There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

During the worst fire year on record in the United States, scientists are working to understand how wildfires affect interactions between plants and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/migratory-animals-develop-faster-and-die-younger-than-their-relatives/">animals</a>. 
A study based in the northern Rocky Mountains has revealed that the codependency of flowering plants and their pollinators serves as the strongest indicator of which species will be present across burned landscapes.
Study co-author Jonathan Myers is an associate professor of Biology at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University</a>.

"A large number of studies have looked at how fire affects plants, or how fire affects animals. But what is largely understudied is the question of how fire affects both, and about how linkages within those ecological networks might respond to fire disturbance," said Professor Myers.

The researchers discovered that plant-pollinator interactions are the best predictors of species diversity after a wildfire disturbance. The study showed that following a wildfire, the influence of plants on pollinator diversity increased by up to four times. In addition, the influence of pollinators on plant composition nearly doubled.

"Clearly, pollinators perform a valuable ecosystem service for humans by pollinating all our crops. In intact natural ecosystems, they perform an equally valuable service," said study first author Professor Joseph LaManna of Marquette University, first author of the study. 

"What we are seeing is that plant and pollinator linkages become even more important in disturbed or burned landscapes. These connections are important for restoring ecosystems in which natural wildfire regimes have been altered or suppressed by human activities."

"And as climate change increases the frequency and intensity of wildfires, the potential for biodiversity loss - for losses of individual plant or pollinator species - is going to be even more profound than we anticipated."

Study co-author Laura Burkle at Montana State University surveyed plants and pollinators at 152 sites in Montana, which included plots with no recent wildfire, mixed-severity wildfire, and high-severity wildfire. The data was analyzed in collaboration with The Wilderness Society.

Throughout the sites, the number of individual bees, flies, butterflies, and flowering plants were found to be higher in parts of the landscape that had burned compared to those that had not burned. The experts report that these increases were greater in areas that had experienced mixed-severity wildfire, which leaves some vegetation intact.

"Oftentimes, the public perception about fire in general is that it is bad. But it was impressive how much higher the abundances of both plants and pollinators were -- as well as the number of species -- in the burned landscapes compared with the unburned landscapes," said Professor Myers.

While the study shows how fire can benefit plant and pollinator diversity, the outcome is not the same for high-severity burns that eliminate important landscape features that pollinators require. Pollinator populations are declining in the northern Rockies and across the globe. 

"Thanks to this project, we now have very in-depth knowledge of local pollinator communities, especially the bee communities," said Burkle. "One of the benefits of these data is to be able to provide expert knowledge about declining pollinator species and species of concern, like the Western Bumble Bee (Bombus occidentalis), which is currently being considered for federal listing under the Endangered Species Act."

"When we think about patterns of biodiversity across space, we typically consider different groups of species separately. In our case, we might consider patterns of plant diversity separately from patterns of pollinator diversity. But our study provides solid evidence that - above and beyond the influence of disturbances like wildfires - the relationships that plants have with pollinators are strong contributors to these patterns of biodiversity."

"This means that biotic interactions among species are important and will need to be considered more explicitly in conservation actions, like plans for species range shifts with climate change."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652745">Journal of Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant and pollinator connections become stronger after wildfires

During the worst fire year on record in the United...

Ancient <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-plants-depend-on-the-hormone-ethylene-to-launch-an-attack/">plants</a> that grow on the slopes of China's Hengduan mountains are trying to make themselves less visible to humans. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have discovered that Fritillaria delavayi plants have evolved to match their surroundings in places where they are most frequently harvested. 

The bulbs of Fritillaria delavayi and other fritillary species have been used in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years. Fritillaria is primarily used to control coughing and to treat various lung conditions, such as asthma, bronchitis, and tuberculosis.

The leaves of Fritillaria delavayi have various colors that range from grey to brown to green at a young age. After the fifth year, the plant produces a single flower annually. The demand for fritillary bulbs and roots often exceeds the supply, and the plants have been increasingly harvested in recent years.

The new study suggests that harvesting by humans has driven the plants to try and hide from sight. It appears that humans are actually driving the evolution of Fritillaria delavayi, in particular. The experts report that new colors are emerging in these plants that offer better concealment and a greater chance of survival. 

"It's remarkable to see how humans can have such a direct and dramatic impact on the coloration of wild organisms, not just on their survival but on their evolution itself," said study co-author Professor Martin Stevens.

