In our efforts to sustain the planet, one vital aspect that we have often failed to consider is the role of tree crops. 



Did you know that tree crops cover an astounding 183 million hectares worldwide? Yet, they remain largely overlooked in agricultural policies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-potential-of-tree-crops">The potential of tree crops </h2>



Whether it's apples, cherries, olives, nuts, coffee, or cacao, tree crops offer much more than just a tasty snack or your morning caffeine boost.



A recently published study has highlighted their immense potential not only by feeding us globally but by safeguarding biodiversity, tackling climate change, and improving millions of lives worldwide. 



The international team of authors shared their findings in a Perspectives article published in the journal Nature Sustainability.



"In this Perspective, we highlight the potential of properly managed and incentivized perennial woody crops to support holistic sustainable development and urge scientists and policymakers to develop an effective agenda to better harness their benefits," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlooked-role-of-tree-crops">Overlooked role of tree crops</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-salt-lake-agriculture-is-draining-a-natural-wonder/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agricultural</a> policies have traditionally focused on annual crops like wheat, rice, and sunflowers. These crops have a much shorter life cycle, typically completing germination to harvest in a year. 



While promoting sustainable practices for these crops is essential, their ecological benefits are limited. Their simpler vegetation and short harvest cycles don't offer the same long-term ecological benefits.



Tree crops, in contrast, are far more complex. They consist of multiple layers of vegetation, such as herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees, creating stable ecosystems that support biodiversity when managed sustainably. 



"We’re missing an opportunity to leverage tree crops to address some of the biggest environmental and social challenges of our time," said Dr. Carlos Martínez-Núñez, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ebd.csic.es/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doñana Biological Station</a>.



These systems not only provide habitats for various species but also contribute significantly to environmental protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-beyond-food-production">Benefits beyond food production</h2>



Tree crops offer a range of environmental benefits. Their permanent root systems help prevent soil erosion and improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil fertility</a>. The extensive leaf litter from these crops enriches the soil, making it more productive over time. 



Additionally, tree crops act as natural carbon sinks, sequestering greenhouse gases and aiding in climate change mitigation.



These crops also enhance habitat connectivity, allowing fragmented ecosystems to thrive and providing a buffer against the impacts of intensive agriculture. By improving ecosystem services and offering stable, year-round habitats, tree crops play an essential role in global biodiversity conservation.



Moreover, tree crops are less mechanized and demand more manual labor than other forms of agriculture. This makes them vital sources of employment in low- and middle-income countries, where they are widespread. 



"When managed properly, these agricultural systems can be a powerful tool for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and rural poverty alleviation," noted Dr. Martínez-Núñez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-action">A call for action</h2>



The study highlights the need for tailored policies and research to ensure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-are-in-a-race-against-time-to-save-our-food-supply-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable management</a> of tree crops.



Dr. Elena Velado-Alonso, co-author of the study and researcher at Göttingen University’s <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/596513.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Functional Agrobiodiversity and Agroecology Group</a>, emphasized the importance of context-specific measures.



"Tree cropping areas overlap with most of the world’s biodiversity-rich areas, making them key to conservation," said Dr. Velado-Alonso. "However, local practices and landscape-scale measures adapted to different contexts are needed."



To maximize the contribution of tree crops to global sustainability, the research team calls for implementing regulations, financial incentives, and policies that support improved agricultural practices. 



These steps could harness tree crops' full potential in addressing key environmental and social challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-agriculture-with-tree-crops">Rethinking agriculture with tree crops</h2>



This call to action marks a crucial step in rethinking agriculture's role in creating a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable and equitable world</a>. 



By embracing the benefits of tree crops and promoting sustainable practices, we can take significant strides toward achieving the United Nations' <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sustainable Development Goals</a>. These crops are not just a source of food and income - they are a powerful tool for environmental protection and social progress.



With more attention, research, and support, tree crops could become the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture, helping to address the climate crisis, conserve biodiversity, and uplift communities worldwide.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-024-01483-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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Tree crops: A path to feeding the world and saving the planet

In our efforts to sustain the planet, one vital aspect that we have often failed to consider is the role of tree crops. Did you know that tree crops cover an astounding 183 million hectares worldwide? Yet, they remain largely overlooked in agricultural policies. The potential of tree crops Whether it's apples, cherries, olives, nuts, coffee, or cacao, tree crops offer much more than just a tasty snack or your morning caffeine boost. A recently published study has highlighted their immense potential not only by feeding us...

