There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

Climate change is ramping up the competition for Arctic plants to attract <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-is-wiping-out-bees-and-other-wild-pollinators/">pollinators</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a>. Warmer temperatures are extending the flowering periods of more plant species, as well as their need for insect pollination.

The researchers report that the most attractive plant species steal the majority of pollinators, and other flowering plants are suffering as a result.

"Most flowering plants are dependent on the pollination services provided by insects. Thus, plants need to time their flowering to periods of maximal pollinator abundances. On the other hand, plant species compete with each other for pollination. Thus, plant species flowering at the same time can affect each other's pollination success," said study lead author Mikko Tiusanen.

"Temperature is one of the most important environmental determinants of the onset of flowering. As the climate warms, plant species change their flowering periods, thereby changing their competition for pollinators."

Tiusanen explained that his team has been studying the relationship between Arctic plants and pollinators in North East Greenland, where the climate is warming twice as fast as the global average. 

"The most common flowering plant in this region is Avens, a widespread and abundant flowering species. The shape of an Avens' flower is an open, white cup of nectar, irresistibly attractive to any pollinators around. In our comparisons, Avens was found to attract many more visitors than other plant species. When in bloom, it thus monopolizes insect pollination services at the expense of other plants in flower," said Tiusanen.

The researchers analyzed the timing of flowering among various Arctic plant species under different environmental conditions, and found that higher temperatures cause flowering periods of flowering to expand significantly.

Compared to the flowering of Avens, the flowering of Moss Campion was found to advance, affecting the competition between the two species. The study revealed that with Avens in bloom at the same time, fewer insects carried the pollen of the Campion.

The findings indicate that global warming is altering competition between plant species for pollination services, and subsequently changing interactions between species. 

When a plant is flowering alongside a more attractive competitor species, the chances of pollination and ultimately the long-term survival of the plant are at risk. Rare plant species, as well as those that are less attractive to pollinators, will likely suffer the most as a consequence.

"To me, the Arctic represents a planetary research laboratory for studies of climate change," said study co-author Tomas Roslin. "The climate of this region is now changing twice as fast as the global average. What this means is that what happens in the Arctic today may later occur in the rest of the world. At the same time, relatively low species richness in the Arctic allows us to resolve their interactions in great detail." 

"But scientific reasons are only half the Arctic appeal. Northeast Greenland is one of the most beautiful areas in the world, and at the same time one of the largest uninhabited areas in the world. When studying insects here, you may even run into a polar bear. Such a combination keeps the researchers alert and awake."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arctic plants face more competition for pollinators as temperatures rise

Climate change is ramping up the competition for Arctic plants...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> shows just how isolated the world's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/oceans-will-soon-shift-from-natural-to-manmade/">natural</a> areas have become. The experts found that more than 90 percent of all protected areas are disconnected, a revelation that study lead author Michelle Ward describes as "alarming."

Land use changes for agriculture, mining, and urban development are segregating natural areas, and putting more and more distance between them as time goes on. 

"Protected areas are vital for the protection and survival of plants, animals and ecosystems," said Ward. "When intact, healthy habitat connects these protected areas, species can migrate, escape danger such as fires, and track their preferred microclimates under rapid climate change."

"Our research shows 40 percent of the terrestrial planet is intact, but only 9.7 percent of Earth's terrestrial protected network can be considered structurally connected. This means more than 90 percent of protected areas are isolated, in a sea of human activities."

The researchers found that in each country or territory, an average of 11 percent of the natural areas like wildlife reserves and national parks can be considered connected.

Under international agreements, the global protected area network must be well-connected and cover 17 percent of land, but this is far from the reality of the situation. According to the UQ study, only nine countries and territories have greater than 17 percent of their land protected and maintain greater than 50 percent connectivity.

"On a positive note, our study provides a common framework - previously absent - for countries and territories to assess the connectivity performance of their existing and future protected areas, with access to information and metrics," said Ward. 

Professor James Watson, an expert at both UQ and the Wildlife Conservation Society, said the research highlights the importance of better locating future protected areas and the need for more emphasis on wide-scale habitat protection and restoration.

