There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

Scientists have demonstrated how artificial intelligence can be used to quickly identify endangered <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plant-seeds-are-traveling-to-the-u-s-in-shipping-containers/">plant</a> species. A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (iDiv) used an automated technique to pinpoint more than 4,000 types of orchids that are threatened with extinction.

"Overall, our results demonstrate that automated assessments have an important role to play in achieving goals of identifying the species that are at greatest risk of extinction," wrote the study authors.

Orchids are economically important plants in horticulture, the pharmaceutical industry, and in the food industry. However, thousands of orchid species face immediate threats by land use changes and illegal harvesting, which means there is an urgent need to identify the most endangered species while there is still time to save them. 

The most widely used set of criteria for evaluating extinction risk is the global Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). These assessments are so exhaustive that they are only available for a fraction of the species worldwide. 

Out of approximately 29,000 orchid species, only about 1,400 have been assessed by the IUCN Red List. To address this issue, the iDiv team conducted an automated conservation assessment with the help of machine learning algorithms.

"Deep neural networks are widely used in other fields such as image recognition, but they can also help with conservation assessments," said Dr. Alexander Zizka. "With our method, we can incorporate additional aspects such as climate, geographic region or traits related to the respective species - and we can do this very fast."

The researchers assessed the risk of extinction for almost 14,000 orchid species and determined that more than 4,300 are possibly threatened with extinction. The automated assessments identified endangered species with an accuracy of 84.3 percent.

The experts also pinpointed places where orchid conservation efforts are most urgently needed, including Madagascar, East Africa, southeast Asia, and several oceanic islands. 

The automated approach used in this study may be a model for other species. In particular, the method could be a valuable tool for understudied tropical regions that are biodiversity hotspots. 

"A particular strength of our approach is that it can be trained for other taxonomic groups or regions," said Zizka. "By doing so, it could speed up the conservation assessment of all species on Earth."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15231739">Conservation Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Machine learning identifies 4,300 types of endangered orchids

Scientists have demonstrated how artificial intelligence can be used to...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, researchers emphasize that farmers have the knowledge that is needed to vastly improve <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-model-predicts-economically-important-traits-in-crops/">crops</a>. The scientists propose that combining the expertise of farmers with high-tech breeding could unleash the potential to make crops more resilient to climate change.

The researchers suggest that involving farmers in the development of  better crops increases the likelihood that new varieties will be adopted, making crop improvement more efficient.

Study co-author Carlo Fadda is the research director at the Alliance of Biodiversity and International Center for Tropical Agriculture.

"Modern breeding under a microscope in the lab can speed up breeding of 'elite' varieties able to provide significant yield increase," said Fadda."But are those varieties and traits most important to farmers? Do they plant them? On the other hand, traditional varieties can better withstand changing climatic conditions, but are these varieties high-yielding enough?"

The "Seeds for Needs" approach was first introduced in Ethiopia to speed up durum wheat breeding. Scientists took a selection of elite and traditional durum wheat varieties obtained from Ethiopia Biodiversity Institute (EBI) to farmers to get their feedback, and discovered that traditional varieties were superior. These varieties produced double the average national durum wheat yield and exhibited resistance to major diseases.

"Rather than mass-producing seed to cope in a broad range of conditions, we need to find varieties for local contexts in order to maximize yields at each site," said Fadda. "Traditionally, farmers grow a portfolio of crops to withstand different conditions and make different products. Some will plant wheat for bread, for local-brewed beer, for injera - the local flatbread - to minimize their risk."

The Seeds for Needs method relies on cutting-edge breeding to quickly achieve climate-resilient traits and crop varieties. When this technique is combined with farmer-selected crops that can cope in field conditions, the result is a better-adapted food supply that is more resilient to the impacts of the impending climate crisis, said the study authors.

"Climate change is a shifting target, and to address it we need a dynamic process," saif Fadda. "This approach provides a constant injection of new material adapted to a broader set of conditions within one locality. With this approach, as climate change advances, there will always be well-adapted crop varieties for local conditions, bringing together high tech approaches and traditional knowledge."