While many plants are able to produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-disperse-their-seeds/">seeds</a> through "auto-fertility" pollination, around 175,000 plant species completely rely on animal pollination for their future survival. A new study from <a href="https://www.sun.ac.za/">Stellenbosch University</a> is investigating how the biodiversity of Earth's natural ecosystems will be impacted by the loss of animal pollinators.



The study was initiated after a global pollination assessment outlined a gap in our understanding of how much plants rely on animals for pollination. “Our synthetic research addresses this gap, and enables us to link trends in pollinator biodiversity and abundance to consequences for plants at a global level,” explained study senior author Professor Tiffany Knight.



By comparing the production of auto-fertilized seeds to those that are dependant on pollinators, the researchers were able to gain insights into the importance of these plants, with existing data lacking a concise structure for usability.



This was achieved by consolidating this data across three databases: the Stellenbosch Breeding System Database developed by Dr. James Rodger; the GloPL database produced by the sPLAT working group; and the Konstanz Breeding System Database.



The consolidated data represents 1,528 experiments, with data collected from 1,392 plant populations and 1,174 species across every continent except Antarctica. The data ultimately reveals that around 33 percent of plants would produce no seeds without animal pollinators, with over 80 percent facing reduced fertility levels.



“Recent studies show that many pollinator species have gone down in numbers, with some even having gone extinct. Our finding that large numbers of wild plant species rely on pollinators shows that declines in pollinators could cause major disruptions in natural ecosystems,” warned Dr. Rodger.



Despite the prevalence of auto-fertility, pollinators would not need to completely disappear for these detrimental effects to occur.&nbsp;



“If there are fewer pollinators to go around or even just a change in which pollinator species are most numerous, we can expect knock-on effects on plants, with affected plant species potentially declining, further harming animal species and human populations depending on those plants. Pollinators aren’t only important for crop production, but also for biodiversity," explained study co-author Professor Mark Van Kleunen.



The research also highlights other knock-on effects. Dr. Rodger noted that problematic weeds (which do not rely on pollinators) could spread excessively as pollinators decline.&nbsp;



According to study co-author Dr. Joanne Bennet, the extinction of pollinator-dependent plants could result in a detrimental feedback loop. “If auto-fertile plants come to dominate the landscape, then even more pollinators will be negatively affected because auto-fertile plants tend to produce less nectar and pollen."



However, the research team hopes their study may help prevent the further decline of animal pollinators and the plants that depend on them.&nbsp;



“We lack high quality long-term monitoring data on pollinators in Africa for example, including South Africa, although some work has been started in this regard. We hope that our findings will stimulate more of this kind of research, so that we can detect pollinator declines and mitigate their impacts on biodiversity,” said Dr. Rodger.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

One-third of plants are completely reliant on animal pollinators

While many plants are able to produce seeds through "auto-fertility"...

Invasive shrubs in Northeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-create-cloud-cover-that-cools-the-climate/">forests</a> are stifling the growth of native species, according to a new report. The researchers conducted a three-year study of invasive shrub removal to investigate how the native plants responded in The Arboretum at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>.



The non-native shrubs sprout leaves earlier in the spring, and keep them longer in the fall, which gives them a competitive advantage. The invasive plants absorb more sunlight than native shrubs and lower the temperatures on the forest floor.&nbsp;



Study lead author Erynn Maynard-Bean explained that invasive shrubs are flourishing in temperate, deciduous forest understories of eastern North America where resources - especially light - are limited.



"Light and temperature influence ecosystem processes, likely slowing the growth of native plants," said Maynard-Bean. "We saw a pattern of reduced maximum air temperature in the presence of invasive shrubs during the growing season of most years."



The researchers detected 26.8 percent less light energy infiltration beneath invasive shrubs compared to native shrubs, with differences largest in the spring.



This difference in light energy is significant, Maynard-Bean noted. "Think of it this way, it's like a 60-watt lamp in every 10 square feet of the forest is removed by the presence of invasive shrubs, on average, across the growing season."



The researchers periodically recorded temperature data hourly and daily throughout the study period. They calculated the difference in temperatures between invasive shrub plots and native shrub plots.&nbsp;



According to Maynard-Bean, temperatures fluctuated in the experiment. The variation resulted from different surfaces the sunlight hits on the forest floor, she explained, and how much moisture is present.



"Sunlight warms the surface, and then that heat transfers to the air. But it turns out to be extremely variable, because it depends on how wet the surfaces are - water will absorb a lot of that energy, not changing the temperature. It's also dependent on the type of material on the forest floor. It's mostly leaf litter, but also sticks, logs and rocks change the rate of transfer of light energy into temperature."