"Protected areas increasingly are becoming the only tool conservationists talk about, but most nature lives beyond the protected area boundary," said Professor Watson.

"We need national and global conservation goals that address whole-of-landscape conservation and targets that halt the destruction of habitat between protected areas. Most of nature has no chance if it's to survive in just 20 percent of the world."

"We hope this study provides essential information for conservation and development planning, helping guide future national and global conservation agendas."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

More than 90 percent of Earth's protected areas are isolated

A new study from the University of Queensland shows just...

A new study from <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a> reveals that in the Brazilian Amazon, degradation has become more destructive than <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/columbia-holds-valuable-insights-for-slowing-deforestation-worldwide/">deforestation</a>. The researchers found that the total area where the biological function of the forest is degraded, and has not been converted to another use, is now greater than the amount of forest that has been completely cleared. 

A team of researchers led by Eraldo Matricardi surveyed the forest between 1992 and 2014, and found that the total area of degraded forest was 337,427 square kilometers compared to 308,311 square kilometers of forest that was cleared. 

Forest degradation is more difficult to monitor than deforestation, primarily because degrading activities such as burning, selective logging, and fragmentation can be hard to spot under an existing forest canopy. 

"This analysis considered the density, dominance, direction, and duration of five types of forest degradation over almost three decades. Edge effects and isolated forest fragments have been substantial contributors to the current degraded state of forest over the record, but the fragmentation contribution is declining while overt degradation from logging, and to a lesser degree fire, is becoming more prominent," wrote the study authors.

"We observed that there has been a transition from a deforestation-mediated fragmentation regime to one with an elevated importance of new logging and fire, which is geographically shifting to a new western 'degradation frontier.'"

To understand these dynamics, the researchers used a simple framework that accounted for two types of forest degradation activities: those that are dependent on, or tied to deforestation, and those that are more independent of deforestation, like logging.

Based on satellite imagery, the experts could pinpoint where degradation persisted and reoccurred across the Brazilian Amazon during the 25-year study period. They noted that during this particular timeframe, national policies contributed to a decline in deforestation, where forest is converted to an entirely new use such as for grazing.

Regardless, from 2006 to 2010, the average annual rate of forest degradation by logging and burning was nearly equal to the rate of deforestation. Then, by 2014, degradation rates officially exceeded deforestation rates.

"Selective logging has always been one of the first entryways into undisturbed forests, as it occurs within close proximity of existing settlement and clearing. Now, logging is demonstrating the potential to leap further distances into remote areas," wrote the study authors.

"The overall conclusion from this work is that forest degradation is a significant form of landscape and ecosystem disturbance. Degradation in the Brazilian Amazon is a persistent form of disturbance, not simply one that is eventually replaced by deforestation. Focusing attention on deforestation alone ignores an additional area of forest degraded by selective logging, understory fire, edge effects, and isolation of fragments that is equal in areal extent to cleared forest."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forest degradation is more destructive than deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon

A new study from AAAS reveals that in the Brazilian...

Latin America is home to at least a third of the world's biodiversity and is more than twice as rich in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shift-from-meat-to-plant-based-food-could-offset-years-of-emissions/">plant</a> species as tropical Africa, according to experts at the <a href="https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/">Missouri Botanical Garden</a>. 

With tropical forests being cleared at shocking rates, the researchers emphasize that areas with the greatest amount of biodiversity must be urgently identified to help inform conservation efforts while there is still time. 

It was previously known that Latin America has a greater diversity of plant species than tropical Africa, but the current study is the first to quantify the difference.

"Detailed studies over the past several decades have made it possible to compare accurately the numbers of species of indigenous vascular plants in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia, and the results are unexpected," wrote the researchers.

Study co-author Peter Raven is a renowned botanist and environmentalist, and the President Emeritus of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The experts compared the numbers of vascular plant species in the Afrotropical Region and Latin America using the Vascular Plants of Americas website. 

Based on the estimates, the researchers report that although Latin America is smaller in area than the Afrotropical Region, it is home to more than twice as many species of vascular plants. Furthermore, the study shows that new species are being discovered in Latin America much more rapidly and that the region is home to at least a third of the world's total biodiversity.

