seasonal trends in the page views of more than 25 percent of the plant and animal species. The timing and extent of this internet activity was found to be an accurate representation of when and where the species were present in the world.

The seasonal interest in Wikipedia pages was found to reflect seasonal patterns in the species themselves. For example, page views of flowering plants had stronger seasonal patterns than those for coniferous trees, which do not have an obvious flowering season. Insects and birds trended more by the season compared to most mammals.

The researchers also identified instances where seasonal patterns responded to cultural events. Wikipedia’s page for the wild turkey showed repeated annual spikes around Thanksgiving and during the dates of the spring hunting season.

“People are becoming increasingly detached from nature and as a result we didn't really expect their activity online to respond to patterns in the natural world,” said study lead author John Mittermeier, who is a PhD student at the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>. “To see that online activity often correlates strongly with natural phenomena suggests that people are paying attention to the world around them, and from a conservation perspective that is really exciting.”

Professor Richard Grenyer added, “Really widespread, accurate monitoring of all the world's species is still science fiction, unfortunately. But by using these big data approaches we can begin to shortcut some of the more difficult problems, and cut to the core questions in modern conservation: how is the world changing, for which species is it changing the most, and where are the people who care the most and can do the most to help.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Uri Roll

Public interest in plants and animals changes with the seasons

An international team of researchers has found that online behavior...

A new study led by British botanist Dr. Aaron Davis has revealed that dozens of species of wild coffee are at risk of vanishing as a result of climate change and deforestation. The team found that 60 percent of all wild coffee varieties on three continents are threatened. 

For the risk assessment, the researchers applied an index developed by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN). The analysis revealed that the current rate of climate change may push wild arabica from an (IUCN) classification of “near threatened” to “extinct” by the year 2100.

According to the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/">New York Times</a>, Dr. Davis has spent 30 years investigating the state of the world's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/coffee-taste-buds/">coffee plants</a>. He has reported that the conditions in traditional coffee-producing regions, such as Ethiopia, will become unsuitable for coffee production as temperatures continue to rise. 

Dr. Davis has also mapped out regions that will become more suitable for growing coffee, which are basically cooler, interior regions. 

The wild species that the experts have analyzed for the current study are critical for the development of new coffee varieties that can survive global warming. 

Dr. Davis, who is a senior researcher at the <a href="https://www.kew.org/">Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew</a>, told the New York Times: “There are a broad range of traits, which have good potential for addressing specific issues in the future, whether its drought tolerance or disease resistance. As we lose those coffees, our options diminish.”

Wild coffees can be stored in seed banks or preserved in protected forests, but the team found that nearly half of all wild coffee species are not stored and a third do not grow in national forests.

The study is published in two separate papers in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many wild coffee species could disappear by the end of this century

A new study led by British botanist Dr. Aaron Davis...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...