Maynard-Bean said that the results of the study may explain a phenomenon that scientists have witnessed associated with invasive forest plants.



"First, we know that invasive shrubs negatively impact bees, butterflies and amphibians in forest understories," said Maynard-Bean. "Those are exothermic species, meaning their activity and development is highly influenced by light and temperature in the understory. So, this could help explain why we don't find as many butterflies, bees and amphibians in invaded understories as we do in uninvaded understories."



The findings may also explain why Eastern forests have grown increasingly fire resistant, to the detriment of fire-tolerant plant species such as oak, said Maynard-Bean, adding that lower light conditions have potential implications for forest litter quality and decomposition rates.



"The darker, cooler conditions caused by the invasion of nonnative shrubs have the potential to exacerbate the mesophication - the transition of a fire-adapted community to a fire-intolerant one - of Eastern deciduous U.S. forests."



"Decades of forest fire suppression have allowed mesophytic, or shade-tolerant, species to shift the understory toward more cool, damp and shaded conditions resistant to burning."



The research was supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Institute of Food and Agriculture.



The study is published in the <a href="http://naturalareas.org/about_the_natural_areas_journa.php">Natural Areas Journal</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive shrubs are transforming Northeastern forests

Invasive shrubs in Northeastern forests are stifling the growth of...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a>, replacing petroleum-based aviation fuel with a plant-based fuel derived from Brassica carinata, a species of mustard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-disperse-their-seeds/">plant</a>, could reduce carbon emissions by 68 percent.



Currently, the aviation industry emits 2.5 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions in the United States and is responsible for 3.5 percent of global warming. In September of 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden set the goal of a 20 percent drop in aviation-related emissions by 2030 and a 100 percent drop by 2050.&nbsp;



According to the scientists form the University of Georgia, using sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) derived from the non-edible oilseed crop Brassica carinata would easily make Biden’s goal feasible.



“If we can secure feedstock supply and provide suitable economic incentives along the supply chain, we could potentially produce carinata-based SAF in the southern United States,” explained study lead author Puneet Dwivedi, an associate professor in the <a href="https://www.warnell.uga.edu/">Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources</a> at the University of Georgia.



“Carinata-based SAF could help reduce the carbon footprint of the aviation sector while creating economic opportunities and improving the flow of ecosystem services across the southern region.”



Professor Dwivedi plays an important role in the Southeast Partnership for Advanced Renewables from Carinata (<a href="https://sparc-cap.org/">SPARC</a>), a $15 million project funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s <a href="https://nifa.usda.gov/">National Institute of Food and Agriculture</a>. In the context of this project, during the past four years, researchers investigated how to optimally grow carinata in the Southeast.&nbsp;



“In the South, we can grow carinata as a winter crop because our winters are not as severe compared to other regions of the country,” explained Dwivedi.&nbsp;



“Since carinata is grown in the ‘off’ season it does not compete with other food crops, and it does not trigger food versus fuel issues. Additionally, growing carinata provides all the cover-crop benefits related to water quality, soil health, biodiversity, and pollination.”



Dwivedi’s current research aims to model the economic and environmental feasibility of producing and consuming carinata-based SAF in Georgia, Alabama, and Florida.



&nbsp;“I am looking forward to pursuing more research for providing a sustainable alternative to our current model of air travel. Carinata has the potential to be a win-win situation for our rural areas, the aviation industry, and most importantly, climate change,” he concluded.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcbb.12888">GCB-Bioenergy</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant-based jet fuel could reduce carbon emissions by 68 percent

According to a new study led by the University of...

Animals are dependent on a source of environmental oxygen to produce energy in their cells. They make use of lungs, gills and skin in order to absorb the required oxygen into their blood streams. From there, it gets carried in blood vessels around their bodies and supplied to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-insects-have-more-than-200000-brain-cells/">cells</a> and organs that need it.



Not so with plants. Plants also need oxygen to produce energy in their cells, but they make their own. The process of photosynthesis, which involves making food from water, carbon dioxide and the sun’s energy, produces oxygen as a by-product. If animals could photosynthesize, they would not be dependent on oxygen supplies from the environment but could simply harness the energy produced as a result of the photosynthetic process.