"The destruction of ecosystems is taking place so rapidly throughout the tropics that it will be difficult to obtain additional information bearing on the matters reviewed here," wrote the study authors. "With the global population currently 7.8 billion, projected to increase to nearly 10 billion over the next 30 years, and our current consumption of natural productivity having reached around 175% of what is available sustainably, the future for most natural ecosystems looks dim." 

"In Sub-Saharan Africa, the situation is especially dire; the 1.2 billion people there are estimated to double by mid-century and quadruple by the end of this century. Few predict that there will be many areas of tropical forest left by the end of the century. Therefore, to find answers to the obvious questions of how many species are there, how their ecosystems function, and so forth, we will need to do the best we can as soon as we can."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Latin America contains a third of the world's biodiversity

Latin America is home to at least a third of...

Scientists exploring the deepest regions of the Great Barrier Reef for the first time have discovered five new species of black <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-reproductive-secrets-of-stony-corals/">corals</a> and sponges. The team also observed an extremely rare fish that has never been documented in Australia.

The groundbreaking research was conducted by experts onboard the <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>'s research vessel Falkor. The team deployed an underwater robot to capture high-resolution video of the seafloor 1,820 meters deep.

The international collaboration involved a multidisciplinary team of scientists from Geoscience Australia, James Cook University, University of Sydney, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Queensland Museum Network, and Queensland University of Technology.

The experts addressed many questions about the geological evolution and biology of the reefs and canyons across the deep seafloor.

"This included the most comprehensive midwater robotic dive survey series to ever have been conducted in the South Pacific," said lead scientist Dr. Brendan Brooke. "Research vessel Falkor has integrated a range of technologies that have allowed us to work across the full range of ocean depths in the Coral Sea and to provide data for multiple disciplines including geology, biology, and oceanography."

The researchers obtained samples of soft and scleractinian coral, as well as the first sample of ancient bedrock from beneath the Great Barrier Reef, which is estimated to be between 40 and 50 million years old. 

Scientists spotted the extremely rare Rhinopias agroliba, a colorful ambush predator in the scorpionfish family, and conducted the most comprehensive survey of midwater jellyfish that has ever been carried out in the South Pacific.

The team also mapped the seafloor in high resolution across 38,395 square kilometers.

"These maps, samples, and images are fascinating and provide a new understanding of the geological diversity and biological wealth of a region that is already world-renowned for its natural beauty," said Dr. Jyotika Virmani, executive director of Schmidt Ocean Institute. "The data will help marine park managers to protect these ecosystems that are so vital for our global biodiversity and human health. "

The experts live streamed the underwater robotic dives and 112 hours of high definition underwater video during the month-long expedition to the Great Barrier Reef, which ended August 30, on the Schmidt Ocean Institute's YouTube channel.

"Schmidt Ocean Institute and the technology that it has brought to Australia is a huge enabler in better understanding our marine resources from a lens of diverse disciplines," said Dr. Scott Nichol. "This work brings new understanding and will keep the scientists busy for years."

The research was funded by the Schmidt Ocean Institute, Geoscience Australia, James Cook University, the University of Sydney, JAMSTEC, and Queensland Museum.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New corals found deep in the Great Barrier Reef

Scientists exploring the deepest regions of the Great Barrier Reef...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> has demonstrated that two food additives can eliminate foodborne pathogens from tomatoes before they are even harvested. The nonchlorine-based sanitizer, which contains levulinic acid and sodium dodecyl, can be used by vegetable <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/snowmelt-changes-may-greatly-affect-farmers-in-western-u-s/">farmers</a> as a preharvest spray to control diseases such as Salmonella and E. coli.

While most farmers rely on postharvest washing to reduce the risk of foodborne pathogens, the new study suggests that applying sanitizers to produce while it is still in the field is an effective solution that can also lower labor costs.

"Tomatoes are grown in environments in which Salmonella may reside as a result of fecal contamination from animals, such as livestock, wildlife and reptiles," explained the study authors. "For improvement of soil fertility and quality the application of manure and compost is common on organic farms, however; some improperly treated manure or compost can also add a potential microbial risk factor for fresh produce."

Each year, about five billion pounds of fresh market tomatoes are consumed in the United States, which means that disease outbreaks have the potential to be large and far-reaching.