Study co-author Matteo Dell'Acqua is a geneticist at the Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, in Italy.

"This approach shows the value of combining the most advanced genomics approaches with traditional knowledge of farmer communities," said Acqua. "In this framework, modern breeding and crowd-sourcing methods can complement each other in supporting local adaptation of farming systems to the impacts of climate change."

Now that digital tools are available, the researchers say  that farmer "citizen scientists" can provide reliable information to identify varieties with superior traits tolerant to climate-induced stress. The previous collaborations with farmers show they are eager to be part of trials, to contribute to research or in exchange for advice.

In Ethiopia, two wheat varieties that were developed using the Seeds for Needs technique have been released four years faster than the average time required to release new crop varieties. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Farmers can help make crops more resilient

In a new study published by Frontiers, researchers emphasize that...

An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> recently conducted the largest-ever analysis of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/invasive-beetle-turns-its-attention-to-guams-endangered-cycad-trees/">tree</a> ring data in the Russian Arctic. The study has revealed that Arctic air pollution is much worse than what was previously realized.

The researchers combined measurements of tree ring width and wood chemistry from living and dead trees with soil characteristics and computer modeling. They found that decades of nickel and copper mining has not only damaged local ecosystems, but has also affected the global carbon cycle.

The devastating impacts of air pollution near the industrial Siberian city of Norilsk can be seen in the annual growth rings of trees in the boreal forest, where a mass die-off has spread up to 100 kilometers.

Norilsk, the world's northernmost city, is one of the most polluted places in the world as a result of intensive mining that dates back to the 1930s. Heavy emissions have destroyed around 24,000 square kilometres of boreal forest since the 1960s. Today, the surviving trees in the higher elevations are suffering as well. 

The researchers have shown how the amount of pollution spewed into the atmosphere by mines is at least partially responsible for the phenomenon of "Arctic dimming," which is usually caused by volcanic eruptions.

"Using the information stored in thousands of tree rings, we can see the effects of Norilsk's uncontrolled environmental disaster over the past nine decades," said study lead author Professor Ulf Büntgen. "While the problem of sulphur emissions and forest dieback has been successfully addressed in much of Europe, for Siberia, we haven't been able to see what the impact has been, largely due to a lack of long-term monitoring data."

The researchers assessed the extent of Norilsk's devastating environmental impacts, which peaked in the 1960s.

"We can see that the trees near Norilsk started to die off massively in the 1960s due to rising pollution levels," said Professor Büntgen. "Since atmospheric pollution in the Arctic accumulates due to large-scale circulation patterns, we expanded our study far beyond the direct effects of Norilsk's industrial sector and found that trees across the high-northern latitudes are suffering as well."

The researchers also found that tree growth has been drastically stunted since the 1970s by Arctic dimming, a phenomenon in which the sun is partially blocked by particles in the atmosphere. This reduction in sunlight slows the process of evaporation and interferes with the hydrological cycle.

Even though global warming should be boosting the rate of boreal tree growth, air pollution has prevented this from happening. The researchers found that the pollution levels in the atmosphere have diminished the trees' ability to turn sunlight into energy through photosynthesis.

"What surprised us is just how widespread the effects of industrial pollution are - the scale of the damage shows just how vulnerable and sensitive the boreal forest is," said Professor Büntgen. "Given the ecological importance of this biome, the pollution levels across the high-northern latitudes could have an enormous impact on the entire global carbon cycle."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tree rings reveal the shocking extent of Arctic air pollution

An international team of researchers led by the University of...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> is one of the first of its kind to investigate how plants and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/not-enough-is-known-about-how-rainfall-affects-tropical-animals/">animals</a> in the Andes will respond to both human activities and the impacts of climate change. The researchers found that high-elevation biodiversity hotspots will be substantially reduced over the next three decades without urgent intervention.

Global warming is forcing many plants and animals to seek higher ground to find cooler habitats. However, there is only so far up that species can migrate. 

In the Andes, many tropical species thrive in communities that sit above the treeline yet below the permanently frozen mountaintops. These high altitude biodiversity hotspots are known as páramos, or sky islands. 

