There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years. The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Understanding the squirting cucumber The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from...

The fragmentation of tropical rainforests is progressing much more quickly than expected, and the consequences for the global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-mountain-forests-store-huge-amounts-of-carbon/">carbon</a> cycle are alarming, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=33573">Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research</a> (UFZ).&nbsp;



By analyzing high-resolution satellite data, the researchers were able to accurately measure even the smallest change in tropical forest cover. The analysis has exposed a previously unknown increase in fragmentation that affects nearly one third of the world's rainforest area.&nbsp;



The experts report that as a result of increased tree mortality, large amounts of carbon are being released at the edges of fragmented forests. The only way to slow these emissions is through lower rates of deforestation.



The researchers used satellite data to pinpoint where intact tropical forests may still exist in Central and South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. They found that the number of isolated forest areas increased by just over 20 million to 152 million between 2000 and 2010. This extent of tropical fragmentation is especially concerning because it has also increased the proportion of forest edges in the total forest area.&nbsp;



“This situation has deteriorated so much that now almost one third of the world’s tropical forest areas are in edge areas. If deforestation is not stopped, this trend will continue," said study lead author and Dr. Rico Fischer.&nbsp;



The accelerated rate of fragmentation was mainly found in the tropics of Africa, where the number of forest fragments increased from 45 to 64 million within 10 years. The study is one of the most detailed of its kind to investigate the carbon balance of tropical forest edges.



“The edge, unlike the forest interior, is subject to direct sunlight. It is more exposed to the wind. Humidity also decreases in the edge areas. The altered micro-climate particularly damages the large trees that depend on a good water supply," explained Dr. Fischer.



More trees die at the forest edge because they are more stressed there than trees that are in the protected interior of a forest. “This means that large amounts of carbon are released into the atmosphere at the edges of tropical forests," said Dr. Fischer.



The researchers estimated the carbon emissions caused by increased tree mortality for all forest edges. They determined that carbon emissions associated with forest fragmentation increased from 420 million tons in 2000 to 450 million tons in 2010.&nbsp;



“In the tropics, deforestation alone releases around 1,000 to 1,500 million tonnes of carbon every year. If we consider the additional effect of the forest edges, this is a worrying finding because the tropical rainforest should actually be a carbon sink - and not a carbon source," said study co-author Dr. Andreas Huth.&nbsp;



The fragmentation of tropical forests also affects biodiversity. The researchers found that the distances between the forest fragments are becoming progressively larger.&nbsp;



“This makes the long-term survival of animal species such as the jaguar, which depends on large, connected forest areas, more difficult," said study co-author Dr. Franziska Taubert.



“If the current dynamics of fragmentation continue at a constant rate, forest edges will release 530 million tons of carbon annually by 2100. Only if deforestation of the rainforest is stopped from 2050 onwards can emissions be limited to a maximum of 480 million tons of carbon," said Dr. Fischer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical forest fragmentation is progressing at an alarming pace

The fragmentation of tropical rainforests is progressing much more quickly...

While several U.S. states have legalized medicinal and recreational use of cannabis in recent years, illegal cannabis farming is still very much prevalent, presenting serious threats to the habitats of threatened <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/how-tyrannosaurs-grew-into-fierce-predators/">predators</a>.&nbsp;



New research from Greta Wengert and colleagues of the Integral Ecology Research Centre in California shows that favorable illegal cannabis farming sites across the West Coast of the U.S. overlap with habitat ranges of three threatened predators, reducing preservation attempts by exposing them to toxic farming pesticides.



As opposed to the regulated nature of legal farming, illegal cannabis cultivation is seeing rampant use of dangerous pesticides such as rodenticides which can be passed through rodents and accumulate in the bodies of endangered predators.&nbsp;



The research has been undertaken through a new collaboration between wildlife biologists and law enforcement, mapping the distribution of grow sites across regions of California and Southern Oregon through location data across 1,469 illegal cannabis cultivation sites discovered between 2007 and 2014.&nbsp;



This location data has then been compared with distribution models of habitats for two endangered carnivorous mammals: the Humboldt Marten and the Pacific Fisher. In addition to these predators, the data has also been compared with habitats of the Northern Spotted Owl, a threatened bird of prey.



