There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

Scientists have assembled the most complete DNA sequence of mysterious parasitic plants to date. The genomic analysis of Sapria himalayana has revealed that the flowering plant steals a surprising amount of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/two-genes-are-responsible-for-the-rapid-diversification-of-warblers/">genes</a> from its host to survive. The researchers found that Sapria also experienced a large degree of gene loss as they abandoned their bodies and adapted to life as extreme parasites. 

Sapria belongs to a family of rare parasitic plants in Southeast Asia known as Rafflesiaceae. These plants are endoparasites that have no roots, stems, or leaves of their own and depend entirely on a host plant for nutrients. Sapria is invisible for most of its life, living as cells inside of a host before emerging as a large flower. 

The bright red and white flower of Sapria is small in comparison to its famous relative, Rafflesia arnoldii, which produces giant blossoms that are nearly three feet in diameter. The plants in the Rafflesiaceae family have flowers with a pungent odor similar to rotting meat. This is a strategy that has evolved to attract carrion flies for pollination and reproduction.

The genomic analysis is providing brand new insight into the elusive lives of Sapria, which have been challenging for scientists to study considering that they have no body. 

The researchers discovered that nearly half of all genes found in most flowering plants are absent in the Sapria genome. This is more than four times the degree of gene loss found in other parasitic plants. Many of the genes that are lost are those involved in photosynthesis.

Study lead author Charles Davis is a professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>.

"In many ways, it's a miracle that these plants exist today, let alone that they seem to have persisted for tens of millions of years," said Professor Davis. "They've really jettisoned many things we identify as a typical plant yet they are deeply embedded within the plant tree of life."

Despite evolving separately, Sapria and the parasitic plants they were compared to had lost many of the same types of genes. This demonstrates an underlying evolutionary convergence to becoming a parasite, explained the researchers.

"We concluded that there is a common genomic or genetic roadmap to how plant parasites evolve," said Dr. Cai Liming of UC Riverside.

The experts said putting together the genome was like assembling a puzzle that had millions of pieces. They estimate that about 40 percent of the genome has now been sequenced and believe that the remaining portions are likely replicas of what they have pieced together thus far.

The team identified dozens of genes present in the Sapria genome that had been acquired through a process called horizontal gene transfer. This essentially means that the parasitic plants steal DNA from their host instead of passing it down across generations.

When the experts reconstructed the horizontal gene transfers, they assembled a hidden history of former hosts going back millions of years.

"The project was really an illustration of how these new sequencing technologies are really opening up the possibility of addressing questions that were just not feasible to address before, particularly in plants which have a really wide diversity of these sorts of weird genomes," said study co-author Timothy Sackton.

"These are easily the most charismatic and strange of all flowering plants," said Professor Davis. "They're just so bizarre."

The research was supported by funding from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How parasitic plants survive with no body

Scientists have assembled the most complete DNA sequence of mysterious...

Predatory insects are very beneficial to farmers because they help control damaging garden pests and reduce the need for chemical pesticides. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a>, researchers have found that predatory insects live longer when they have access to pollen and nectar in flowers.

The experts analyzed data from studies conducted worldwide and discovered that most predatory insects benefit greatly from flowers, and can even survive for extended periods of time on nectar and pollen alone. This means that farmers can promote the presence of predators and control pests naturally by incorporating flowering strips and margins in their fields.

"By planting flowering margins and strips alongside fields, one can ensure an ever-abundant supply of predatory insects such as hoverflies, lacewings, minute pirate bugs, phytoseiid mites and two-spot ladybugs," explained Professor Lene Sigsgaard.

"Pollen and nectar are supplements that beneficial insects can survive on when pests aren't around. And, the plants in margins and strips provide many other types of insects for to prey on as well. By planting a wide variety of flowers that bloom both early and late in the season, one can ensure for an optimal effect that ensures the survival of predators throughout the growing season."

"This is good news for the green transition, as effective pest control can help reduce the use of agricultural pesticides. On top of the that, the presence of more flowers imroves pollination and biodiversity, as they attract more insects and pollinators into fields."

The researchers pointed out that predatory insects need open flowers like dandelions that provide easy access to nectar, as they are not equipped with the long feeding tubes that bees have. 