Study lead author Tong Zhao is an associate research scientist with the Center for Food Safety on the UGA Griffin campus. 

Initially, Zhao's team was going to investigate the use of a postharvest wash solution made of two food additives approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. However, Bill Brim of Lewis Taylor Farms suggested that the study should be designed using the solution in a preharvest spray.

While producers commonly use chlorine-based disinfectants to treat produce postharvest, the preharvest application of bactericides is not a common practice, said Zhao.

Previous studies showed that the combination of levulinic acid and sodium dodecyl sulfate substantially reduced both Salmonella and E. coli on romaine lettuce without adversely affecting lettuce quality. Zhao wanted to test the solution's effectiveness on contaminated tomato plants.

In both lab and field tests, tomato plants were sprayed with a solution containing five strains of E. coli, five strains of Salmonella, and five strains of Listeria. The tomato plants were then separated into three groups and were treated in the following ways: with a test solution levulinic acid and sodium dodecyl sulfate, with acidified chlorine as a control, or with only tap water.

The studies showed that the test solution significantly reduced the populations of inoculated Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, Salmonella, and L. monocytogenes on tomato plants.

"I have to express appreciation to the Georgia Fruit and Vegetable Association for funding this and other research that is of benefit to agricultural producers in the state," said Zhao.

"This method can easily be adopted using equipment that most farms are already using. Preharvest treatment is very effective, efficient and easy considering the amount of labor needed for postharvest washing."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/food-control">Food Control</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New treatment protects tomatoes from Salmonella and E coli

A new study from the University of Georgia has demonstrated...

A widespread dietary shift from meat to plant-based foods could offset years of harmful CO2 emissions, according to a study from <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">NYU</a>. The researchers propose that transitioning to plant-sourced <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-proteins-that-control-nutrient-uptake-in-plants/">protein</a> will free up agricultural land that may be re-dedicated to ecosystems which absorb carbon dioxide. 

The experts have pinpointed specific locations where changing what people grow could support the cultivation of beneficial ecosystems.

"The greatest potential for forest regrowth, and the climate benefits it entails, exists in high- and upper-middle income countries, places where scaling back on land-hungry meat and dairy would have relatively minor impacts on food security," said study lead author Professor Matthew Hayek.

The investigation shows that if the demand for meat drastically declined in the coming decades - along with its massive land requirements - vegetation regrowth could remove as much as 16 years of global fossil fuel CO2 emissions. The removal of this much CO2 would basically double the Earth's rapidly shrinking carbon budget.

"We can think of shifting our eating habits toward land-friendly diets as a supplement to shifting energy, rather than a substitute," said Professor Hayek. "Restoring native forests could buy some much-needed time for countries to transition their energy grids to renewable, fossil-free infrastructure."

The researchers emphasize that their findings are designed to assist locally tailored strategies for mitigating climate change. While meat consumption is excessive in many countries, raising animals remains critically essential in some places. These considerations will be important as countries attempt to develop their economies sustainably, said study co-author Professor Nathan Mueller.

"Land use is all about tradeoffs. While the potential for restoring ecosystems is substantial, extensive animal agriculture is culturally and economically important in many regions around the world. Ultimately, our findings can help target places where restoring ecosystems and halting ongoing deforestation would have the largest carbon benefits," said Professor Mueller.

Technological solutions for climate change, such as new methods for carbon capture and storage, will soon become available. However, placing too much confidence in these technologies could prove dangerous, according to study co-author Helen Harwatt of Harvard Law School.

"Restoring native vegetation on large tracts of low yield agricultural land is currently our safest option for removing CO2. There's no need to bet our future solely on technologies that are still unproven at larger scales," said Harwatt.

The benefits of cutting back on meat and dairy reach far beyond addressing climate change. "Reduced meat production would also be beneficial for water quality and quantity, wildlife habitat, and biodiversity," noted study co-author Professor William Ripple of Oregon State University.

The COVID-19 pandemic is shedding new light on the importance of healthy ecosystems in preventing zoonotic disease outbreaks.