The most diverse species found in the páramos are relatives of the sunflower in the genus Espeletia. Beyond supporting an abundance of species, human populations rely on these ecosystems as well. 

"Páramos are one of the fastest evolving biodiversity hotspots on earth and they are one of the most threatened," said study co-lead author Dr. Andrés Cortés of the <a href="https://www.devex.com/organizations/colombian-corporation-for-agricultural-research-corpoica-corporacion-colombiana-de-investigacion-agropecuaria-26033">Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research</a>. "Páramos are also the main water supplier of wetland ecosystems and densely populated areas, hence, disregarding the future of the Páramos may jeopardize overall food and water safety in the northern Andes."

Over millions of years, the high-altitude plants that inhabit the sky islands have adapted to extreme fluctuations in temperature, water availability, and sunlight exposure. There are now over 3,000 plant species throughout the South American páramos, which have become the fastest growing ecosystems in the world. However, scientists are investigating whether these species can evolve quickly enough to keep pace with climate change.

Dr. Cortés and his team focused their investigation on Espeletia because it is one of the most diverse and successful plant genera endemic to the páramos. The researchers used the most advanced computer modeling available to predict what the distribution of 28 species of Espeletia will look like in 2050.

After accounting for other factors - such as nature reserves, agriculture and mining, and surrounding forests - the team found that some páramos were particularly vulnerable to climate change and that there are limited opportunities for alpine sunflowers to migrate or adapt.

Further research is needed to investigate the vulnerability of additional species. Regardless, the findings highlight the importance of protecting the páramos.

"We hope that our findings might assist future conservation efforts, such as promoting more sustainable land uses by empowering local communities and developing ecotourism, which are also essential to relieve human impact on tropical-alpine plant diversity in the northern Andes," said the researchers. 

"In the most pessimistic scenario, if Espeletia and Páramos were lost forever, science would lose an underexplored laboratory to study evolution happening at incredible rates -- it would be just as if The Galápagos Islands disappeared."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Biodiversity hotspots are shrinking in the Andes mountains

A new study published by Frontiers is one of the...

If you want to help protect butterflies from climate change, provide them with more shady places to keep cool, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>. The scientists report that the butterfly species which rely on finding shady areas to regulate their body temperature are the most vulnerable to global <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-changing-insect-communities-in-the-arctic/">warming</a>.

The study showed significant variations in the ability of different UK butterfly species to maintain a suitable body temperature. 

The researchers found that larger butterflies which are pale in color, including the Brimstone and the Large White, have the best adaptive strategies to handle climate change. These butterflies have large wings which they can use to reflect the sun's heat either away from, or onto, their bodies. 

The larger and paler butterflies examined for the study were found to have stable or growing populations. By contrast, the larger butterfly species that are more colorful such as the Peacock and Red Admiral have greater difficulty controlling their body temperature, and are therefore more vulnerable to environmental changes.

The study revealed that some butterfly species must seek out a microclimate, or an area with suitable temperatures, in order to control their body temperature. 

Around two-thirds of UK butterfly populations are in a state of decline as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation, and the landscape modifications have eliminated many of the microclimates that butterflies need to survive. Climate change is making matters much worse by causing more extreme weather events and greater fluctuations in temperature.

"Butterfly species that aren't very good at controlling their temperature with small behavioural changes, but rely on choosing a micro-habitat at the right temperature, are likely to suffer the most from climate change and habitat loss," said study first author Dr. Andrew Bladon.

"We need to make landscapes more diverse to help conserve many of our butterfly species. Even within a garden lawn, patches of grass can be left to grow longer - these areas will provide cooler, shady places for many species of butterfly. In nature reserves, some areas could be grazed or cut and others left standing. We also need to protect features that break up the monotony of farm landscapes, like hedgerows, ditches, and patches of woodland."

The research, which involved the analysis of nearly 4,000 wild butterflies and their surroundings, shows that butterflies are either thermal generalists or thermal specialists. However, this classification does not always correspond with the roles they play in their habitats.

"As we plan conservation measures to address the effects of climate change, it will be important to understand not only the habitat requirements of different butterfly species, but also their temperature requirements," said lead investigator Dr. Ed Turner.