In fact, there are several examples of animals that do host living colonies of photosynthetic cells within their bodies. In nature, photosynthetic cells in the form of unicellular algae live harmoniously in sponges, corals, and anemones, providing them with oxygen and sometimes nutrients.&nbsp;



Professor Hans Straka, a neurobiologist at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, was investigating oxygen consumption in the brains of tadpoles when a chance lunchtime conversation with a botanist led him to wondering whether he could harness the power of photosynthesis to supply oxygen to the brains of tadpoles. In principle, he could not see why such a symbiotic relationship should not work, given that tadpoles are largely translucent and light would be able to shine into them and provide energy for photosynthesis.



To test this, he and a team of researchers from LMU in Germany, injected green, single-celled algae (Chlamydomonas renhardtii) or cyanobacteria (Synechocystis) into the hearts of Xenopus laevis tadpoles. The heartbeat then pumped the algae through the tadpole’s blood vessels until the algal cells reached the brain. When light was shone on the tadpole, not only did the animal turn bright green, but the algal species began to produce oxygen in significant quantities.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Straka and the team wished to determine whether the quantity of oxygen produced this way was enough to revive oxygen-deprived nerve cells in the tadpole’s brain. They placed the tadpole in a water bath that contained essential nutrients to keep the cells functioning, but they gradually removed the oxygen from the water until the brain cells ceased to send nerve impulses.&nbsp;



When they illuminated the tadpole’s head, thereby initiating photosynthetic activity in the algal cells introduced into its brain, the nerves became active again within 15 to 20 minutes. The revived nerves also performed as well or even better than before oxygen depletion.



“The algae actually produced so much oxygen that they could bring the nerve cells back to life, if you will,” said Straka, senior author of the research paper published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>. “For many people, it sounds like science fiction, but after all, it’s just the right combination of biological schemes and biological principles.”



“We succeeded in showing the proof of principle experiment with this method. It was amazingly reliable and robust, and in my eyes, a beautiful approach,” said Straka. “Working in principle doesn’t really mean that you could apply it at the end, but it’s the first step in order to initiate other studies.”



The researchers recognize that there would be many practical problems in introducing algal cells into the blood vessels of most organisms. Not the least of these would be the immune reaction that would occur in response, and the fact that small blood vessels would become blocked by the algal cells. However, they feel that their findings might someday be useful to treat symptoms of oxygen deprivation, for example in stroke victims or in underwater or high-altitude environments.&nbsp;



“You have to have new ideas and new concepts to explore; this is one of the ways science is driven,” said Straka. “If you are open-minded and think it through, all of a sudden, you can see all the possibilities from one idea.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Photosynthesis can supply oxygen to tadpole brains

Animals are dependent on a source of environmental oxygen to...

Researchers have made a new discovery about Earth's carbon sinks. These vast ecosystems have an even greater capacity to remove CO2 from the atmosphere due to previously unknown rock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adjust-roots-to-reach-their-preferred-form-of-nitrogen/">nitrogen</a> weathering reactions that distribute natural fertilizers around the world. The new study highlights the importance of preserving these carbon sinks to fight climate change.



Mankind has been flooding the atmosphere with carbon dioxide since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Nearly half of these emissions have been naturally removed from the atmosphere by land, vegetation and oceans, whereas the other half remains in the atmosphere contributing to climate change.&nbsp;



“Excess carbon is already harming people, economies and our planet,” said study senior author Benjamin Houlton of <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>. “But we’ve been enjoying a free subsidy provided by Earth – a large carbon sink on land and in the ocean – and, as a society, we’re not paying for the carbon-sink service explicitly. But where is this sink and how long will it last?”&nbsp;



Houlton emphasized the importance of finding sustainable alternatives to store and retreat carbon from the atmosphere to combat the threats from climate change.



The researchers stated that the background nitrogen inputs from rock weathering and physiological fixation can provide two to five times more terrestrial carbon uptake than nitrogen pollution primarily from agricultural and industrial activities.



“Previously, we had believed that this terrestrial carbon sink was more vulnerable. Now we're suggesting that because of the previously undiscovered slow-release nitrogen, the terrestrial carbon sink will continue to be robust.” said study lead author Pawlok Dass, a postdoctoral researcher at Northern Arizona University.



The researchers emphasized that society should be vigilant, as the use of fossil fuels tends to release surplus nitrogen into the atmosphere. In this case, rather than functioning as a fertilizer, the nitrogen bypasses terrestrial carbon cycles and pollutes downstream water bodies. According to Dass, reducing excessive nitrogen pollution can improve human health, the environment, and the economy without harming natural, terrestrial carbon sinks.