The illegal cannabis distribution models predicted that over 21,000 square kilometers of forest is likely being used for illegal cannabis cultivation, in addition to sixteen undetected cannabis farms based on ground-truthing.&nbsp;



The results of this predictive analysis hypothesize that these illegal cannabis cultivation sites have a vast overlap with each endangered species within the study. The data shows overlap with the habitats of the Spotted Owl by 48 percent, the Pacific Fisher by 45 percent, and the Humboldt Marten by 40 percent.&nbsp;



Furthermore, cultivation areas show an overlap of 100 percent with the female Pacific Fisher habitat ranges in the Southern Sierra Nevada, hypothesizing that this population is particularly at risk of toxification from pesticide exposure. The authors of the study have concluded that locating and detoxing these contaminated grow sites should be prioritized by land managers and conservationists.



The researchers noted that the results of their study and its validation support concerns that the problem of trespass cannabis cultivation is more extensive than previously thought. "The study solidifies our belief that the environmental impacts of this illicit activity adversely affect the recovery of these three sensitive forest predators in ways that we haven’t yet begun to address.”



The research is published in the journal PLOS ONE.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Illegal cannabis farms infringe on crucial animal habitats

While several U.S. states have legalized medicinal and recreational use...

Cannabis is a commonly used recreational drug that has become legalized and decriminalized in Canada and parts of the US in recent years. However, despite its increasing availability and social acceptance, the effects of cannabis on cardiovascular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/9-11-responders-are-battling-long-term-health-issues/">health</a> have not yet been established.



In new research published in the <a href="https://www.cmaj.ca/">Canadian Medical Association Journal</a>, researchers used national health survey data to assess the prevalence of recent cannabis use in young adults (aged 18 to 44) in the US, and its relationship with occurrence of heart attacks (myocardial infarction). Young adults of this age group are not usually considered to be at risk of having a heart attack, and this allowed the researchers to consider the effects of cannabis use in particular.



Survey data from 33,000 young adults was included in this study. The data were derived from a survey conducted by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention during 2017 and 2018. In the survey, 17 percent of young adults reported recent use of cannabis (within the past 30 days) and among these users, 1.3 percent also reported having a heart attack. By comparison, the incidence of a heart attack was only 0.8 percent among non-users. This represents an increased risk to cannabis users of more than one and a half times.



Although the method of consumption made no difference to this relationship, the researchers found that the effect was stronger in those people who used cannabis more frequently. These results support the findings of earlier studies conducted in hospitals that established a link between heavy cannabis use and heart attack incidence.&nbsp;



"With recent legalization and decriminalization, cannabis use is increasing in young adults in North America, and we do not fully know its effects on cardiovascular health," says Dr.&nbsp;Karim Ladha, a clinician scientist at Unity Health Toronto. "We found an association between recent cannabis use and myocardial infarction, which persisted across an array of robust sensitivity analyses. Additionally, this association was consistent across different forms of cannabis consumption, including smoking, vaporization, and other methods such as edibles. This suggests that no method of consumption is safer than another in this regard."&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers found that cannabis users tended to be male, smoke cigarettes or e-cigarettes (vape) and to have a high alcohol intake; these factors may have contributed to the risk of heart attack but were adjusted for in the analysis conducted in this study. It is also noteworthy that, although the study provides evidence of a link between cannabis use and heart attack, the biological mechanisms by which these two variables are related is not known.



"We analyzed the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data set (2017–2018) because it is the best available source for providing insights which are generalizable and nationally representative," says Nikhil Mistry, a PhD candidate at the University of Toronto. "As a young adult, it is important to be aware of the risks associated with cannabis use, especially in the current climate where we are exposed to a wealth of misinformation and non–evidence-based health recommendations."&nbsp;



Dr.&nbsp;David Mazer, a clinician scientist at Unity Health Toronto, adds, "Not only young adults, but physicians and other clinicians need to be aware of this potentially important relationship. Cannabis use should be considered in cardiovascular risk assessment. When making decisions about cannabis consumption, patients and physicians should consider its associated benefits and risks, in the context of their own health risk factors and behaviors."&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis use increases risk of heart attacks in young adults

Cannabis is a commonly used recreational drug that has become...