The study revealed that among all predatory insects, females survive an average of 2.2 times longer with access to flowers, while males survive 1.7 times longer.

Some flowers were found to provide far more energy than others. For example, insects with access to buckwheat lived an average of 8.6 times longer than insects with access to water only. 

According to the researchers, mallow, yarrow, and ox eye daisy are also highly valuable flowers for predatory insects.

"It's quite an elixir of life. Wisely planted flowers can contribute to robust crop production because predatory insects will live longer and better," said Professor Sigsgaard.

"It pays to design tomorrow's agriculture so as to accommodate wild flowering plants alongside fields. For the greatest impact, this needs to be done on an informed basis, which is why we are looking at how to design mixed flowering strips and flowering margins that benefit both predatory insects and pollinators. This will reduce the need for other forms of pest control while supporting biodiversity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/biological-control">Biological Control</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Farmers can use flowers to attract predatory insects

Predatory insects are very beneficial to farmers because they help...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, experts report that a quarter of all known bee species have not appeared in public records since the 1990s, even though the number of available records has increased. 

A lack of recorded data does not necessarily mean that the bees have all gone extinct, but it does suggest that the bees have become so rare that no one is observing them in nature. 

Study first author Eduardo Zattara is a biologist at the <a href="https://www.conicet.gov.ar/?lan=en">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> (CONICET) in Argentina.

"With citizen science and the ability to share data, records are going up exponentially, but the number of species reported in these records is going down," said Zattara. "It's not a bee cataclysm yet, but what we can say is that wild bees are not exactly thriving."

Most previous studies focused on declining bee populations have investigated a specific region or a single bee species. For the current study, the researchers set out to identify more general, global trends in bee diversity.

"Figuring out which species are living where and how each population is doing using complex aggregated datasets can be very messy," said Zattara. "We wanted to ask a simpler question: what species have been recorded, anywhere in the world, in a given period?"

The experts turned to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), an international network of databases that contains over 300 years of records from museums, universities, and private citizens. Overall, the data includes over 20,000 known bee species from around the world.

The analysis revealed that a quarter of all bees are missing from the records, and that these absences are not evenly distributed among bee families. For example, records of halictid bees have declined by 17 percent since the 1990s, while records of the rare bee family Melittidae have declined by as much as 41 percent.

"It's important to remember that 'bee' doesn't just mean honeybees, even though honeybees are the most cultivated species," said Zattara. "Our society's footprint impacts wild bees as well, which provide ecosystem services we depend on."

"It's not really about how certain the numbers are here. It's more about the trend. It's about confirming what's been shown to happen locally is going on globally. And also, about the fact that much better certainty will be achieved as more data are shared with public databases."

Still yet, the researchers warn that this type of certainty may not come until it is too late to reverse the decline, which may not be possible in the first place. 

"Something is happening to the bees, and something needs to be done. We cannot wait until we have absolute certainty because we rarely get there in natural sciences," said Zattara. "The next step is prodding policymakers into action while we still have time. The bees cannot wait."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/home">One Earth</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A quarter of all bees no longer appear in public records

In a new study published by Cell Press, experts report...

Research has shown that the most common psychological responses to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/most-severe-covid-19-infections-start-in-the-brain-not-the-lungs/">COVID-19</a> pandemic were anxiety, stress, and depression. A new study from the <a href="https://ics-seville.org/university-of-seville/">University of Seville</a> suggests that having indoor plants protected many people from these negative feelings. The researchers found that exposure to houseplants had a positive influence on mental health during the early months of the COVID-19 lockdown. 

The experts evaluated the role of houseplants during the confinement period from March to June, when many people were deprived of freely visiting green spaces. Previous studies have reported on the psychological benefits of nature, including lower levels of stress and a greater sense of well-being. Exposure to plants has also been linked to more positive feelings and behaviors, as well as less anger and fear. 

"These psychological benefits might be related to the so-called biophilia concept (i.e., a preference for interacting in a natural environment as a consequence of our evolutionary course) and based on theories of restorative effects," wrote the study authors. They noted that these restorative effects help to promote a genuine appreciation for nature that motivates pro-environmental behavior and creates more environmentally aware citizens.