Dass explained that the biologically diverse tropical forests, mountainous regions and the rapidly changing boreal zone (the entire stretch of forests stretching from Alaska to Canada to Siberia, for example) are rich in rock nitrogen weathering or biological nitrogen fixation and they should be conserved to preserve the carbon sinks.&nbsp;



“Our work suggests that the conservation of these ecosystems, which have built-in capacity to absorb carbon dioxide, is going to be vital to making sure that we don’t lose out on Earth’s terrestrial carbon sink service in the future," said Houlton.



The study was conducted at the laboratory at the University of California, Davis and Cornell University and was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19449224">Global Biogeochemical Cycles</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Carbon sinks are a powerful weapon against climate change

Researchers have made a new discovery about Earth's carbon sinks....

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-021-02707-9?utm_medium=affiliate&amp;utm_source=commission_junction&amp;utm_campaign=3_nsn6445_deeplink_PID100032693&amp;utm_content=deeplink#Fig4">Nature Communications Biology</a> has recently reported on a previously undocumented mass extinction event that occurred after the transition from the Eocene to the Oligocene geological period, approximately 30 million years ago. 



The event was caused by dramatic climate change that transformed the swampy lands of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into icy landscapes, and resulted in the extinction of 63 percent of the Earth’s species.



By gathering data on hundreds of fossils from various sites in Africa, an international research team has found that all five mammal groups populating the Earth at the end of the Eocene period suffered massive losses at the onset of the Oligocene. “It&nbsp;was a real reset button,” said study lead author Dorien de Vries, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.salford.ac.uk/">University of Salford</a>.&nbsp;



Although after a few million years, these mammal groups start appearing again in the fossil record, they are not identical with their earlier counterparts. “It's very clear that there was a huge extinction event, and then a recovery period,” claimed study co-author Steven Heritage, a researcher and digital preparator at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/">Duke Lemur Center Museum of Natural History</a>.



The scientists found evidence of these changes in the animals’ teeth. The rodents and primates that reappeared after a few million years had different teeth, so they most probably ate different things, and had different habitats. “We see a huge loss in tooth diversity, and then a recovery period with new dental shapes and new adaptations,” reported de Vries.



This pattern of initial decline in diversity followed by recovery confirms that the mass extinction event at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary acted as an evolutionary bottleneck by destroying most lineages, but leaving a few of them survive and later on diversify.



“In our anthropoid ancestors, diversity bottoms out to almost nothing around 30 million years ago, leaving them with a single tooth type,” explained study senior co-author Erik R. Seiffert, Professor and Chair of the <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/integrative-anatomical-sciences/">Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences</a> at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California. “That ancestral tooth shape determined what was possible in terms of later dietary diversification.”



“There's an interesting story about the role of that bottleneck in our own early evolutionary history. We came pretty close to never existing, if our monkey-like ancestors had gone extinct 30 million years ago. Luckily they didn’t.”



Image credit: Matt Borths/Duke University



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossils reveal a previously unknown mass extinction event

A new study published in the journal Nature Communications Biology...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534721002238">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a> examined the various strategies through which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-improve-mood-and-productivity/">plants</a> disperse their seeds. By investigating the intricacies of the chemical ecology of seed dispersal, a research team led by <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> aims to clarify how chemicals impact the interaction between fruit and the animals that eat them.



“Our understanding of the chemical ecology of seed dispersal is still pretty basic. A lot of the chemicals in fruits haven’t yet been described, and we know very little about the functions that these chemicals may have,” said study lead author Annika Nelson.



Just like humans and other animals, plants seem to want their offspring to be successful once they leave the “nest.” In order to have the highest chances of success, seeds need to be planted far away from their parents to minimize competition for nutrients, water, or light. Yet, since plants are rooted in the ground, they have to get creative for their dispersal strategies.



While plants like the Virginia stickseed make their seeds sticky so they cling to passers-by, and maple trees have created winged-seeds that can glide with the wind, most plants enlist the help of animals. By enclosing their seeds in appealing, delicious fruit, plants attract animals who eat the fruits and defecate them in different locations.&nbsp;



The chemicals plants use to lure potential seed dispensers are called secondary metabolites and give fruit their distinctive color and flavor. Since timing is crucial for proper seed dispersion, these metabolites notify animals when it is the right time for them to harvest the fruits.



“Ripe fruits are often a lot smellier and tastier than unripe fruits on purpose,” explained Nelson. “It communicates to animals when fruits are ready to be removed. If seeds are removed from a plant before they are fully developed, they often won’t survive.”