"Many plants seem to use camouflage to hide from herbivores that may eat them - but here we see camouflage evolving in response to human collectors."

"It's possible that humans have driven evolution of defensive strategies in other plant species, but surprisingly little research has examined this."

For the investigation, the researchers measured how closely plants from different populations matched their mountainous surroundings and how easy they were to collect. The experts also spoke to local residents to estimate how much harvesting typically takes place in each location.

The study revealed that the level of camouflage in the plants was clearly linked to the extent of harvesting . A computer experiment confirmed that the plants with more camouflage were more difficult for participants to detect. 

"Like other camouflaged plants we have studied, we thought the evolution of camouflage of this fritillary had been driven by herbivores, but we didn't find such animals. Then we realized humans could be the reason," said Dr. Yang Niu. 

"Commercial harvesting is a much stronger selection pressure than many pressures in nature," added Professor Hang Sun. "The current biodiversity status on the Earth is shaped by both nature and by ourselves."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

Image Credit: Linn Yao

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chinese Fritillaria plants have found a way to hide from humans

Ancient plants that grow on the slopes of China's Hengduan...

Experts at <a href="http://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a> have conducted the first comprehensive review of natural plant compounds that have antibacterial properties. The research will ultimately help in the search for new <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fda-outlines-the-drugs-that-show-potential-for-treating-covid-19/">drugs</a> to fight the growing issue of antibiotic resistance.

Study senior author Professor Cassandra Quave is an associate professor in Emory's Center for the Study of Human Health.

"We hope that chemists and pharmacology researchers will use our review as a guide to dig deeper into the promising potential of many plant compounds," said Professor Quave. "If ever there was a time to cultivate our knowledge and tap into the chemical power of plants, this is it. We're seeing a rise in antimicrobial resistance across the globe. And, at the same time, we're also losing vast amounts of plant biodiversity."

According to the CDC, at least 2.8 million people get antibiotic-resistant infections each year in the United States and more than 35,000 cases are fatal.

The review from the Quave lab identifies 459 plant compounds that have the most powerful effects on antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those found in the Brazilian peppertree, the American beautyberry, and the European chestnut. For example, triterpenoid acids from the Brazilian peppertree can block the ability of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to produce toxins.

Penicillin was discovered nearly 100 years ago as the world's first naturally occurring antibiotic drug. Since then, scientists have found other soil microbes that can kill drug-resistant pathogens. However, bacteria are now acquiring antibiotic resistance faster than new drugs can be developed.

"One obstacle to plant natural products making it into the new drug pipeline is the complexity of the discovery process," explained Professor Quave. "You have to identify a promising plant candidate, tease through the hundreds of chemicals contained within a particular plant to identify the active compound, and then isolate enough of this compound to do experiments on it. It's not nearly as easy as sequencing a soil microbe and growing up a big vat of it to conduct experiments."

Professor Quave pointed out that the knowledge of traditional plant-based medicines that have been used for centuries can provide valuable clues for where to focus research.

"In recent decades, interest has grown in investigating plants as potential drug candidates. Technologies have improved to more easily access and study bioactive molecules within plants. And more papers are being published that follow standardized procedures for evaluation of antimicrobial activities among plant compounds."

For the investigation, the team reviewed nearly 200 relevant studies published between 2012 and 2019. The 459 compounds that were identified include a diverse range of species, some of which are members of commonly known plant families such as citrus, daisies, beans, and mint. 

The researchers narrowed the results to 183 plant compounds and further examined their overall potential as antibiotics.

"These are all compounds as they appear in nature, not synthesized or derivatized by chemists," said Professor Quave. "We wanted to provide a systematic overview that brings promising drug candidates to the forefront, opening up new chemical space for discovery."

"Our review can serve as a starting point for chemists to consider whether they could possibly optimize any of these compounds to become scaffolds for antibiotics treatments."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/chreay">Chemical Reviews</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compounds are key to solving the problem of antibiotic resistance

Experts at Emory University have conducted the first comprehensive review...

Plant biodiversity can serve as a natural method to control herbivores and reduce the need for harmful pesticides. A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (iDiv) has found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-plants-depend-on-the-hormone-ethylene-to-launch-an-attack/">plant</a> communities that are rich in species support predators while depriving pests of their main food sources. 