"Furthermore, evidence shows that there is an implicit link between 'nature' and 'outdoors' that results in lower attention attributed to indoor vegetation settings," wrote the researchers. "However, in contemporary societies, the increasing amount of time spent indoors often results in separation from the natural environment."

"Living in environments with minimal or absent use of plants could lead to negative behaviors, such as irritation or hostility. These behaviors might be particularly applicable to the COVID-19 pandemic confinement, which was aggravated by additional negative emotions of fear, disappointment, uncertainty, and stress."

For the current investigation, the experts surveyed more than 4,200 individuals in 46 countries. Overall, 74 percent of the respondents agreed that having houseplants had a positive influence on their emotional well-being during lockdown. More than half of the participants said they would have preferred to have more plants in their home at that time. 

Respondents who did not have houseplants were more likely to report experiencing negative emotions compared to individuals who cared for plants during COVID-19 restrictions. People living in small or poorly lit spaces, as well as those who did not visit green spaces frequently before the pandemic, also experienced more negative emotions.

The researchers found that just over half of respondents spent more time on plant care at home during lockdown. In addition, 63 percent of the participants expressed the desire to care for plants more after the pandemic, while 40 percent said they planned to get more plants for their home. 

According to the researchers, a 2019 review of 50 studies concluded that the strongest effect of houseplants on human behavior is their capacity to increase positive emotions and to reduce negative feelings. 

"For instance, a decrease in the perception of pain, fear, unhappiness, and aggressiveness has been found to be associated with the presence of indoor plants. In addition, stress seems to be reduced in indoor environments enriched with vegetation compared with indoor spaces without plants."

The international study was coordinated by the Research Group for Urban Nature and Biosystems Engineering (NATURIB) from the University of Seville's School of Agricultural Engineering. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/urban-forestry-and-urban-greening">Urban Forestry and Urban Greening</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Houseplants boosted psychological well-being during COVID-19 lockdown

Research has shown that the most common psychological responses to...

In a new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, experts have found a late rainy season often precedes <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/earths-forests-are-threatened-by-drought-and-human-development/">drought</a> in regions prone to food insecurity. This discovery may provide an early warning to help mitigate food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Crop yields are strongly impacted by climate-driven seasonal drought, which is a major contributor to food insecurity. Over the last five years, food insecurity has become an increasing threat to people living in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. The conditions here can become so desperate that communities have to rely on emergency food assistance.

By identifying the environmental factors that 0lead up to food insecurity, early drought warning systems can be developed. This would support proactive steps that could be taken to prevent threats to people's lives and livelihoods.

A team of researchers led by Shraddhanand Shukla at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> theorized that one such early warning signal could be the onset date of the rainy season, which can be calculated from precipitation data.

To investigate, the experts examined the relationship between the onset date, drought conditions, and the risks of food insecurity. The team studied past drought conditions using satellite images of vegetation cover, and analyzed quarterly reports on food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa from April 2011 through February 2020.

The analysis revealed that a delay of about 10 days from the average onset date of the rainy season was associated with a substantially higher chance of seasonal drought in regions with the highest risk of severe food insecurity. In addition, a 20-day delay coincided with a 50 percent chance of drought in those regions. 

Upon further analysis, the researchers confirmed the predictive relationship between rainy season onset date and drought risk across all of Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in East Africa.

"Timing of rainfall onset can be tracked using remotely sensed observations and forecasted using climate models, and the results of this study show that it can be a reliable indicator of agricultural droughts, particularly in the most food insecure regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, which makes it a simple yet powerful tool to support effective early warning of food insecurity, thus saving lives and livelihood," wrote the study authors.

Future research could investigate the relationship between the timing of the rainy season and additional food insecurity indicators, such as crop yields.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Late rainy season signals upcoming food insecurity

In a new study published by PLOS, experts have found...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>, experts have developed a new heat-based treatment that can effectively kill plant pathogens without harming the plants. The research was specifically focused on angular leaf spot, a bacterial disease that is very damaging and economically costly among strawberry nurseries.

Angular leaf spot causes severe losses through direct damage or by preventing the export of strawberry transplants, which is heavily regulated in many countries. 