Sometimes, secondary metabolites can also have repelling effects, in order to prevent animals from destroying the seeds or to defend them from various viruses or bacteria. Plants must continuously strike a careful balance between attracting animals to distribute their seeds and fending off predators.&nbsp;



“Because the same metabolites can serve multiple functions across different seed dispersal stages, with the potential for complex trade-offs, examining their effects under multiple contexts is necessary to understand their adaptive significance,” the authors concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How plants disperse their seeds

A new study published in the journal Trends in Ecology...

The,Sun,Beautifully,Illuminating,The,Green,Treetops,Of,Tall,Beech

Plants interact with their environments and are exceptionally sensitive to changes in light intensity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-temperatures-are-revealed-by-the-size-of-animals/">temperature</a>. This enables them to respond to seasonal fluctuations in day length, to “sense” morning and evening times, and to avoid the shading effects of other, nearby vegetation. Light and temperature are thus important environmental cues that affect almost all aspects of plant growth and development.&nbsp;



Previous research has shown that a light-sensitive protein, called phytochrome B (PHYB), is involved in a plant’s ability to detect light and temperature conditions. This protein conveys information into the cell that changes the expression of genes by switching some on and others off.&nbsp;



Gene regulation by PHYB alters the plant’s growth responses. But phytochrome B cannot interact directly with the plant’s DNA. For that, plant cells rely on a family of eight proteins called phytochrome-interacting transcription factors (PIFs). &nbsp;



Professor Meng Chen of UC Riverside is the lead author of a recent study investigating the exact biochemical means by which PHYB controls the activity of PIFs. She explained that the PIF protein activity is directly controlled by phytochrome.



The research finds that, in addition to controlling the amount of PIFs that accumulate in plant cells, light-activated phytochrome B also inhibits the activity of the PIFs.&nbsp;



“PIFs are like chefs in a restaurant. You can regulate the number of them. Get rid of half, for example and you reduce the restaurant’s productivity,” explained Chen.&nbsp;



“Alternatively, you could keep all chefs – in our case, PIFs – but tie up their hands. That could also slow down their work the same as getting rid of half of them. That’s what we’re saying.” &nbsp;



These transcription factors have two parts that enable them to carry out this function; one part that binds to genes, and one that activates the genes. This controls the extent to which plants perform different functions, such as growing stems, growing leaves or flowering.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study by Professor Meng and colleagues pinpointed the precise location on the PIFs where a plant’s genes are activated. This is the first time that activator regions have been located in plant cells.&nbsp;



In order to achieve this, the researchers chopped the PIF proteins into small sections and tested experimentally whether any of the pieces was able to activate the genes of cress plants, Arabidopsis thaliana. They found that one of them was able to do this.&nbsp;



For more detail, the scientists then changed the amino acids on a PIF, where they believed the activator region to reside, and observed how the plant responded. This allowed them to be sure where the gene activator region is located as well as how it is built.&nbsp;



“This approach allowed us to surprisingly recognize the similarities between this part of the PIF in plants and a tumor-suppressing protein in humans." In fact, Professor Chen said that the basic gene activation mechanisms in plant, yeast, and animal cells bear remarkable similarities to one another.&nbsp;



“Plants, animals, and fungi (like baker’s yeast) all evolved from a common ancestor, Genetic information in DNA converts to RNA to protein, and that basic function is conserved through these gene activators across three kingdoms of life, before plants, animals and fungi diverged.” &nbsp;



The main application of this research is to enhance the growth and productivity of crop plants in order to increase their yield. For example, crop plants that are planted too close together are able to detect the presence of shadows cast by their neighbors and then to alter their growth pattern to avoid the shade.&nbsp;



This may result in plants that grow long stems to reach unshaded patches of sunlight. If the stems are not edible then the energy used to grow them is wasted energy. It would be preferable if the plant channeled this energy instead into producing edible parts, such as fruits, seeds or leaves.



“You don’t want only stems to grow, you want yield,” explained Professor Chen. “For that, plants need energy to make leaves so they can increase photosynthesis, the process of making food out of sunlight. You want the right part of the plant to grow.”



By reducing the activity or concentration of PIF proteins, Chen’s group demonstrated they could slow down stem growth. Ultimately, the study has uncovered a precise way to make the plants grow shorter, so that seeds, fruit and edible portions of the plant could grow, even in shade.