Avocados may be a powerful weapon for women in the fight against dangerous belly fat, according to a new study. The researchers have found that an avocado a day helps women redistribute belly fat toward a healthier profile.



In a randomized controlled trial, 105 overweight or obese adults were provided one meal a day for 12 weeks. The experts discovered that women who consumed avocado as part of their daily meal had a reduction in deeper visceral abdominal fat.



The study was led by Naiman Khan, a professor of Kinesiology and Community Health at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>.



“The goal wasn’t weight loss; we were interested in understanding what eating an avocado does to the way individuals store their body fat. The location of fat in the body plays an important role in health,” said Professor Khan.



“In the abdomen, there are two kinds of fat: fat that accumulates right underneath the skin, called subcutaneous fat, and fat that accumulates deeper in the abdomen, known as visceral fat, that surrounds the internal organs."&nbsp;



"Individuals with a higher proportion of that deeper visceral fat tend to be at a higher risk of developing diabetes. So we were interested in determining whether the ratio of subcutaneous to visceral fat changed with avocado consumption."



The participants were divided into two groups. One group received meals which contained fresh avocado, while the other group received meals with nearly identical ingredients and similar calories but no avocado.



The researchers measured participants’ abdominal fat and their glucose tolerance, a measure of metabolism and a marker of diabetes, at the beginning and end of the 12 weeks.



The results showed that female participants who consumed an avocado a day as part of their meal had a reduction in visceral abdominal fat. These women also exhibited a reduction in the ratio of visceral fat to subcutaneous fat, indicating a redistribution of fat away from the organs. Among males, there was no change in fat distribution. Glucose tolerance was not improved in either gender.&nbsp;



“While daily consumption of avocados did not change glucose tolerance, what we learned is that a dietary pattern that includes an avocado every day impacted the way individuals store body fat in a beneficial manner for their health, but the benefits were primarily in females,” explained Professor Khan.&nbsp;



“It’s important to demonstrate that dietary interventions can modulate fat distribution. Learning that the benefits were only evident in females tells us a little bit about the potential for sex playing a role in dietary intervention responses.”



The researchers said they hope to conduct a follow-up study that would provide participants with all their daily meals and look at additional markers of gut health and physical health to get a more complete picture of the metabolic effects of avocado consumption and determine whether the difference remains between the two sexes.



“Our research not only sheds a valuable light on benefits of daily avocado consumption on the different types of fat distribution across genders, it provides us with a foundation to conduct further work to understand the full impact avocados have on body fat and health,” said study co-author Professor Richard Mackenzie of the University of Roehampton in London.



“By taking our research further, we will be able to gain a clearer picture into which types of people would benefit most from incorporating avocados into their diets and deliver valuable data for health care advisers to provide patients with guidance on how to reduce fat storage and the potential dangers of diabetes."



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn">Journal of Nutrition</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Avocados reduce dangerous belly fat in women

Avocados may be a powerful weapon for women in the...

Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> have gathered some of the first scientific evidence that climate change can affect the distribution of pathogens. The team studied the incidence of white pine blister rust in the forests of the Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. White pine blister rust is caused by a fungus Cronartium ribicola that infects several types of pine trees, including whitebark pine, and has caused serious damage to white pine populations in the United States.&nbsp;



The pathogen was introduced by accident in 1900 and is an invasive species that inevitably causes tree mortality. Part of the life cycle of C. ribicola is completed in secondary hosts, namely currant and gooseberry plants.



In the past, blister rust infections did not occur in high-altitude forests because the pathogen prefers warmer, milder conditions. Consequently, the forests above the Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks acted as a refuge from this disease. However, with changing climatic conditions, the pathogen has begun to infect trees that are higher up the slopes.&nbsp;



“Because pathogens have thermal tolerances, we are seeing expansions and contractions in this disease's range,” said study lead author Joan Dudney, a postdoctoral researcher at UC Davis in the lab of Professor Andrew Latimer. “Climate change isn’t so much leading to widespread increases in this disease but rather shifting where it is emerging.”



