Transformative life decisions, such as changing careers, moving across the world, or ending significant relationships, often redefine who we are and shape the paths we follow. 



These decisions carry profound implications, and their outcomes are frequently unpredictable.&nbsp;



A new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Human Development</a> introduces a novel framework for studying and understanding these critical life choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-beyond-simplified-models">Moving beyond simplified models</h2>



“Understanding life's biggest decisions requires going beyond the oversimplified models often used in the behavioral sciences,” said lead author Shahar Hechtlinger.&nbsp;



She emphasized that traditional research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/optimal-decision-making-is-a-balance-of-experience-and-knowledge/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decision-making</a> often relies on overly simplified scenarios, which fail to capture the complexity of real-life transformative decisions.&nbsp;



“In research on judgment and decision-making, we often rely on highly simplified, stylized tasks. However, these controlled scenarios are in stark contrast to the consequential decisions that people face in real life across cultures and contexts,” Hechtlinger explained.&nbsp;



The researchers advocate for examining these choices in their natural context, accounting for cultural and emotional dimensions that are often overlooked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-dimensions-of-transformative-decisions">Key dimensions of transformative decisions</h2>



Using a text-based analysis of personal stories, online discussions, books, and other narratives, the researchers identified five core dimensions that define transformative decisions.&nbsp;



Each dimension reflects unique challenges and uncertainties inherent in life-altering choices:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-cues">Conflicting cues</h3>



Competing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peoples-moral-values-literally-change-with-the-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">values</a> often complicate transformative choices. For instance, immigrating to another country might promise safety but at the cost of leaving loved ones behind.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-change-of-self">Change of self</h3>



Transformative decisions can profoundly reshape personal identity and values. Becoming a parent or leaving a long-term relationship can result in both desired and undesired changes in self-perception.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-experiential-value">Uncertain experiential value</h3>



The outcomes of transformative choices are often unpredictable. For example, switching careers may spark doubts about whether the new path will lead to satisfaction or regret.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daunting-change">Daunting change</h3>



Many transformative decisions, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> or divorce, carry a sense of permanence, making them daunting to undertake.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-vs-rewards">Risk vs. rewards</h3>



These choices are often accompanied by significant emotional, financial, or social risks, alongside the potential for rewards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-navigating-transformative-decisions">Strategies for navigating transformative decisions</h2>



The researchers proposed several strategies to help individuals make better decisions when faced with transformative choices.&nbsp;



These approaches are grounded in psychological principles and tailored to address the five identified dimensions:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tallying-heuristic-nbsp">Tallying heuristic&nbsp;</h3>



When values conflict, this method simplifies comparisons by counting the positive and negative reasons for each option without weighing their importance.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ideal-self-realization-nbsp">Ideal self-realization&nbsp;</h3>



This strategy aligns decisions with one’s vision of their ideal self, helping individuals make choices that resonate with their long-term identity goals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-others-nbsp">Learning from others&nbsp;</h3>



Observing people who have faced similar decisions can provide valuable insights into potential outcomes, reducing uncertainty.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-waters-nbsp">Testing the waters&nbsp;</h3>



For irreversible decisions, taking small, reversible steps - such as renting before committing to a permanent move - can help mitigate risks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hedge-clipping-nbsp">Hedge clipping&nbsp;</h3>



Incremental actions that minimize harm, such as securing financial stability before making a risky choice, offer a safety net during transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-theory-of-ecological-rationality">Expanding the theory of ecological rationality</h2>



The framework significantly contributes to ecological rationality, a theory that examines how decision-making strategies succeed when adapted to specific environments.&nbsp;



“Ecological rationality emphasizes the importance of a fit between decision strategies, environments, and individuals,” explains Ralph Hertwig, co-author and director of the Center for Adaptive Rationality at Max Planck.&nbsp;



This research broadens the theory by integrating subjective dimensions, such as personal identity and evolving values, into decision-making processes.&nbsp;



The framework highlights how external constraints, individual aspirations, and decision strategies interact, offering a richer understanding of how people navigate transformative life choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-transformative-life-decisions-nbsp">Understanding transformative life decisions&nbsp;</h2>