Biological diversity is critically important for maintaining the balance of ecosystems and preserving the valuable services provided by planted and natural grasslands. 

The world's growing population and the demand for agriculture are placing enormous pressure on planted grasslands. Meanwhile, insect herbivores are causing an estimated 18-26 percent reduction in global crop production. As a result, the use of environmentally damaging pesticides is increasing.

To investigate the potential for plant biodiversity to serve as a natural weapon against destructive herbivores, the researchers conducted two long-running grassland biodiversity experiments - the Jena Experiment in Germany and the Cedar Creek Biodiversity Experiment in the United States. The scientists collected data from the two field studies over the course of two years.

"These two long-term experiments have generated invaluable insight, for both fundamental and applied research, that has brought to light the importance of maintaining biodiversity," said study senior author Professor Nico Eisenhauer.

The analysis of the data showed that plants in more diverse communities lost significantly less energy to herbivorous insects. In grasslands with high biodiversity, the feeding rate of herbivores was 44 percent lower per gram of plant biomass. Essentially, for every gram of plant biomass produced, plants lost just under half as much energy to pests when they were growing in species-rich communities. 

"That ultimately means that where multiple species are planted together, this will yield more plant biomass per square meter, and each individual plant in diverse mixtures will receive lower damage from herbivores," said study first author Andrew Barnes.

In patches with higher plant diversity, arthropod herbivores are less likely to be able to find their preferred plant species, and more likely to just give up and move on to new areas. Previous studies have found lower levels of tissue protein in the more biodiverse grasslands, and the plants are less nutritious and less appealing to herbivores.

Furthermore, compared to monocultures, high-diversity plant communities produce more total biomass, attracting the natural enemies of herbivorous pests. 

"In other words, more diverse plant communities pose a double-edged problem for herbivores - that is, more predators and less preferred food - that could help to naturally reduce herbivore impacts," said Barnes.

"Our experiments show that conserving plant diversity provides multiple benefits for controlling herbivore pests, which could play a key role in reducing inputs of agrochemicals and enhancing plant productivity."

By contrast, pesticides can lead to detrimental rebounds of herbivores considering that they may destabilize the communities of natural enemies. 

"Ultimately, this study demonstrates that supporting biodiversity can leverage the sustainable management of ecosystems and the benefits to people," concluded Professor Eisenhauer. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Increasing plant biodiversity reduces the need for pesticides

Plant biodiversity can serve as a natural method to control...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> confirms that larger, older trees have an enormous carbon storage capacity. The analysis of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-from-ancient-rainforests-can-be-identified-in-fossil-teeth/">forests</a> in the Pacific Northwest has revealed that despite making up only three percent of the total number of trees across the study sites, large-diameter trees store 42 percent of the total above-ground carbon in these ecosystems.

In the Pacific Northwest, a 21-inch diameter rule was enacted in 1994 to protect large trees in national forests. However, legislative amendments have been proposed that could potentially allow the harvesting of trees up to 30 inches in diameter. The current study was focused specifically on trees with a diameter of at least 21 inches across national forests in Oregon and Washington.

The research is among the first of its kind to investigate how a proposed policy could affect carbon storage in forest ecosystems. If passed, the legislation would contribute to huge releases of carbon dioxide and would disrupt entire ecosystems.

"Large trees represent a small proportion of trees in the forest, but they play an exceptionally important role in the entire forest community - the many unique functions they provide would take hundreds of years to replace," said study lead author Dr. David Mildrexler.

To analyze the relationship between tree diameter and above-ground carbon storage, the researchers used species-specific mathematical equations to represent biomass in the tree stems and branches. The team examined the overall proportion of large trees and their contributions to carbon storage in order to estimate the potential consequences of losing them. 

The study revealed that large-diameter trees made up 3 percent of total stems, but accounted for 42 percent of total carbon storage. The researchers also found that the largest trees with a diameter of more than 30 inches made up only 0.6 percent of total stems, but accounted for more than 16 percent of the total above-ground carbon stored across the forests that were surveyed.

The experts determined that once the trees had reached a large size, each additional increment in diameter significantly increased the carbon storage capacity.

"If you think of adding a ring of new growth to the circumference of a large tree and its branches every year, that ring adds up to a lot more carbon than the ring of a small tree," said Dr. Mildrexler. "This is why specifically letting large trees grow larger is so important for climate change because it maintains the carbon stores in the trees and accumulates more carbon out of the atmosphere at a very low cost."