The researchers used data from long-term monitoring plots in the National Park forests in the southern Sierra Nevada mountains. Data spanned the period between 1996 and 2016, which is considered to be a warmer, drier period than normal. Observations from over 7,800 potential host trees were included and, in addition, the scientists measured stable isotope ratios in pine needles.&nbsp;



They found that the optimal climatic conditions for blister rust moved, during the 20-year study period, from lower to higher elevations. The incidence of blister rust decreased by 5.5 percent in the more arid, lower-elevation forests and increased by 7 percent in forests at cooler, higher elevations.



“Our study clearly demonstrates that infectious plant diseases are moving upslope, and they're moving fast,” said Dudney. “Few pines are resistant to what is basically a Northern Hemisphere white pine pandemic.”



The high-elevation refuges where pine trees were protected from pathogens by the inhospitable conditions, are now under threat because of climate warming; conditions there are becoming tolerable to the diseases and pests. Pathogens are expanding their ranges into these higher elevation areas while contracting in the lower areas where the climate is now too warm and dry for their survival.



"It's kind of a race between evolution and climate change," said Professor Latimer. "So far, climate change is winning."



Although it seems inevitable that blister rust will impact severely on white pine populations as the climate becomes warmer, Dudney stated that employing disease prevention methods could help to slow the spread of the disease.&nbsp;



The study is published recently in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

High altitudes no longer protect pine trees from disease

Researchers from UC Davis have gathered some of the first...

A new study published in the September 1 issue of <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a> looks at the impacts of environmental policy, fire, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-drought-will-impact-large-parts-of-the-amazon/">drought</a> and deforestation on Amazon biodiversity.



The researchers used data on vertebrates and plants to create a biodiversity map of the Amazon. The maps were then compared to the occurrence of fires and deforestation since 2001.&nbsp;



The study revealed that 40,000 to 73,400 square miles of Amazon forest and 95 percent of Amazonian species have been impacted by fire in the last two decades.&nbsp;



Forest management laws initiated in the mid 2000’s slowed the destruction, but a reversal of enforcement after the 2019 reversed these improvements. One of the worst years for Amazon biodiversity was 2019.



"Even with policies in place, which you can think of as a brake slowing the rate of deforestation, it's like a car that keeps moving forward, just at a slower speed," said study senior author Professor Brian Enquist of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>. "But in 2019, it's like the foot was let off the brake, causing it to accelerate again."&nbsp;



The research is unprecedented in its broad look at threats to biodiversity in the Amazon.



"Assessments based on remote sensing of burned and deforested areas had been done before, but we haven't had a detailed record of what impact those have on the species diversity of the region," explained study first author Xiao Feng.



"This has been a huge collection of data and an unprecedented informatics effort associated with biodiversity data, and that allowed us to make these interconnections visible."



An important thing to realize about the fires in the Amazon is that they are caused by humans and- unlike much of the western US - are not part of the natural ecosystem.&nbsp;



"Fire is not a part of the natural cycle in the rainforest," said study co-author Crystal N. H. McMichael. "Native species lack the adaptations that would allow them to cope with it, unlike the forest communities in temperate areas."&nbsp;



"Repeated burning can cause massive changes in species composition and likely devastating consequences for the entire ecosystem."



With an unfriendly government in charge, a growing human population, and inevitable changes in climate, more of the Amazon is likely to burn.&nbsp;



Since the 1960s, 20 percent of the Amazon’s forest cover has been lost. It’s predicted that as much as 40 percent will be lost by 2050 unless drastic measures are taken. Slowing the destruction takes a very long time, but destroying conservation safeguards is quick work.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The impact of fire on Amazon biodiversity

A new study published in the September 1 issue of...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.712622/full">Frontiers in Plant Science</a> has found that vineyards can use half of the irrigation water normally used by grape crops without compromising crop yields or quality (measured in terms of flavor, color, and sugar content).