“Now we know how plants turn genes on and off in response to changes in light and temperature,” said Professor Chen. “It’s the first step toward controlling their responses to light and temperature, and making them more tolerant of different, sometimes challenging environments in a changing climate.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25909-5">Nature Communications</a>&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A plant’s response to light can be manipulated

Plants interact with their environments and are exceptionally sensitive to...

A new study suggests that peanuts aren’t just a tasty element of a balanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mind-diet-slows-cognitive-decline/">diet</a>, but are also excellent for promoting cognitive function and healthy stress responses in young adults. 



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.ub.edu/web/portal/en/">University of Barcelona</a>, was focused on 63 healthy adults between the ages of 19 and 33 who regularly ate peanuts. The team conducted a range of cognitive analysis tests related to the biochemical indicators of stress responses such as cortisol.&nbsp;



Ultimately, the researchers found that the levels of bioactive compounds related to many health benefits were higher in those who regularly ate peanuts.



“There is evidence suggesting a bidirectional relationship between phenolic compounds and gut microbiota, and some authors have observed an improvement of brain and general health after a polyphenol-rich intervention," explained study co-author Sara Hurtado.



"The prebiotic substances present in peanuts - such as polyphenols - can affect cognition and the mood indirectly through interactions with the gut microbiota and enhance microbiota gut-brain axis."



The study revealed that the compounds that led to health benefits included resveratrol and p-coumaric acid, in addition to short-chain fatty acids and peanut-specific long-chain saturated fatty acids. These results were confirmed in a control group of participants who were given peanut butter that was free of prebiotic substances. Among this group, the cognitive benefits were not evident.



Interestingly, the researchers found that the effects were no different among participants who ate peanut butter instead of whole peanuts, and no age-related differences were found either.&nbsp;



“This is another element of interest in the study, since many nutritional studies show significant differences in patients or subjects with a high risk of suffering diseases, especially the elderly." noted the researchers.



“The high content of prebiotic fiber and polyphenols in peanuts could explain its beneficial effects on the gut microbiota. Due to its poor absorption, fiber and most polyphenols directly reach the colon, where they are metabolized by the microbiota and can modulate the brain biochemistry by acting as neurotransmitters in the central nervous system,” said Hurtado.&nbsp;



“Short-chain fatty acids - such as acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, are the main metabolites produced by gut microbiota, and they seem to have effects against various diseases, including depression and neurodegenerative diseases.”



While the study shows promising results, further research is needed to confirm the conclusions. Using larger studies, the researchers aim to expand the range of studies into the mechanisms involved in the microbiota-gut-brain axis when peanut products are consumed regularly.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research has been published in <a href="https://www.clinicalnutritionjournal.com/">Clinical Nutrition</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Peanuts improve cognitive function in young adults

A new study suggests that peanuts aren’t just a tasty...

New research from <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> shows that tidal marshes - the ecosystem where freshwater meets the ocean - are likely to be flooded by rising sea levels in New Jersey. The study, including potential solutions to save the marshes, was published in the journal <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/journal/anc">Anthropocene Coasts</a>.&nbsp;



Study lead author Judith Weis explained how a marsh is destroyed by sea level rise, “Faced with sea level rise, a marsh has two options - it can either increase its elevation at a rate equal to that of sea level rise or it can migrate inland. Otherwise, it will be submerged and drown.”



Marshes are an important habitat for a collection of birds, fishes, crabs and other invertebrates. Tidal marshes are also valuable buffer zones against storms and absorb toxic pollutants, acting as a type of natural filter.&nbsp;



When researchers looked at tidal marshes in New Jersey, they found that half of those investigated were being lost to erosion due to sea level rise. The scientists found that some of this loss was being compensated by the marshes “marching” inland as the sea rose.



Unfortunately, the marsh moving inland sometimes kills trees by exposing them to salt water. Furthermore, such movement isn’t possible everywhere - especially in developed areas.&nbsp;



The researchers also found something unexpected. The tidal marshes moving most substantially away from rising sea levels were occupied by the invasive common reed (Phragmites australis). Although the reed reduces plant diversity, it allows marshes to move. When they die, the reeds accumulate sediment which raises the marsh level. This acts as a better buffer to flooding than natural grasses.&nbsp;



“Some reeds should be left on the marsh surface to give the marsh a better chance of keeping up with sea level rise," said Weis. "This will be controversial and likely opposed by many marsh managers, which will require a revolutionary change in marsh management.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/journal/anc">Anthropocene Coasts</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New Jersey's tidal marshes are vanishing

New research from Rutgers University shows that tidal marshes -...