"With this new understanding of butterflies, we should be able to better manage habitats and landscapes to protect them, and in doing so we're probably also protecting other insects too."

In recent decades, the ranges that are suitable for species adapted to cooler environments are shrinking, and many butterflies have expanded their ranges northward. This study is the first to track how individual butterflies respond to small temperature changes.

The findings can be used to predict how climate change will impact certain butterfly communities, and may ultimately improve the conservation strategies designed to protect them.

"I like to think of butterflies as the gateway drug," said Dr. Bladon. "If we can get people involved in butterfly conservation, that's the first step to getting them to care about insects more broadly."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How to help protect butterflies: give them some shade

If you want to help protect butterflies from climate change,...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, experts describe how better conservation planning could improve the lives of humans while still protecting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/latin-america-contains-a-third-of-the-worlds-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a>.

Study lead author Jaramar Villarreal-Rosas is a PhD candidate in UQ's School of Earth and Environmental Sciences. She said the benefits people receive from ecosystems, also known as ecosystem services, are under increasing threat worldwide due to the negative impacts of human activities.

"There's been a substantial decrease in the quality and quantity of freshwater from wetland ecosystems in the Americas since European settlement, according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services," said Villarreal-Rosas. "The same data shows that, at the same time, pollination services - from insects and birds - are declining in Europe and Central Asia." 

According to Villarreal-Rosas, these are critical services that we tend to take for granted - the food we eat, the air we breathe, or the sense of relaxation after a walk in a park. "And to date, landscape planning decisions have largely been made without fully considering the multiple benefits people obtain from nature."

The research team analyzed 326 published studies that applied systematic conservation planning for ecosystem services worldwide. The experts investigated the extent to which the papers correctly integrated the benefits people receive from ecosystems, and whether the research had accounted for multiple values and connections to land.

The analysis revealed that only two percent of the conservation plans considered all of the aspects of ecosystem services that benefit people and acknowledged different values of the land.

"This means we're largely making planning decisions that may put ecosystem services at risk, and in turn, people's livelihoods and lifestyles may be greatly affected," said Villarreal-Rosas.

"Conservation plans are falling short of maximizing benefits for both people and nature. There is an urgent need to develop efficient and effective planning strategies to protect and restore ecosystem services for multiple stakeholders."

Study senior author Professor Jonathan Rhodes said the research team did just that, outlining a formal process that governments and policy makers can use when putting together their conservation plans.

"Solutions must explicitly include benefits to different people in space, time and socioeconomic status," said Professor Rhodes."People have different values and connections to land and these should be acknowledged to ensure planning decisions have positive outcomes for multiple people."

"Through the principles we've outlined in this study, we're hoping to not only improve ecosystem services globally, but to increase efficiency, transparency and equity in decision making processes."

"We see conservation planning shifting towards holistic approaches, where both the diversity of people and nature is valued, respected, and protected.

Professor Rhodes noted that making these changes is essential to achieve international policy agendas such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/home">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conservation plans could benefit both nature and people

In a new study from the University of Queensland, experts...

Tree-planting projects have the potential to offset harmful carbon emissions in the United States, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/">USDA Forest Service</a>. The findings suggest that planting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/invasive-beetle-turns-its-attention-to-guams-endangered-cycad-trees/">trees</a> on understocked forest land could substantially increase the country's overall carbon sequestration capacity. 

The researchers found that the carbon sequestration capacity of U.S. forests would be increased by as much as 20 percent by fully stocking trees in both non-stocked and partially forests. The areas of particular interest include Florida, the Northeast, and western states.

Study lead author Grant Domke is an expert at the USDA Forest Service's Northern Research Station.

"Targeted tree planting on existing productive forestland has the potential to enhance the capacity of forests to provide a multitude of ecosystem services," said Domke. 

"Our analysis suggests that concentrating plantings on productive areas with the fewest trees has greater potential for enhanced carbon sequestration capacity than distributing the same number of trees over larger areas." 

The researchers analyzed data from more than 130,000 forested plots in the Forest Inventory &amp; Analysis Program. They determined that planting trees to fully stock damaged forests could drastically boost the overall amount of carbon sequestered by forests in the U.S.