Antibiotics have been used to prevent angular leaf spot, as well as copper-containing pesticides, but these compounds are usually not applied until after the pathogen has had a chance to become established. In addition, copper products can be phytotoxic, or poisonous to plants.

Heat treatment of nursery plants is often used prior to planting, when the pathogen population is presumably at its lowest. However, heat treatments are often too harsh and can stunt or even kill nursery plants. When applied in the form of hot water, heat treatments can also facilitate the spread of pathogens.

"One of the main problems with using heat to treat plants is that the temperature is also damaging to the tissues of most plants," said study lead author Bill Turechek, a plant pathologist at the USDA. "This is why heat treatments are most often applied as seed treatments or on dormant woody tissues that tend to be more tolerant of the treatment."

When asked what excited him the most about his team's new heat-based treatment method, Turechek responded, "That it works!" 

"By introducing a lower-temperature conditioning step and using steam rather than hot water, we produced plants that were better able to withstand the higher temperature treatment designed to destroy the pathogen."

The technique uses a two-step process: a conditioning heat treatment that induces production of protective proteins and other molecules in the plant, and the application of a lethal temperature that kills the pathogen while doing little damage to the plant. Heat is applied in the form of aerated steam, which reduces the spread of pathogens that may not have been killed in hot water treatments.

While the method was designed to specifically target the pathogen that causes angular leaf spot, it has been proven effective against fungal pathogens, nematodes, and insect pests. "In other words, this treatment looks to have a broad spectrum of activity against numerous microbial, insect, and mite pests," explained Turechek. 

The technique provides a safe way to eliminate pathogens and pests, will reduce the need for pesticide applications, and will increase strawberry production and quality.

Furthermore, there is great potential for the thermotherapy protocol to be applied to many other plant pests and pathogens.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/page/phytofr/about">PhytoFrontiers</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New heat treatment kills pathogens without harming plants

In a new study from the American Phytopathological Society, experts...

Oolong tea burns fat while you sleep. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/">University of Tsukuba</a> have found that tea and caffeine help you lose weight while you <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-covid-19-pandemic-has-caused-severe-sleep-disruptions/">sleep</a>. The experts report that drinking two cups of oolong tea per day triggers the breakdown of fat overnight.

"The effects of oolong tea consumption to increase fat oxidation during sleep may have clinical relevance for controlling body weight and glucose metabolism," wrote the researchers. 

"Several lines of evidence suggest that an individual’s capacity to oxidize dietary fat is a metabolic determinant of future weight gain."

All tea originates from the same plant, Camellia sinensis, by they are distinguished by their processing techniques. Unoxidized tea is green tea, while fully oxidized tea is black tea. Oolong tea is half-oxidized and shares characteristics with both green and black tea. 

The health benefits of green tea, such as lower blood pressure and cholesterol, are well documented. The potential effects of oolong tea, however, have remained somewhat of a mystery.

"Like all teas, oolong contains caffeine, which impacts energy metabolism by increasing our heart rate. However, studies suggest that tea consumption may also increase the breakdown of fat, independent of the effects of caffeine," said study senior author Professor Kumpei Tokuyama. 

"We therefore wanted to examine the effects of oolong consumption versus caffeine alone on energy and fat metabolism among a group of healthy volunteers."

The researchers found that both oolong tea and pure caffeine increased fat breakdown by about 20 percent in the healthy volunteers, and oolong tea continued to have an effect while the participants were asleep. 

The experts report that neither treatment caused an increase in energy expenditure, which means that the volunteers developed a tolerance to the stimulatory effects of caffeine over the two-week study period.

Furthermore, the tea did not disrupt the sleeping patterns of the individuals. This indicates that drinking oolong tea, and burning fat overnight, did not prevent any of the participants from getting a good night's sleep.

"The stimulatory effects of oolong tea on fat breakdown during sleep could have real clinical relevance for controlling body weight," said Professor Tokuyama.

"However, we need to determine whether the effects we observed in the 2-week study translate into actual body fat loss over a prolonged period."

"In addition, we want to trial a decaffeinated oolong tea to better distinguish the effects of caffeine from other components of tea, which will help us understand exactly how oolong helps with fat breakdown."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients">Nutrients</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Oolong tea burns fat while you sleep

Oolong tea burns fat while you sleep. Researchers at the...