The study highlights the importance of keeping the 21-inch rule to not only protect large trees, but also to allow them to grow to their full potential. A sufficient number of smaller trees must be protected as well. Dr. Mildrexler argues that this is among the most effective short-term options that we have for slowing climate change and preserving valuable ecosystem services.

"Large trees are the cornerstones of diversity and resilience for the entire forest community. They support rich communities of plants, birds, mammals, insects, and micro-organisms, as well as act as giant water towers that tap into groundwater resources and cool our planet through evaporation," said Dr. Mildrexler.

"There is a real need for monitoring forest conditions beyond what the forest service does on their inventory plots, and so local communities can also play their part to provide citizen science data and learn about the living forests on their lands, contributing to community income and mitigating climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change">Frontiers in Forests and Global Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study highlights the value of old, large trees

A new study published by Frontiers confirms that larger, older...

Sapria,Poilanei,(himalayana),,Rafflesia,Kerrii,,Sapria,Himalayana,,Biggest,Flower,Grows

Parasitic plants rely on ethylene to successfully launch an attack, according to a new study from the <a href="http://www.naist.jp/en/">Nara Institute of Science and Technology</a>. The researchers found that a signal from the plant hormone ethylene initiates the invasion of the roots of a host plant. 

In order to become established, parasitic plants form a specialized structure known as a haustorium. This structure attaches to and penetrates the tissues of the host plant to absorb nutrients and water, as well as small materials including plant hormones and RNAs. The formation of the haustoria is regulated by signal molecules derived from the host plant.

"To understand the genetic programs for haustorium development, we identified mutants that displayed haustorial defects on host invasion," said study lead author Songkui Cui. "Genome sequencing showed that these mutants have defective ethylene signaling, and it turned out that ethylene signaling genes are crucial for the parasitic plant to infect its host plant."

Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone that is involved in the ripening of fruit, aging of leaves, and the formation of root nodules. Ethylene can also provide resistance or susceptibility to viruses and invasive insects depending on the type of pathogen.

"Our results indicate that ethylene mediates host recognition in parasitic plants for host invasion," explained project leader Satoko Yoshida. "This is the first time that the mediation of host invasion by parasitic plant genes has been identified via forward genetics. Our findings offer a new understanding of how a parasitic plant uses the ethylene molecule to tweak haustorium development and host invasion."

The research was focused on a family of parasitic plants that includes destructive weeds. Prior to the study, the molecular basis for parasitism has been largely unexplored.

"Our results suggest that parasitic plants have taken over ethylene signaling for parasitism at multiple stages of their life cycle, such as germination, haustorium growth termination, and host invasion," said Cui. "This knowledge could provide new ways to use ethylene and ethylene inhibitors to control a broader range of parasitic weeds, including those that don't rely entirely on hosts to complete their life cycle, by manipulating haustorial function."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Parasitic plants depend on the hormone ethylene to launch an attack

Parasitic plants rely on ethylene to successfully launch an attack,...

While it is known that plants have the incredible ability to develop <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/flowers-spread-parasitic-bee-diseases/">flowers</a>, roots, roots, branches based on cues from their environment, not as much is understood about the underlying mechanisms that drive variations in plant shapes.

Study lead author Doris Wagner, a biologist in the School of Arts &amp; Sciences at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, has long been interested in the how plants translate environmental inputs into physical traits. Her team has been studying two key groups of proteins that influence plant shapes, as well as the timing of developmental transitions.

The two proteins - Terminal Flower 1 (TLF1) and Flowering Locus T (FT) - are nearly identical yet serve different purposes. TLF1 proteins promote branch formation, while FT proteins promote flowering in response to seasonal cues like the number of daylight hours.

"These two elements have significance galore," said Wagner. "Besides flowering, they're involved in tuberization in potatoes, bulb formation in onions, tendril formation in grapes, growth cessation in trees, lots of things."

Some experts believe that manipulating these genes could lead to the next "green revolution" by tricking plants to flower more quickly. For example, by editing TFL1, plants could be programmed to produce seeds and fruit in the winter and but just during the long days of summer. On the other hand, altering growth through FT could increase branching followed by more abundant flowering and fruit production.