The framework's implications extend beyond personal decision-making. It provides valuable tools for policymakers, therapists, and organizations supporting individuals through life transitions.&nbsp;



For example, migration policies could incorporate strategies to address risks and irreversibility, while therapists might use the framework to guide clients through significant personal changes.&nbsp;



By understanding the dimensions of transformative decisions, these stakeholders can design programs and interventions tailored to the complexities of such choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-informed-and-meaningful-choices">Making informed and meaningful choices</h2>



The researchers are now undertaking large-scale empirical studies to refine their framework and explore decision-making across various life domains, including relationships, careers, and migration.&nbsp;



They plan to investigate factors such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>, personality traits, and risk-taking behavior to better understand how these elements influence transformative choices.



Transformative life decisions are inherently complex and deeply personal. By capturing the interplay of conflicting values, identity shifts, uncertainty, and risk, this framework offers a comprehensive approach to understanding these pivotal moments.&nbsp;



As individuals and societies navigate increasingly complex challenges, this research provides a valuable roadmap for making informed and meaningful choices.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0001439" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Psychologist</a>. 



-----



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Navigating uncertainty: How to make transformative life decisions

Transformative life decisions, such as changing careers, moving across the world, or ending significant relationships, often redefine who we are and shape the paths we follow. These decisions carry profound implications, and their outcomes are frequently unpredictable.&nbsp; A new study by researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development introduces a novel framework for studying and understanding these critical life choices. Moving beyond simplified models “Understanding life's biggest decisions requires going beyond the oversimplified models often used in the behavioral sciences,” said lead author Shahar Hechtlinger.&nbsp;...

The prospect of using DNA as a means of data storage is becoming more and more realistic all the time. A startup company at the Harvard Life Lab has recently announced its plans to offer such a storage service beginning next year.

A group known as <a href="https://catalogdna.com/">Catalog</a> has developed a method of storing an entire terabyte of data on a single DNA pellet.

“We are developing next generation technology to store digital information in DNA molecules,” said the startup agency on its website. “Our vision is to fit the information content of entire data centers into the palm of your hand.”

“We have proven our approach to encoding data in DNA and are in the process of scaling up our platform. The Catalog technology will make it economically attractive to use DNA as the major medium for long-term archival of data.”

According to an article published by the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a>, DNA is one of the most dense and durable methods of media storage. The news agency reported that the process of storing data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-bank-endangered-extinct-animals/">DNA</a> is very similar to storing information on a hard drive.

If DNA is stored properly, it can endure for hundreds of years, which is far longer than the life of a hard drive. An analysis of the failure rate of 25,000 hard drives by the online data backup company BackBlaze found that 90 percent of hard drives last for only three years.

While the process of storing data on DNA was once considered impractical due to obstacles such as cost and speed, Catalog said that it has developed a machine that can drastically cut the costs of DNA storage. Beginning next year, the company will offer a terabyte of DNA-encoded data in a gram-sized pellet.

On June 26, the Boston startup announced it has already used the storage system to save a copy of the novel A Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams and the poem “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost in genetic material.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Alamy Stock Photo

Boston startup company will provide data storage on DNA pellets

The prospect of using DNA as a means of data...

According to a new study, individuals who are “skinny fat,” which refers to having too much fat and not enough muscle, are more prone to cognitive decline. The loss of muscle tissue with age, or sarcopenia, and obesity both have a negative impact on health and cognitive function, and there is an even higher threat when the two conditions are coinciding.

The investigation, which was led by researchers at <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a>, was based on data from a series of aging and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-memory-starts-at-age-2-study-finds/">memory</a> studies which involved over 350 participants that had an average age of 69. 

The team analyzed the relationship of skinny fat and sarcopenic obesity with performance on various cognition tests. The researchers also assessed body composition and incorporated functioning tests such as grip strength.