The research, led by Professor Kaan Kurtural of the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>, sheds light on how the effects of drought on California’s vineyards can be mitigated in a time of severe water shortages caused by climate change.&nbsp;



“It is a significant finding,” said Professor Kurtural. “We don’t necessarily have to increase the amount of water supplied to grape vines.”&nbsp;



Professor Kurtural and his colleagues studied the correlation between irrigation levels and cabernet sauvignon grape quality at a research vineyard in Napa Valley during two growing seasons, a rainy season in 2019 and a very arid season in 2020.&nbsp;



The research team focused on <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/x0490e/x0490e04.htm">crop evapotranspiration</a>, which is the amount of evaporated water from the vineyard system based on canopy size. They used irrigation to replace 25, 50, and 100 percent of what has been lost by crops through evapotranspiration.&nbsp;



The scientists discovered that replacing only 50 percent of the water through irrigation was the most beneficial in maintaining the grapes’ yield and flavor. In addition, this level of irrigation did not compromise the amount of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which are crucial for helping grapevines overcome stresses such as water deficits.&nbsp;



Moreover, the lower irrigation level proved to be more environmentally friendly, since the water used to dilute nitrogen application was significantly reduced.



“In the end, drought is not coming for wine,” concluded Professor Kurtural. “There doesn’t need to be a tremendous amount of water for grapes. If you over irrigate in times like these, you’re just going to ruin quality for little gain.”



According to Professor Kurtural, although the research was focused on cabernet sauvignon, the findings can easily be extended to account for most types of red grapes.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vineyards can still thrive in times of water shortages

A new study published in the journal Frontiers in Plant...

Research funded by the University of Florida’s <a href="https://www.epi.ufl.edu/">Emerging Pathogens Institute</a> has revealed that several Florida palm tree diseases are caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-lights-keep-insects-from-hibernation/">insects</a> traveling from Jamaica. Scientists found that the American palm cixiid, an insect species from the Caribbean basin, can transmit yellowing disease and bronzing disease, which are both lethal to many types of palm trees, especially coconut and date palms.&nbsp;



It was previously assumed that the phytoplasmas (the bacteria causing these diseases) migrated to Florida through infected plants. However, Professor Brian Badher from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> suspected that the culprit was in fact the palm cixiid.&nbsp;



To test this hypothesis, Professor Badher and his team analyzed DNA from the insects in Florida and discovered four distinct groups. For comparison, the researchers looked at samples of insect populations from Columbia, Costa Rica, and Jamaica. While the Colombian and Costa Rican insects had different DNA, the insects from Jamaica were very similar to one of the groups in Florida.



“This told us that either the bugs in Jamaica got there from Florida or the bugs from Jamaica got introduced to Florida,” said Professor Bahder. “We followed up by looking at historical data from shipping records and reference insect collections and determined that the insects from Jamaica likely got introduced into Florida and brought the pathogen that causes lethal yellowing in coconut with it.”



Besides being the first study to investigate the epidemiology of palm phytoplasmas in the context of the transmitting insect species, the research also generated important new molecular data that can be used by other scientists to compare the DNA of insect species found in different areas.



“I hope our approach stimulates more integrated studies between entomology and plant pathology and combines historical record-keeping, molecular work, and fieldwork to better understand the epidemiology of certain diseases,” concluded Professor Bahder.&nbsp;



The research is published in the open-access journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PHYTOFR-12-20-0048-R">PhytoFrontiers</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Insects from Jamaica transmit diseases to Florida palm trees

Research funded by the University of Florida’s Emerging Pathogens Institute...

The Earth faces an ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-harlequin-toads-are-threatened-with-extinction/">extinction</a> crisis. Understanding the threats to biodiversity over the globe can be complicated. Scientists just published a new model revealing the location and threats to biodiversity over the planet in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



The scientists created six maps elucidating the main threats to amphibians, birds and mammals - logging, agriculture, hunting &amp; trapping, pollution, invasive species and climate change.&nbsp;



Agriculture and logging are common threats in the tropics, while hunting &amp; trapping are the most widespread threat to mammals and birds. 50% of land birds are threatened by hunting &amp; trapping and 73% of land mammals are. Agriculture is the most dangerous threat to amphibians, with amphibians on 44% of global land area being threatened.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Beyond identifying which threats are most prevalent, the research also identified the most vulnerable regions. The study revealed that wildlife in Southeast Asia is particularly threatened, especially in Sumatra and Borneo. Madagascar is another island with vulnerable animals.&nbsp;



The scientists hope this data could provide necessary knowledge for conservation planning now and in the future.&nbsp;



“We are facing a global nature crisis, and the next ten years is a crucial window for taking decisive action to tackle biodiversity loss. Our results reveal the location and intensity of human-caused threats to nature," explained Dr. Mike Harfoot, one of the lead co-authors of the paper, <a href="https://www.unep-wcmc.org/">UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre</a> (UNEP-WCMC).