Each year, forests and harvested wood products offset the equivalent of more than 14 percent of economy-wide carbon dioxide emissions. However, almost 33 million hectares of productive forestland are now understocked due to many different factors, including harvesting and natural disturbances.

"It is always worthwhile to plant a tree, they have a myriad of benefits wherever they are, but this study delivers sound science on which we can base tree planting efforts on forestland," said Domke.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fully stocking U.S. forests could reduce carbon emissions by 20 percent

Tree-planting projects have the potential to offset harmful carbon emissions...

New model predicts economically important traits in crops. Experts at <a href="https://english.spbstu.ru/">Peter the Great St.Petersburg Polytechnic University</a> (SPbPU) have developed a new mathematical model to predict economically important traits in crops. The technique will help breeders obtain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-plants-face-more-competition-for-pollinators-as-temperatures-rise/">plants</a> with the best possible quality and performance. 

Study lead author Maria Samsonova is the head of the Laboratory of Mathematical Biology and Bioinformatics at SPbPU.

"We have developed a new mathematical model for predicting crop phenotypic traits as a function genotype," said Samsonova. She noted that such models in agriculture are called genomic selection models. 

Creating a new variety of plants is challenging and the process is very time-consuming, taking up to 12 years. However, this process can be sped up exponentially by using genomic selection models.

"Understanding how genetic variation translates into phenotypic effects is one of the central challenges facing fundamental biology, agriculture, and medicine. Solutions of this problem fall into two main classes: association studies and trait prediction studies," wrote the researchers.

"Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are designed to identify genetic variants associated with a trait. Initially, GWAS was conducted for each trait separately testing SNPs one by one. However, single-locus approaches may lead to biased estimates due to multiple testing correction, and they are not suitable in the common case of genetically correlated traits."

Samsonova explained that the new mathematical model is based on machine learning methods and performs better than modern analogs as it contains a significantly smaller number of parameters.

The research team applied the model to predict phenotypic traits of soybean, including plant height, number of seeds per plant, yield, protein, as well as oil content in seeds.

"For breeders, it is very important to select parental plants able to produce offspring of high quality," said study co-author Anna Igolkina. "Due to the small number of parameters in our model, we can rank breeding pairs according to offspring quality and selected advanced parental pairs representing new potentially interesting donors of desired traits."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcgenet.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Genetics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New model predicts economically important traits in crops

New model predicts economically important traits in crops. Experts at...

Researchers have been training honeybees to pick up on the scent of specific <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-one-step-closer-to-engineering-flood-resistant-crops/">crops</a> to seek them out for pollination, and a new study from <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a> suggests that this strategy is effective. The experts report that honeybees prompted with odors similar to sunflowers supported a significant increase in sunflower crop production.

"We show that it's possible to condition honeybees to a rewarded odor inside the colony, and this experience modifies the bees' odor-guided behaviors later," said study co-author Walter Farina of the Universidad de Buenos Aires. "The most surprising and relevant result is that the foraging preferences for the target crop are so prolonged and intensive that it promoted significant increases in the crop yields."

The team had previously demonstrated that honeybees could develop long-term memories related to food scents inside the nest. They also found that these memories could influence which plants the bees pollinated.

In order to train bees to forage on sunflowers, the researchers developed a simple synthetic combination of odors that the bees would associate with the natural floral scent of sunflowers. Next, they supplied the hives with food that contained their new formula. 

The investigation confirmed that early experiences with the scent of sunflowers established memories that later influenced the bees' foraging preferences - which the experts derived by decoding their waggle dances.

The scent training led the bees to visit sunflowers more often. Furthermore, bees that had trained bees also brought more sunflower pollen back to the hive. Ultimately, sunflower seed production was boosted by 29 to 57 percent.

"Through this procedure, it is possible to bias honeybee foraging activity and increase yields significantly," said Farina. "In other words, pollination services might be improved in pollinator-dependent crops by using simple mimic odors as part of a precision pollination strategy."