The two proteins are known to oppose each other - with TFL1 suppressing flowering and FT suppressing branch formation. Using the model species Arabidopsis thaliana, the researchers found thousands of sites where TFL1 was present in the nuclei of plant cells, and these regions were consistent with its role in suppressing flowering.

Next, the team examined the relationship of both TFL1 and FT with LEAFY, a gene that is known to give rise to flowers. When they mutated the sites where TFL1 regulates LEAFY, the protein was now found in parts of the plant where TFL1 is present. "We also saw something that we didn't expect," said Wagner. "LEAFY was gone from all the regions that should make flowers."

The study ultimately revealed that both proteins could activate the FD transcription factor that is required for flowering. In other words, FT and TFL1 compete for this FD factor binding site to influence plant shapes

Wagner is very interested in learning more about this mechanism to better understand how plants can "tune" their growth to best adapt to their environment. In future work, her team will investigate how both proteins respond to cues from the environment, such as the length of day. Wagner also wants to know how FT and TFL1 can control such different processes like flower, bulb, or tendril formation.

"You can imagine locally adapting crops, maybe for a high-altitude site in the Himalayas or maybe a location in the far north where days are short," said Wagner. "These elements could even play a role in rational solutions for climate change, breeding plants that are specifically adapted for new conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Two competing proteins determine plant shapes

While it is known that plants have the incredible ability...

Researchers at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/">University of Science and Technology of China</a> (USTC) are shedding new light on the remarkable ability of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-from-ancient-rainforests-can-be-identified-in-fossil-teeth/">plant</a> stem cells, or meristems, to block out viruses as they divide and reproduce, even if the rest of the plant is infected.

Meristems exist at the tips of all plants. They convert themselves into the various specialized cells that make up the plant, dividing and producing various types of new cells as needed. 

The ability of meristems to block viruses was discovered in the 1950s. Farmers and scientists use this to their advantage by snipping a part of the tip of infected plants to cultivate new, healthy plants. 

The research was focused on Arabidopsis thaliana, a thale cress related to cabbage and mustard that is often used in botanical studies as a model. The experts introduced the plants to the Cucumber Mosaic Virus to investigate how the meristems responded. 

The study revealed that as the virus spread towards the meristems, it stopped just before it reached the WUSCHEL-expression domain. 

WUSCHEL is an extremely important protein that plays a key role in determining the fate of stem cells in the earliest developmental stages of a plant embryo. This protein also regulates the meristems and specifies what type of daughter cells they will produce.

The scientists closely analyzed the distribution of the WUSCHEL proteins, and found that more of these proteins had appeared where the virus had initially tried to establish itself.

When the experts injected the virus directly into the plant's meristems and just below them, the infection only spread in the lower region. 

"There's a chemical called dexamethasone that can induce production of these WUSCHEL proteins in our tested plants, so next, we inoculated more cress with the virus and then gave some of the plants dexamethasone treatment, and some we just left alone," explained study co-author Professor Zhong Zhao. 

Among the untreated plants, 89 percent were infected by the virus. Meanwhile, 90 percent of the treated plants were free from virus invasion. The team was surprised to find that the WUSCHEL proteins worked to inhibit production of viral proteins.

Viruses cannot make their own proteins, so they must manipulate the proteins in an organism in order to replicate. To protect the meristems, the WUSCHEL proteins had essentially frozen all protein production, which prevented the viruses from replicating.

"Our results reveal a conserved strategy in plants to protect stem cells against viral intrusion and provide a molecular basis for WUSCHEL-mediated broad-spectrum innate antiviral immunity in plants," wrote the study authors. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals how the tips of plants block viruses

Researchers at the University of Science and Technology of China...

For the last seven years, the University of California system has been working to reduce carbon emissions from campuses as part of the Carbon Neutrality Initiative. Each campus is looking for ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions through various measures, such as increasing their energy efficiency. 

Researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and UCLA have turned their attention to campus food, which represents some of the largest indirect sources of greenhouse gas emissions produced by the colleges. 

"Food is a huge part of our climate impact," said study co-author Professor David Cleveland. He noted that despite the fact that the food system contributes about 30 percent of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, few climate change mitigation policies address the issue. 

The experts are exploring the opportunity to lower indirect emissions by reducing food waste and shifting UC campus food away from animal products toward more plant-based meals.