"We now know that intact, functioning ecosystems and appropriate wildlife habitat ranges help reduce the risk of pandemics," said Harwatt. "Our research shows that there is potential for giving large areas of land back to wildlife. Restoring native ecosystems not only helps the climate; when coupled with reduced livestock populations, restoration reduces disease transmission from wildlife to pigs, chickens, and cows, and ultimately to humans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natsustain">Nature Sustainability </a>.

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Major shift to plant-based food could offset years of CO2 emissions

A widespread dietary shift from meat to plant-based foods could...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a>, researchers have identified proteins that control water and nutrient uptake in plant roots. This breakthrough could reduce the need for chemical fertilizers, and may ultimately improve the resilience of agricultural <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-one-step-closer-to-engineering-flood-resistant-crops/">crops</a> to heat, drought, and flooding.

Casparian strips are bands of cell wall materials that form a tight barrier between the cells in plants to block the extracellular movement of water and nutrients. These strips, which play a critical role in normal plant development, are formed by the precise buildup of lignin in the space between adjacent cells. 

In the current study, the experts have demonstrated that blue copper proteins called uclacyanins are essential in the biosynthesis of lignin and the formation of Casparian strips.

Developing crops with improved water and nutrient uptake efficiency could help solve the global issue of food insecurity, which is expected to become an even greater challenge as a result of climate change and population growth. 

Study lead author Guilhem Reyt is a researcher in the School of Biosciences and Future Food Beacon at the University of Nottingham.

"This research is important in revealing the molecular mechanics underpinning efforts to improve mineral nutrient and water use efficiencies and enhanced stress tolerance, making crops more able to withstand flooding, drought, nutrient deficiencies and trace element toxicities," said Reyt.

"Such improvements in agricultural and horticultural crops could also potentially benefit subsistence farmers with limited access to inorganic fertilizers which include nitrogen, phosphate and potassium and also sulphur and magnesium. This would help to reduce the cost burden such fertilizers impose and reduce the environmental and ecological damage their production and excess use causes. Improved water use efficiency and stress tolerance will also improve yields for subsistence farmers cultivating marginal lands."

"An improved understanding of how roots acquire important trace elements and minerals should provide an important molecular mechanistic underpinning to efforts to improve food quality by helping to increase the content of essential mineral nutrients and reduce toxic trace elements in food crops."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists find proteins that control nutrient uptake in plants

In a new study from the University of Nottingham, researchers...

What if aerial search teams could locate dead bodies by analyzing forest cover? Forensic botanists say it's possible. While the impacts of human <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/organic-carbon-stored-underground/">decomposition</a> on surrounding vegetation are not yet fully understood, the experts theorize that changes in a plant's chemistry could signal nearby remains.

Thick vegetation can be a disadvantage for search teams working on the ground, but a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a> is designed to explore how forest cover may actually be advantageous in the search for dead bodies. 

Study senior author Neal Stewart Jr. is a professor of Plant Sciences at the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/">University of Tennessee</a> (UT).

"In smaller, open landscapes foot patrols could be effective to find someone missing, but in more forested or treacherous parts of the world like the Amazon, that's not going to be possible at all," said Professor Stewart. "This led us to look into plants as indicators of human decomposition, which could lead to faster, and possibly safer body recovery."

The experts will investigate the relationship between plants and human decomposition at UT's Anthropology Research Facility, also known as the "body farm." This site is used by forensic scientists to analyze how bodies decompose under various conditions. 

During decomposition, the soil chemistry is changed in the area immediately surrounding the body, which is called the "cadaver decomposition island." Future experiments will investigate how changes in an island's soil nutrient composition manifest in nearby plants.

"The most obvious result of the islands would be a large release of nitrogen into the soil, especially in the summertime when decomposition is happening so fast," said Professor Stewart. "Depending on how quickly the plants respond to the influx of nitrogen, it may cause changes in leaf color and reflectance."

To distinguish between animal and human remains, the scientists must identify metabolites that are specific to human decay. The experts speculate that there are specific metabolites, like those from drugs or food preservatives, that will affect the appearance of plants in unique ways.

"One thought is if we had a specific person who went missing who was, let's say, a heavy smoker, they could have a chemical profile that could trigger some sort of unique plant response making them easier to locate. Though at this stage this idea is still far-fetched," said Professor Stewart.