"This information can support decision-makers at a range of levels in identifying where action to reduce these threats could yield the best results for people and planet. With further work, we will improve this information in terms of accuracy and the breadth of nature considered.”



With the Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in Kunming, China coming up next year, this research will have a chance to play an important role in global planning and ideally help save some species.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists pinpoint the location of biodiversity threats

The Earth faces an ongoing extinction crisis. Understanding the threats...

The insides of plants can shelter a large variety of microorganisms, similar to the well-known microbes residing in the human gut. A research team from the <a href="https://www.tus.ac.jp/en/">Tokyo University of Science</a> is the first to isolate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-of-infant-boys-can-enhance-cognitive-skills/">bacteria</a> contained in the seeds of the passion fruit (Passiflora edulis).&nbsp;



The endophytic microorganisms residing inside plants’ fruits, leaves, stems, roots, or seeds are not necessarily harmful to plants. Instead, they often develop a synergistic relationship with their host, and are beneficial for processes of germination, growth, and even defense. 



However, most of the plants contain many “secondary metabolites” – natural bioactive compounds with strong antimicrobial properties. This makes such environments typically hostile to endophytic microorganisms.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Passion fruit seeds are generally full of secondary metabolites, such as resveratrol and, particularly, piceatannol. This is precisely the reason why scientists were curious to investigate whether passion fruit seeds contain any endophytic microorganisms too.&nbsp;



“The extraordinarily high concentration of piceatannol protects P. edulis seeds from microorganisms. We thought it would be interesting to know if any endophytic microorganism could survive this extreme environment, and if yes, how,” explained study co-author Toshiki Furuya, an associate professor in the <a href="https://www.tus.ac.jp/en/fac/riko/app_bio.html">Department of Applied Biological Science</a> at Tokyo University of Science.



Remarkably, the researchers discovered 19 bacterial strains in the passion fruit seeds, including three that were previously unknown. Their hypothesis is that the piceatannol from the seeds had bacteriostatic (“bacterial growth-stalling”) rather than bactericidal (“bacteria-killing”) effects on the endophytic bacteria residing in the seeds. 



“Due to the presence of a high concentration of piceatannol, the growth of the bacteria was stagnated inside the seed, but when transmitted to the next-generation seedlings during germination, the bacteria were relieved from the effect of piceatannol and able to grow again,” said study co-author Aoi Ishida.



The scientists also made another surprising discovery. One of the isolated bacteria, Brevibacterium sp. PE28-2, possessed the ability to convert piceatannol and resveratrol to their respective derivatives. This is the first endophytic bacteria shown to exhibit such abilities.



Earlier research demonstrated that endophytic bacteria which are capable to survive in environments rich in secondary metabolites compounds possess biocatalytic activities related to the metabolism of these compounds. This biocatalytic potential can be exploited for therapeutic purposes. 



Further research on the mechanisms of endophytic resistance inside of plants is needed to open new paths in medicine and beyond.   



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mbo3.1226">MicrobiologyOpen</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria can survive the hostile interior of passion fruit seeds

The insides of plants can shelter a large variety of...

Flowers are the most complex structures to be found on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-animals-rely-on-the-same-chemicals-for-growth/">plants</a>. They are formed at the tips of stems and involve a transition of the normal apical meristem (growing tissue) into a flower meristem that develops the reproductive organs. Scientists have long wondered about the mechanisms that allow this transition to take place correctly, and how flower formation occurs so rapidly.