"It's low-hanging fruit," said Professor Cleveland. "It doesn't involve changing our energy grid or converting from natural gas, which are huge infrastructure investments. Changing the food system is relatively quite inexpensive."

He explained that the key to understanding food's carbon emissions lies in examining the amount of energy and resources that go into producing it, and the greenhouse gases that are emitted as a result of those practices.

"The fundamental thing is that animals eat plants," said Professor Cleveland. The plants are converted to become part of the animal and the nutrition it provides. "However, there are a lot of nutrients and energy spent just keeping the animal alive and doing that conversion."

For example, large quantities of water, grain, and soil nutrients are needed to produce a single pound of meat - not to mention the energy required for processing and distribution."It's much more efficient and less impactful to eat plants directly."

The study was focused on potential changes in campus food across 10 institutions and 280,000 students involved in the UC system.

By implementing changes such as moving away from animal products, the researchers found that food emissions could be reduced by 42 to 55 percent. This is equivalent to about 9 percent of UC's overall reduction target, according to the researchers.

Professor Cleveland noted that relatively small changes, like replacing a fraction of red meat with plant-based alternatives, can steer choices to foods that are not only lower impact on the environment but also healthier and often lower cost.

"We don't have to go vegetarian or vegan, but we could be moving toward diets that are more climate friendly. We can do it right now on our campuses. And we can have all these co-benefits because it's very easy to have climate-friendly food that is also healthier, delicious and more socially equitable than more climate-damaging food."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tcpo20/current">Climate Policy</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Healthier campus food could reduce carbon emissions

For the last seven years, the University of California system...

Plants from ancient rainforests can be identified in fossil teeth. In an effort to identify the tropical plants that existed in closed-canopy rainforests, and also to understand where on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/planet-identified-that-is-more-suitable-for-life-than-earth/">Earth</a> these ecosystems existed millions of years ago, scientists analyze the vegetation that is contained in the fossil teeth of extinct animals. A new study led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> has exposed some flaws that may ultimately improve this technique.

"The Amazon is the world's most diverse rainforest, home to one in 10 known species on Earth," said study lead author Julia Tejada-Lara. "Closed-canopy rainforests have been proposed to occur in this area since at least the Eocene, some 50 million years ago, but we know very little about their extent and evolution through time."

Tropical plants do not preserve well in the fossil record so it is difficult to tell how long closed-canopy rainforests have existed. When reconstructing ancient ecosystems such as these, experts often use stable carbon isotope analyses on both extinct and modern day herbivores. 

Stable carbon isotopes from plants are well-preserved in the body tissues of the animals that eat them. Samples from the bones, teeth, or other biological material can help scientists determine what types of plants specific animals were eating. 

In the new study, the researchers analyzed specimens from the American Museum of Natural History and the Museum of Natural History in Lima. The fossils represented 45 modern herbivores and 12 species animals that ate meat, insects, and fish in western Amazonia. 

Next, the study authors compared their results with a detailed analysis of modern mammals in equatorial Africa. In addition, the researchers obtained nitrogen isotope values from 35 Amazonian mammal species. The team found an unexpected amount of complexity in how nitrogen from fats, carbohydrates, and proteins is incorporated into body tissues in animals from different levels of the food chain.

"Up to this point, there had only been one other broad isotopic sampling--and inferences of food sources--of a tropical closed-canopy rainforest mammal community, and that was in central Africa," said study co-author John Flynn. 

"So we knew that if we wanted to learn more about both modern and ancient Amazon ecosystems, we had to test whether we should expect the tropical forest conditions to be roughly the same in these two continents that separated more than 90 million years ago and have a 1,600-mile-wide ocean between them today."

The study revealed that Amazonian and African closed-canopy rainforests have a very similar dietary carbon isotopic value that may be representative of mammals in any closed-canopy rainforest. At the same time, mammals examined from the Amazon lacked highly negative dietary values that were detected among some of the African animals. The study authors explained that these negative values are often used outright to infer closed-canopy rainforests in fossil records.

"We have found that these negative isotopic values can no longer be used as an indispensable indicator of a rainforest," said Tejada. "And further, that many of the longtime assumptions about ecological niches, feeding habits, and isotopic signatures characterizing tropical communities likely need to be reassessed."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants from ancient rainforests can be identified in fossil teeth

Plants from ancient rainforests can be identified in fossil teeth....