By gaining a better understanding of the impacts of cadaver metabolites on plants, imaging technology can be developed to scan plants for precise signals of nearby human decomposition. Some of this technology already exists, but scientists still need to know which signals and plant species to look for. 

"We've actually built a whole plant imager that can analyze fluorescence signatures," explained Professor Stewart. "But the first steps are going to be very fine scale, looking at individual leaves and measuring how their reflectance or fluorescence changes over time when plants are near human remains." 

Ultimately, drones and other tech could be used to analyze a wide stretch of area in a short amount of time.

"When you start to think about deploying drones to look for specific emissions, now we can think of the signals more like a check engine light - if we can quickly fly where someone may have gone missing and collect data over tens or even hundreds of square kilometers, then we'd know the best spots to send in a search team."

According to the researchers, it will be several years before it is feasible to use plants to locate human remains. Currently, the scientists are developing the first of many plant-cadaver experiments at the body farm.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/home">Trends in Plant Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

How plants may assist in the search for dead bodies

What if aerial search teams could locate dead bodies by...

What will forests look like at the end of the century? A new study led by <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a> suggests that a large number of forests in the western United States will no longer exist. The researchers found that when forests burn across the Southern Rocky Mountains, many will never recover, but will instead transition into <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-grassland-plant-diversity/">grasslands</a> and shrublands.

"We project that post-fire recovery will be less likely in the future, with large percentages of the Southern Rocky Mountains becoming unsuitable for two important tree species - ponderosa pine and Douglas fir," said lead author Kyle Rodman.

In California and other western states, the wildfire season is arriving earlier and lasting longer every year. This new trend is primarily driven by climate change, which means that as global warming intensifies, so will the duration of the fire season. 

Rising temperatures in the spring and summer, reduced snowpack, and earlier spring snowmelt combine to create longer and more intense dry seasons that make forests more susceptible to severe burns.

Previous studies from UC Boulder have examined the sites of individual fires. These forests recovered very slowly, if at all. In the plots surveyed, 80 percent still had no new trees 15 years after the fire.

The research team, which included experts from the U.S. Forest Service, Northern Arizona University, Colorado State University and the University of North Carolina Wilmington, set out to expand on the earlier work. The goal of the current investigation was to project the future by looking at the past.

The study was focused on 22 burned areas, including  710 square miles from southern Wyoming through central and western Colorado to northern New Mexico. Some of these regions that had burned as long ago as 1988. 

The team looked at ponderosa pine and Douglas fir forests, which make up about half of the forested area in the region. "For those of us who live along Colorado's Front Range, these are the trees that we see, live and recreate near on a daily basis," said Rodman.

The researchers used satellite images and field measurements to reconstruct what the forests looked like prior to the fire. Next, by counting juvenile trees and looking at tree rings, they assessed how well the forests were recovering. 

Forests at higher elevations with lower temperatures and more precipitation were found to be in the best shape. Those with more surviving trees nearby were also more likely to rebound.

On the other hand, lower-elevation forests proved to be much less resilient. When the scientists compared the study sites to regions that burned in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the areas that burned more recently failed to bounce back.

"This study and others clearly show that the resilience of our forests to fire has declined significantly under warmer, drier conditions," said study co-author Professor Tom Veblen.

Computer modeling revealed that by 2051, with moderate greenhouse gas emissions, less than 18 percent of Douglas fir and ponderosa pine forests will recover if burned. Under a higher emissions scenario, that number drops to 6 percent for Douglas fir and 3.5 percent for pine forests.

Meanwhile, said Professor Veblen, the number and intensity of wildfires will continue its steady rise. The number of acres burned annually across the country has already doubled since the 1990s.

"The big takeaway here is that we can expect to have an increase in fire continue for the foreseeable future, and, at the same time, we are going to see much of our land convert from forest to non-forest," said Professor Veblen.

Rodman hopes the findings will help land managers better plan where to invest their resources, or not, after a fire. For example, it would be more beneficial to plant seedlings in regions that are likely to recover. Rodman also hopes the projections will people one more reason to care about climate change.