A team of researchers led by the <a href="http://www.naist.jp/en/">Nara Institute of Science and Technology</a> has now identified a small protein that plays a key role in correctly timing the developmental changes that lead to flower formation in the cress plant, Arabidopsis thaliana.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In the growing tips of stems, a gene known as WUSCHEL (WUS) promotes the formation and maintenance of stem cells. During the early stages of flower formation, stem cells act as a source of tissue to form what will be the flower’s reproductive organs.&nbsp;



Clearly, the activity of WUS needs to be restricted at this stage so that the stem cells stop proliferating and, instead, differentiate successfully into the correct number of sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. There is a balance between the formation of stem cells (WUS) and the differentiation of stem cells into reproductive organs, which is under the influence of the gene CLAVATA3 (CLV3), via a feedback loop.



The protein identified by the researchers, known as KNUCKLES (KNU), represses the activity of both the WUS and CLV3 genes and disrupts the feedback loop. This means that the floral meristem is no longer maintained and the development of the flower’s reproductive organs can progress toward completion.&nbsp;



“A small protein called KNUCKLES (KNU) represses WUS directly, which leads to the completion of floral stem cell activity at the right time,” explained study lead author Erlei Shang. “What isn’t fully understood is how the robust floral stem cell activity finishes within a limited time period to ensure carpel development.”



“The team’s research revealed that in Arabidopsis thaliana, KNU can completely deactivate the robust floral meristems at a particular floral stage, thanks to the multiple functions that KNU carries out via its position-specific roles,” said senior author Toshiro Ito.



The findings will help scientists to understand flower formation in important food crops such as rice, tomatoes and maize. The researchers hope that their discovery of the molecular genetic mechanism whereby floral meristem is terminated will benefit crop yields for food production globally.



“Our results reveal a regulatory pathway where KNU plays a key role in supporting the completion of floral meristem development within a short time window, and ensures that flower reproductive organs are properly formed,” said study co-author Bo Sun.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Small protein plays a big role in flower formation

Flowers are the most complex structures to be found on...

New research from the <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a> has found that a daily intake of half a cup of walnuts for a period of two years lowers levels of <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/cholesterol/hdl-good-ldl-bad-cholesterol-and-triglycerides">low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol</a> (known as “bad cholesterol”), and thus reduces the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-air-pollutants-contribute-to-cardiovascular-disease/">cardiovascular</a> disease.&nbsp;



Similarly with fish, walnuts are rich in omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linoleic acid), which are known to be highly beneficial for cardiovascular health.&nbsp;



“Prior studies have shown that nuts in general, and walnuts in particular, are associated with lower rates of heart disease and&nbsp;stroke. One of the reasons is that they lower LDL-cholesterol levels, and now we have another reason: they improve the quality of LDL particles,” explained study co-author Emilio Ros, director of the Lipid Clinic at the Endocrinology and Nutrition Service of the <a href="https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en">Hospital Clínic of Barcelona</a>.



&nbsp;“LDL particles come in various sizes. Research has shown that small, dense LDL particles are more often associated with&nbsp;atherosclerosis, the plaque or fatty deposits that build up in the arteries. Our study goes beyond LDL cholesterol levels to get a complete picture of all of the lipoproteins and the impact of eating walnuts daily on their potential to improve cardiovascular risk.”



Dr. Ros’s study was conducted from 2012 to 2016 and involved over 700 participants with ages between 63 and 69. They were divided into two groups; participants in one group were asked to eat half a cup of walnuts per day, and those in the other group were asked to abstain from eating walnuts.&nbsp;



Scientists found that, after two years, participants eating walnuts had lower LDL cholesterol levels (by an average of 4.3 mg/dL) and lower levels of total cholesterol (by an average of 8.5 mg/dL). In addition, both total and small LDL particles were reduced (by 4.3, respectively 6.1 percent). The Intermediate Density Lipoprotein (IDL), a precursor to LDL recognized to be a cardiovascular risk factor too, also decreased over two years. Surprisingly, changes in LDL cholesterol differed by gender. Among men, LDL cholesterol decreased by 7.9 percent, yet fell only by 2.6 percent among women.&nbsp;



“Eating a handful of walnuts every day is a simple way to promote cardiovascular health,” Dr. Ros concluded. “Many people are worried about unwanted weight gain when they include nuts in their diet. Our study found that the healthy fats in walnuts did not cause participants to gain weight.”&nbsp;



The research was published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/journal/circ">Circulation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eat a handful of walnuts every day for better heart health

New research from the American Heart Association has found that...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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