The researchers are currently working to apply their technique to other pollinator-dependent crops, such as almonds, pears, and apples. The goal is to improve pollination efficiency and increase the productivity of many important agricultural crops.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists train honeybees with scent to boost sunflower production

Researchers have been training honeybees to pick up on the...

An <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plant-seeds-are-traveling-to-the-u-s-in-shipping-containers/">invasive</a> beetle that has been destroying Guam's coconut trees for more than a decade has made an unexpected "host shift" to the endangered cycad tree, Cycas micronesica. The coconut rhinoceros beetle (CRB), which first appeared on the island in 2007, could potentially wipe out the last remaining native cycad trees in Guam.

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uog.edu/">University of Guam</a> explained that prior to the beetle's arrival, coconut trees were the second most abundant tree on the island, which helped the beetles to become established and thrive. Efforts to control the invasion have not been effective, and the beetles have exploded in numbers.

"Our initial alarm after documenting the CRB burrowing activity on cycad trees was the fact that Guam's cycad species was actually the most abundant tree on the island only 20 years ago," said study co-author Irene Terry. "Where else have the most abundant and second most abundant forest species been threatened by the recent invasion of one non-native herbivore?"

Based on direct measurements, the researchers discovered that the plant tissues of the heavily damaged coconut trees have declined in starch content. The experts theorize that this is what motivated the host shift, considering that large amounts of starch are available in the cycad stems.

"The CRB behaviors that we documented fit the 'ecological fitting theory,' which states that shifting to a new host species is due to compatible resources or signals in the new host," said Terry.

Before the beetle shifted its attention, the cycad population in Guam had already been hit hard from damage by other invasive insects and mammals. In the last 15 years, 96 percent of the trees have been lost.

"When the CRB damage in our managed gardens began showing up on several cycad species, we knew that it was only a matter of time before the CRB host shifts included Guam's native cycad," said Benjamin Deloso, who curates the University of Guam's interpretive cycad garden.

The beetle had been observed burrowing into a diverse range of cycad species that are raised in the garden originating from Asia, Australia, Central America, and the Caribbean regions. "The damaged species included two families and four genera, so the dietary needs of the coconut rhinoceros beetle appear to be met at the cycad Order level," said Deloso.

With the list of herbivorous cycad predators growing, there is a need for continued monitoring of the cycad population so that experts can understand which of the threats require the most urgent mitigation. 

According to the researchers, the ongoing absence of international experts from funded conservation projects will increase the probability that Guam's native cycad trees will vanish.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/kcib20">Communicative &amp; Integrative Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive beetle turns its attention to Guam's endangered cycad trees

An invasive beetle that has been destroying Guam's coconut trees...

Evergreen <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/some-trees-live-thousands-of-years-with-no-signs-of-aging/">trees</a> hold a record of air quality in magnetic particles on their needles, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah.</a> The research indicates that pine needles could serve as a simple and inexpensive source for measuring air pollution.

After examining the magnetism of particulate matter on the needles of evergreen trees, the researchers determined that the trees can be used for monitoring air quality year-round.

"Wherever you have a tree you have a data point," said study co-author Grant Rea-Downing. "A tree doesn't cost $250 to deploy. We'll be able to map particulate matter distributions at a very high resolution for very little cost."

In collaboration with Professor Pete Lippert and fellow geoscientists, Rea-Downing measured the magnetism of deciduous leaves. 

"Day to day, we move mountains and close ocean basins by using the magnetism of rocks to figure out the geography of former continents," said Professor Lippert. "I knew the students would kind of have their minds blown by what the study showed, and what the implications of the findings were."

Fine particle pollution comes from many sources, including the burning of fossil fuels, vehicle exhaust, and forest fires. "That's stuff in the air, and it's got to come out sometime."

Some of these particles contain iron that can be detected by a type of high-precision magnetometer used by Professor Lippert.

He explained that the iron-bearing particulate matter in the air can be too small to see, but magnetism is a way to see the unseen.

Rea-Downing was impressed with Professor Lippert's work, and knew this method could be easily applied to test the air in Salt Lake City, which was much different than the cleaner air he was used to on the California coast.