"This was a hard study to write and can be a bit depressing to read, but there are some positive takeaways," said Rodman. "If we can get a handle on some of these trends and reduce our greenhouse gas emissions, the outcomes may not look so dire. The future is not written in stone."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14668238">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Many forests will never be forests again after a wildfire

What will forests look like at the end of the...

Ocean acidification is threatening the stability of the world's tropical <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sharks-have-vanished-from-20-percent-of-coral-reefs/">reefs</a>. Experts at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> report that the "glue" that holds the Great Barrier Reef together is being weakened by rising levels of carbon dioxide.

Calcified deposits known as microbialites are formed by microbes that live within reef formations. The deposits bind and stabilize the reef framework, creating a strong scaffold that is used by corals and other reef builders to colonize and grow

The researchers analyzed historical samples from the Great Barrier Reef and found that these calcified scaffolds become thinner and lose their strength as acidity rises and pH levels fall. 

While previous studies have produced some evidence of this phenomenon the past, the current study is the first to show that the destabilizing effects of ocean acidification are impacting reefs worldwide.

"For the first time we have comprehensively shown that the thickness of this geologic 'reef glue' correlates with changes in ocean pH and dissolved carbon dioxide," said study lead author Zsanett Szilagyi.

Looking at the fossil record, the researchers determined that the thickness of reef crusts are a reliable indicator of ocean acidification going back at least tens of thousands of years.

"We haven't had such a complete and high-resolution record before. And this geologic study shows that as oceans became more acidic, this is reflected in the thickness of these reef crusts," said study co-author Professor Jody Webster.

In the past, the reef scaffolding was more abundant than the corals and algae that grow on and around them. These crusts display variations in thickness over time, yet continue to serve as the structural support for reefs.

"This means they are really good indicators of changes in environmental conditions of our oceans," said Professor Webster.

The scientists identified a variation in thickness from 11.5 centimeters 22,500 years ago to about 3 centimeters 12,000 years ago along younger parts of the Great Barrier Reef.

The results of testing from 17 reefs across the globe show that the thinning of reef crusts coincides with pH dropping below 8.2 right up to modern times.

"Previous studies have given us glimpses as to how these microbial crusts respond to changes in their environment. What is new in our study is that we measured more than 700 well-dated microbialite samples from the International Ocean Discovery Program on the Great Barrier Reef and combined this with a meta-analysis of 17 other reef records from around the world," said Professor Webster.

"This allowed us to assess global-scale changes in microbialite development over the past 30,000 years. And, frankly, the findings are a stark warning sign for the dangers of rapid acidification of oceans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14390485">Marine Ecology </a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Ocean acidification could cause coral reefs to fall apart

Ocean acidification is threatening the stability of the world's tropical...

Crops could be made more resistant to flooding by manipulating the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/enzyme-plant-waste-products/">enzymes</a> that control their response to lower oxygen levels, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>.

"Climate change is a major global issue, not least for its impact on food security. We hope these findings can help produce flood-tolerant crops to help mitigate the devastating social and economic impact of extreme weather events on food production," said study co-author Dr. Mark White.

Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of flooding events worldwide. As a result of rising sea levels and stronger tropical storms, floods in the United States that used to occur only once every 100 years could soon occur annually. 

Flooding can cause devastating crop losses and reduce food security. Staple crops such as rice, wheat, and barley have a built-in defense to survive temporary flooding, but prolonged periods of water inundation can fatally damage these plants.

In response to the low oxygen conditions in water, some plants can activate energy pathways that do not rely on air. These responses are controlled by oxygen-sensing enzymes -  plant cysteine oxidases (PCOs) - that use oxygen to regulate the stability of proteins that control gene activity.

The study authors explained that PCOs are a vital component of the plant oxygen signaling system, connecting environmental stimulus with cellular and physiological response.

The research, which was largely conducted at the University of Oxford, describes the molecular structures of PCOs for the first time. The experts have identified key structural features that are required for PCO activity.

"The results provide a platform for future efforts to manipulate the enzyme function in an attempt to create flood-resistant crops that can mitigate the impact of extreme weather events," said Dr. White.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists are one step closer to engineering flood-resistant crops

Crops could be made more resistant to flooding by manipulating...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...