Spinach is not only good for charging up the body, but also for powering fuel cells. According to a new study from <a href="https://www.american.edu/">American University</a>, spinach can be converted into carbon nanosheets to serve as a catalyst for an <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mass-extinction-event-was-caused-by-ocean-deoxygenation/">oxygen</a> reduction reaction in fuel cells.

An oxidation-reduction reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons that generates energy. This reaction can be used to control the energy output of fuel cells and metal-air batteries.

While it is known that certain carbon materials can catalyze an oxidation-reduction reaction, carbon-based catalysts do not always outperform the traditional platinum-based catalysts.

For the current study, the researchers set out to investigate the potential for spinach to serve as an inexpensive and sustainable yet efficient catalyst. 

"This work suggests that sustainable catalysts can be made for an oxygen reduction reaction from natural resources," said study lead author Professor Shouzhong Zou. "The method we tested can produce highly active, carbon-based catalysts from spinach, which is a renewable biomass. In fact, we believe it outperforms commercial platinum catalysts in both activity and stability. The catalysts are potentially applicable in hydrogen fuel cells and metal-air batteries." 

Additional studies that are focused on creating catalysts for fuel cells and metal-air batteries from natural resources are making progress using plants or plant products like cattail grass and rice. Professor Zou's team is the first to explore the use of spinach. 

Beyond the fact that spinach is abundant and easy to access, it is a good candidate because it is rich in iron and nitrogen, which are essential for an oxygen reduction catalyst.

The catalysts being tested are spinach-derived carbon nanosheets that are about one thousand times thinner than a piece of human hair. 

The researchers have found that the spinach-derived catalysts perform better than platinum-based catalysts that lose their strength over time.

Going forward, the team will test out prototypes such as hydrogen fuel cells and develop catalysts from other plants. Professor Zou would also like to make the process more sustainable by reducing the energy consumption that is required.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf">ACS Omega</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spinach can be used to power fuel cells

Spinach is not only good for charging up the body,...

Within the next three decades, alien species will increase by more than 35 percent compared to 2005, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>. The international team of researchers reports that potentially invasive plants, arthropods, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-emerged-from-covid-19-shutdown-with-better-songs/">birds</a> are being introduced to new environments at the fastest overall rate. 

"Increases are expected to be particularly large for insects and other arthropods, such as arachnids and crustaceans. We predict the number of aliens from these groups to increase in every region of the world by the middle of the century - by almost 120% in the temperate latitudes of Asia," said study co-author Dr. Franz Essl of the University of Vienna. 

Alien species are plants and animals that humans have moved to regions of the world where they do not occur naturally. When non-native species become invasive, they are capable of altering habitats, disrupting the balance and function of ecosystems, and wiping out native species by competing for limited resources.

The experts predict that around 2,500 new alien species will arrive by mid-century in Europe alone. This means that non-native plants and animals will increase by 64 percent across the continent in a 45-year period. The researchers hope it is possible to reduce the number of alien species with stricter biosecurity regulations.

"Our study predicts that alien species will continue to be added to ecosystems at high rates through the next few decades, which is concerning as this could contribute to harmful biodiversity change and extinction," said study co-author Professor Tim Blackburn. "But we are not helpless bystanders: with a concerted global effort to combat this, it should be possible to slow down or reverse this trend."

The most recent global assessment, which was conducted in 2005, documented 35,000 alien species. For the current study, the research team developed a mathematical model to estimate how many more aliens can be expected by 2050 based on the current rate. 

The model revealed that there will be a 36-percent increase in non-native species by 2050 compared to the numbers recorded in 2005. While Europe will see the biggest influx of non-native plants and animals, Australia is expected to see the least.

"These will primarily include rather inconspicuous new arrivals such as insects, molluscs, and crustaceans. In contrast, there will be very few new alien mammal species such as the well-known raccoon," said study lead author Dr. Hanno Seebens of the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre. 

"We will not be able to entirely prevent the introduction of alien species, as this would mean severe restrictions in international trade. However, stricter regulations and their rigorous enforcement could greatly slow the flow of new species."

"The benefits of such measures have been shown in some parts of the world. Regulations are still comparatively lax in Europe, and so there is great potential here for new measures to curtail the arrival of new aliens."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alien species will increase by the thousands over the next three decades

Within the next three decades, alien species will increase by...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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