A diet rich in plant-based foods has been linked to an abundance of healthy gut microbes that are associated with a lower risk of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/water-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-obesity-and-diabetes/">obesity</a>, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. The large-scale international study is the first to reveal strong links between gut microbes, diet, and health.

Study co-senior author Dr. Andrew T. Chan is a gastroenterologist and chief of the Clinical and Translational Epidemiology Unit at <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/">Massachusetts General Hospital</a> and a professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School.

"This study demonstrates a clear association between specific microbial species in the gut, certain foods, and risk of some common diseases," said Dr. Chan. "We hope to be able to use this information to help people avoid serious health problems by changing their diet to personalize their gut microbiome."

In the Personalized Responses to Dietary Composition Trial 1 (PREDICT 1), the researchers analyzed detailed data on the dietary habits, gut microbiome composition, and metabolic health of more than 1,100 individuals.

The experts found strong evidence that the microbiome is linked with specific foods and diets, and also that these gut microbes influence metabolic biomarkers of disease. Furthermore, the study showed that microbiome content has a greater association with these disease markers than genetics.

"As a nutritional scientist, finding novel microbes that are linked to specific foods, as well as metabolic health, is exciting. Given the highly personalised composition of each individuals' microbiome, our research suggests that we may be able to modify our gut microbiome to optimize our health by choosing the best foods for our unique biology," explained Dr. Sarah Berry of King's College London. 

According to Dr. Chan, two of the strengths of this trial are the number of participants and the detailed information the was collected. "Studying the interrelationship between the microbiome, diet and disease involves a lot of variables because peoples' diets tend to be personalized and may change quite a bit over time."

The researchers found that participants who ate a diet rich in healthy, plant-based foods were more likely to have high levels of specific gut microbes. 

"When you eat, you're not just nourishing your body, you're feeding the trillions of microbes that live inside your gut," said epidemiologist Tim Spector, who started the PREDICT study.

Some microbes were tied to a favorable blood sugar level after a meal, while others were linked to lower post-meal levels of blood fats and markers of inflammation. The trends were so consistent, the researchers believe that their microbiome data can be used to determine the risk of cardiometabolic disease among people who do not yet have symptoms.

Overall, the team uncovered a panel of 15 gut microbes that are associated with an increased risk of developing common illnesses such as diabetes and heart disease.

Some of these microbes are so novel that they have not been described.

"We were surprised to see such large, clear groups of 'good' and 'bad' microbes emerging from our analysis," said Dr.. Nicola Segata of the University of Trento. "And it is intriguing to see that microbiologists know so little about many of these microbes that they are not even named yet."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nm">Nature Medicine</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant-based diet helps protect against chronic diseases

A diet rich in plant-based foods has been linked to...

Nitrogen is considered to be the most essential nutrient for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-develop-resistance-to-potentially-deadly-pathogens/">plant</a> growth. In a new study focused on the small flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, scientists have discovered that plants have a strategy for finding their preferred nutrients by adjusting their root growth.

Plants including maize, beans, and Arabidopsis prefer nitrogen in the form of nitrate, and grow better on soil that is rich in nitrate. Other plants, such as rice, prefer nitrogen in the form of ammonium. If the type of nitrogen that is available in the soil fluctuates, plants have to adjust as quickly as possible to achieve optimal growth. 

Study co-author Professor Eva Benková is a developmental biologist and a professor at the <a href="https://ist.ac.at/en/home/">Institute of Science and Technology (IST) Austria</a>. She explained that one of the most important questions is understanding the role of plant hormones in adaptation to the nitrogen availability. "How do the machineries within a plant cope with their changing environment?" 

To investigate, the researchers compared how Arabidopsis seedlings that were grown exclusively on ammonium reacted once they were transferred to soil containing either ammonium or nitrate.

When living in suboptimal soil, a plant will try to maintain its root growth as long as possible to reach a more suitable form of nitrogen. The processes used to maintain the root growth are the cell proliferation in the meristem, a plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells, and the cell expansion. A plant must strike a good balance between these two processes for healthy growth.