"The kind of hill to climb to do this was actually quite flat," said Rea-Downing. "We have trees outside, we have seasonally bad air quality and we have a fully equipped paleomagnetic lab, which means that I literally just had to walk outside and pull some leaves off some trees and stick them in a magnetometer."

"We're not the first to explore the magnetism of pine needles to monitor air quality, but no one had tried this to study winter inversions in the basins of the American West," said Professor Lippert.

The researchers focused their investigation on four Austrian pine trees on campus, three of which were close to traffic. They collected pine needles from the trees twice: in June of 2017 after a summer of relatively good air and in December of 2017 during some of the winter season's worst air quality.

The analysis revealed that the magnetization of the December needles was nearly three times higher than that of the June needles. When the experts examined the needles under an electron microscope, they were able to confirm that the December needles were significantly dirtier. 

The team also looked at the elements that were contained in the fine particles. Professor Lippert said the amounts of iron in the dust correlated with amounts of other elements like titanium, vanadium, zirconium, and a variety of other things that are associated with brake dust or fossil fuel combustion. He noted that other elements in the particulate matter were associated with catalytic converters, which use chemical catalysts to detoxify exhaust. "And those concentrations, no surprise, are highest near the roadside."

The researchers found that there was a decline in the the concentration of magnetic particles among trees that were over a distance of 50 to 150 feet from the traffic. This improvement was possibly due to the slight elevation of the trees as well. 

The team has now joined forces with atmospheric scientist Gannet Hallar and chemical engineer Kerry Kelly to explore some of the questions raised by the study. 

"We have a lot of trees out on the landscape already. They're a pretty low cost. So this democratizes our ability to monitor air pollution across the valley. This is easily exportable to any community. It allows us to do more with less, or that's our hope," said Professor Lippert.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/24711403">GeoHealth</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pine needles can be used to measure air pollution

Evergreen trees hold a record of air quality in magnetic...

The introduction of invasive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/several-endangered-species-may-be-vulnerable-to-covid-19/">species</a> through commercial transport is becoming increasingly common, and a new study has identified a potential source of nonnative plant invasions. Experts from the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/">USDA Forest Service</a> found that large numbers of plant seeds are arriving in ports across the United States in the air-intake grilles of refrigerated shipping containers.

The researchers vacuumed seeds from air-intake grilles over two seasons at the Port of Savannah, Georgia. The viability of these seeds is of particular interest to environmental and federal enforcement agencies, and the project was supervised by both. 

Overall, seeds from 30 plant taxa were collected from the air-intake grilles, including seeds of wild sugarcane, which is a grass listed on the USDA Federal Noxious Weed List.

Wild sugarcane is useful in its native environment, but this and other federal noxious weeds pose immediate and significant threats to agriculture, nursery, and forestry industries in places where they are invasive plants. 

"During the two shipping seasons, we estimate that over 40,000 seeds from this species entered the Garden City Terminal at the Port of Savannah," said study lead author Rima Lucardi. "This quantity of incoming seeds is more than sufficient to cause introduction and establishment of this nonnative invader, even if the escape rate from the shipping containers is limited."

By modeling and analyzing viable seeds from four plant taxa, the team was able to estimate which seeds may be able to survive and become established in the United States. They found that all of the groups are prolific seed producers that are wind-pollinated and wind-dispersed, with the ability to persist in a wide range of environmental conditions and climates.

Preventing nonnative plant invasions is much more cost-effective than trying to manage them once they have become widely established, and the researchers propose several possible strategies for reducing the risk of establishment. For example, a liquid herbicide could potentially be applied to containers while in port. 

"Investment in the prevention and early detection of nonnative plant species with known negative impacts results in nearly a 100-fold increase in economic return when compared to managing widespread nonnatives that can no longer be contained," said Lucardi.

The Department of Homeland Security is in charge of inspecting imported refrigerated shipping containers, and the researchers worked closely with agents of the U.S. Customs &amp; Border Protection, Agriculture Program; the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; and the Georgia Ports Authority for the study.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive plant seeds are traveling to the U.S. in shipping containers

The introduction of invasive species through commercial transport is becoming...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...