A new study led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> has found that sweet corn, when planted at high densities, has steadily increased in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cleaner-air-improves-corn-and-soybean-yields/">yield</a> over the past 80 years. This historical analysis highlights the importance of planting modern density-tolerant species of corn at their optimal densities, and suggests opportunities to further improve their density tolerance.



“Over time, steady improvement in plant density tolerance has contributed greatly to genetic yield gain in field corn. While our recent research indicates plant density tolerance in modern sweet corn hybrids could be exploited to improve yield, historical changes in plant density tolerance in sweet corn were unknown,” explained study lead author Daljeet Dhaliwal, a doctoral student in the&nbsp;<a href="https://cropsciences.illinois.edu/">Department of Crop Sciences</a>&nbsp;at the University Illinois.



Together with Marty Williams, an adjunct professor of ecology, Dhaliwal tested sweet corn crowding tolerance in hybrids dating from 1934 to 2014. They found that, when grown at high densities, the marketable ear mass increased by a total of 2.85 tons per acre during this period, and an average of 0.36 tons per decade.



The researchers grew one or more hybrids representing each decade at both low (4,000 plants per acre) and high densities (32,000 plants per acre) over the course of three years. Next, they measured key harvest metrics, such as marketable ear mass, crate yield, and recovery. They discovered that the marketable ear mass and the crate yield improved in hybrids grown under high densities. Thus, modern hybrids appear particularly suited for growth at high densities.



“Plant architecture has become more compact. Plants are putting fewer resources into vegetative tissue, so there's less fresh biomass and fewer tillers. That means modern plants are really suitable for growing at higher densities. There's less interference, right? But when you plant them at low densities where there is no competition, these plants are not out-yielding older hybrids,” explained Dhaliwal.



On the other hand, the scientists found that fresh kernel mass and recovery didn’t change much over time.&nbsp;



“No improvement over 80 years suggests a potential breeding objective. What if we could improve recovery?" said Williams. "Until the last decade, few sweet corn breeding programs were measuring recovery. Instead, breeders focused on other important traits, particularly eating quality and disease resistance. But now that we know how little recovery has improved, perhaps it’s worth targeting."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.707852/full">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Planting sweet corn at high densities improves yield

A new study led by the University of Illinois at...

House,Plants,Display.,Indoor,Plants,In,Window

According to a new study commissioned by the organization <a href="https://www.thejoyofplants.co.uk/">The Joy of Plants</a> for the launch of the <a href="https://www.thejoyofplants.co.uk/houseplant-hideout-gives-londoners-slice-plant-paradise">Houseplant Hideout</a> in London, people feel happier and more productive when surrounded by houseplants. These benefits might arise from the soothing effects of the green color, combined with the opportunity to provide care for living beings.



A study of 2,000 British adults found that the perfect working environment should include a selection of plants, bright colors, and decorative stationery. Over half of the survey participants said they feel more productive when surrounded by plants, while two-thirds claimed that plants have a positive impact on their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boys-who-play-sports-as-young-children-have-better-mental-health/">mental health</a>.&nbsp;



Almost three-quarters of the participants had an average of five houseplants in their homes. Many of these individuals expressed that the plants have a calming effect (45 percent), add color to the environment (44 percent), and improve the quality of indoor air (39 percent). Some of them even speak to their houseplants (23 percent), or put music on for them (20 percent).



“As a botanist, I am fascinated by the growing body of scientific evidence which supports what this new consumer research highlights - that being around plants can measurably improve both mental and physical health,” said study lead author James Wong, an ethnobotanist, presenter, and garden designer. “The effect of houseplants seems to work on a number of inter-related levels and the best thing is that the only side effect of this therapy is having a beautiful home.”



According to Wong, the rich green color characterizing houseplants can reduce stress levels and pain, and improve feelings of self-worth. Furthermore, having a living thing to nurture and focus on could act in a similar way to mindfulness exercises, and relieve feelings of anxiety and tension.



“The research stats prove what we’ve often thought - having plants in the home helps moods and productivity,” a spokesman for the Joy of Plants said. “It’s no secret being outdoors and surrounded by nature often helps improve mental health and decrease stress levels and it’s great to see that bringing the outdoors in has a similar effect.”



“Particularly when working, which many of us have been doing from home the past year and a half, people clearly like to have a plant nearby, not only for productivity but also to boost their mood,” he concluded.



The Houseplant Hideout in Shoreditch in London is open between 7th and 10th October.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Houseplants improve mood and productivity

According to a new study commissioned by the organization The...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...