The study revealed that when Arabidopsis was provided with ammonium, its less preferred form of nitrogen, the meristem produced fewer cells. Instead, the cells very quickly expanded and elongated.  

"Once we moved the plants to the nitrate, suddenly the meristem became bigger, more cells were produced and there was a different kinetics in cell expansion," explained Professor Benková. "Now Arabidopsis could afford to put more energy into cell division and optimized its root growth differently."

A plant hormone called auxin determines whether a plant will invest more energy in cell proliferation or cell elongation. Auxin, which is essential for all developmental processes, is transported in a very controlled way from one cell to the next.

Species proteins known as efflux carriers control the transport of auxin out of the cells. These proteins regulate the flow of auxin depending on where they are located within the cell.

Professor Benková and her team were particularly interested in the auxin transporter PIN2, which mediates the flow of auxin at the very tip of the root. The researchers determined that PIN2 primarily controls the balance between cell division and cell elongation. "We observed that once we moved plants onto the nitrate, the localization of PIN2 changes. Thereby, it changes the distribution of auxin."

The study also revealed that the behavior of PIN2 is influenced by its phosphorylation status. "What really surprised us was that one modification, the phosphorylation of such a big protein like an efflux carrier, can have such an important impact on the root behavior," noted Professor Benková. 

Phosphorylation targets an amino acid of PIN2 that is present in many different plant species, which indicates that PIN2 could be universally involved in plant adaption strategies to changing nitrogen sources. Next, the researchers will investigate the mechanisms which control the change of the phosphorylation status.

The study is published in <a href="https://www.embopress.org/journal/14602075">The EMBO Journal</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants adjust roots to reach their preferred form of nitrogen

Nitrogen is considered to be the most essential nutrient for...

A new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> has produced a potential solution to the issue of black pod disease among cacao trees. The researchers found high levels of the antimicrobial compound clovamide in the leaves of a disease-resistant strain of cacao, which could ultimately help in breeding <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-do-not-live-as-long-in-hotter-temperatures/">trees</a> with immunity to black pod rot.

The discovery is significant because this fungal disease is a serious problem in all areas of the world where cacao is grown, explained study co-author Professor Mark Guiltinan.

"This is the first time that clovamide has been implicated in cacao resistance to pathogens, and the innovative method we used to measure the compound in the leaves could have a major impact in the quest to develop highly productive, disease-resistant varieties of cacao," said Professor Guiltinan. "But these results may have consequences for advancing disease resistance in other plant species, as well."

The study was focused on a cacao variety known as Scavina 6, which is tolerant of the fungus that causes black pod rot. The leaves of this particular cacao strain were found to accumulate high levels of clovamide and several other metabolites that are known to be involved in responses to stress.

Compared to a susceptible cacao strain, Imperial College Selection 1, concentrations of clovamide were up to 58 times higher than in Scavina 6 leaf extracts.

"These results pointed to clovamide as a potential contributor to disease resistance, and laboratory tests supported this hunch," said Professor Guiltinan.

Lab tests confirmed that the compound inhibits the growth of three pathogens of cacao in the Phytophthora genus. In one experiment, clovamide inhibited the activity of the enzymes proteinase and pectinase, which are known to break down plant cell walls. 

According to the researchers, their study indicates that clovamide prevents the pathogen's ability to break down cell walls while killing and digesting plant tissue.

Study lead author Ben Knollenberg said the findings promise to enhance plant-breeding efforts to develop highly productive varieties of cacao that can withstand the onset of black pod rot. He explained that the method used in this study to measure clovamide levels in leaves could greatly streamline and condense the breeding process.

"The Scavina 6 strain has been utilized as a parent in cacao-breeding programs for decades, but it hasn't been clear why it's resistant to black pod rot, which makes breeding for resistance difficult," said Knollenberg. 

"Breeders cross Scavina 6 with higher-yielding varieties, for example, and they get a bunch of seeds or offspring, which may or may not have inherited the disease resistance. Evaluating the disease resistance of this new generation of trees requires years of growth and measurements in field trials, which requires land, labor and money."

If breeders can screen for leaf clovamide content when the trees are just seedlings in the greenhouse, they can eliminate trees that lack the trait before transplanting the seedlings to the field, said Knollenberg. 

"We think this will accelerate breeding and make it more efficient so that breeders can develop resistant varieties more quickly. For example, instead of growing 1,000 trees to evaluate resistance, with the ability to measure the relative abundance of clovamide in the leaf tissues, they could grow just the 100 highest-clovamide trees instead."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify a compound that protects cacao trees from disease

A new study from Penn State has produced a potential...

Pathogens like <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-work-better-together-to-improve-crops/">bacteria</a> and viruses do not affect all plants in the same way. The ability of a species to resist nonadapted pathogens, also known as nonhost resistance, is an important plant defense strategy that remains elusive.

The plant pathogen Phytophthora infestans is best known for causing late blight disease, which was responsible for the Irish potato famine. However, despite being the world's most destructive and costly potato pathogen, P. infestans has no effect on other plants like cucumbers and apples.

There are also many examples of plants that are susceptible to one pathogen but able to resist another closely related strain. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>, scientists are working to gain a better understanding of the plant immune system, including the mechanism that provides nonhost resistance, in order to improve crop resilience.

Pathogens are a constant threat to agriculture, limiting where crops can be grown and how productive they can become. Experts have reduced the impacts of many diseases through the development of pesticides, farming practices, and breeding techniques. However, globalization and human development are increasingly facilitating the spread of pathogens into new environments. 

"The field of nonhost resistance sets out to identify novel ways to engineer resistance to these plant pathogens, guided by approaches that already exist in nature," explained study co-author Matthew Moscou. 

"This question is fundamental to understanding why some plants get infected by a particular pathogen and others don't, and, vice versa, why a given pathogen can only successfully colonize a limited number of plant species, which collectively form its host range."

Scientists have learned that nonhost resistance is a feature controlled by many genes. Physical barriers, such as the plant cuticle, are often key factors in nonhost resistance, as well as the secretion of antimicrobial molecules.

"While the contribution of microbial commensals (microbes that naturally inhabit plant organs without causing any harm) to plant immunity has emerged during the past few years, their explicit role in nonhost resistance has not been demonstrated yet," said study co-author Ralph Panstruga.

"Our knowledge on nonhost resistance largely relies on findings obtained in a handful of (model) angiosperm plant species that are genetically very tractable. We do not know yet to what extent these insights can be generalized, especially with respect to non-angiosperms."

Recent technological advances, including DNA sequencing methods, will make it easier for scientists to learn more about nonhost resistance.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/PUBLICATIONS/MPMI">Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do plants develop resistance to potentially deadly pathogens?

Pathogens like bacteria and viruses do not affect all plants...

Some bacteria can boost plant health and provide protection from pathogens. These microorganisms, known as plant-growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), can be used to improve agricultural yields. 

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>, scientists have discovered that the benefits of PGPB can be increased when they are grouped together with other species of bacteria. 

Many PGPB form communities of cells called biofilms that help them stick to plant roots. The researchers set out to find other plant-associated bacteria that could help PGPB better adhere to plant roots. The goal was to investigate whether a larger number of PGPB cells attached to the roots could increase their beneficial effects.

The team identified multiple strains of bacteria that increased the adherence of PGPB to plant roots over time. The findings indicate that physical or chemical interactions between these different bacterial species result in better long-term maintenance of PGPB on the plant roots.

"Our results highlight how bacteria can use each other for their own benefit. These findings could be used to create groups of bacteria that are able to work together to better protect crop plants and improve their growth," said study co-author Elizabeth Shank. 

"The results of this research might also be used to better understand and design microbial treatments that could improve crop yields in agricultural settings."

For the investigation, the researchers screened bacteria that were obtained from the roots of wild-grown plants. They also looked at how other microbes may alter the behavior of each PGPB strain. The study was focused on a PGPB that is currently used in agricultural treatments.

"One important impact of our work may be further encouraging agricultural biotechnology companies to consider using groups of multiple bacteria (rather than a single isolate) in their search for better and longer-lasting biological treatments to improve crop yield and help increase food production," said Shank.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/journal/pbiomes">Phytobiomes Journal</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria work better together to improve crops

Some bacteria can boost plant health and provide protection from...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...