The study revealed that sarcopenic obesity or skinny fat was associated with the lowest cognitive performance, followed by sarcopenia alone and then obesity alone. In addition, obesity and sarcopenia were associated with inferior executive function such as self-control, orientation, and working memory. 


The study’s senior author, Dr. James E. Galvin, is one of the most prominent neuroscientists in the country.

"Sarcopenia has been linked to global cognitive impairment and dysfunction in specific cognitive skills including memory, speed, and executive functions," said Dr. Galvin.

“Understanding the mechanisms through which this syndrome may affect cognition is important as it may inform efforts to prevent cognitive decline in later life by targeting at-risk groups with an imbalance between lean and fat mass. They may benefit from programs addressing loss of cognitive function by maintaining and improving strength and preventing obesity.”

While it is not yet clear what underlies the association between obesity and cognitive dysfunction, some research suggests that sedentary behavior, inflammation, and vascular damage are some of the potential drivers of this connection. Sarcopenia has been linked to impaired conflict resolution and selective attention. 

“Sarcopenia either alone or in the presence of obesity, can be used in clinical practice to estimate potential risk of cognitive impairment,” said study co-author Dr.Magdalena I. Tolea. “Testing grip strength by dynamometry can be easily administered within the time constraints of a clinic visit, and body mass index is usually collected as part of annual wellness visits.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.dovepress.com/call-for-papers-clinical-interventions-in-aging-d57-j4">Clinical Interventions in Aging</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a>

Having less muscle and more fat linked to cognitive decline

According to a new study, individuals who are “skinny fat,”...

A new study has revealed that humans are still somewhat conscious under the effects of general anesthesia. While they cannot feel any pain, patients given general anesthesia before an operation are still vaguely aware of what is going on around them. This is particularly true if there are noises or sounds that cause concern.

The experts found that 42 percent of patients under the influence of a general <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anesthesia-works-plants-people/">anesthetic</a> can still be roused, while about half of those given a sedative can be easily brought to consciousness with a loud shout and physical contact.

Study author Antti Revonsuo is a cognitive neuroscientist and psychologist at the <a href="http://www.utu.fi/en/">University of Turku</a> in Finland.

“Nearly all participants reported dream-like experiences that sometimes mixed with the reality,” said Professor Revonsuo.

The investigation was focused on 47 healthy individuals who were given either the general anaesthetic propofol or the sedative dexmedetomidine until they were unconscious.

As the drugs were taking effect, the researchers attempted to rouse the participants. In addition, the experts recorded brain activity among the individuals throughout the trial.

Once the subjects were unconscious, the team played recordings that included sounds that were completely normal and others that included unusual sounds or sentences which ended abruptly.

The analysis of brain wave activity revealed that the individuals shifted between a deep sleep state and a state with much more awareness while supposedly unconscious.

Among individuals who were sedated, brain activity indicated that they heard the unusual sounds and attempted to interpret them. The participants under the influence of propofol did not acknowledge the odd sounds.

The presentation of unpleasant noises, however, got the attention of all the individuals, regardless of the drug used to sedate them. The participants were also found to react faster to these noises when they heard them while awake.

“In other words, the brain can process sounds and words even though the subject did not recall it afterwards,” said study author Harry Scheinin. “Against common belief, anaesthesia does not require full loss of consciousness, as it is sufficient to just disconnect the patient from the environment.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/journal.aspx">Anesthesiology</a>.

-

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study: Most people are still relatively aware under anesthesia

A new study has revealed that humans are still somewhat...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> have found that ancient Romans are responsible for the spread of tuberculosis (TB), which kills approximately 1. 7 million people every year worldwide. 

Although tuberculosis first emerged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-kills-infants/">Africa</a> 5,000 years ago, the experts linked the rapid spread of the disease to activities that took place during the first century AD at the height of the Roman Empire.

TB is easily spread from person to person when it becomes airborne from something as simple as a sneeze or a cough, and the condition can have a fatal effect on the lungs.

The investigation was focused on genomic data from more than 550 samples of tuberculosis bacteria, which were obtained from across modern-day Africa and Eurasia. A comparison of the DNA sequences enabled the team to construct a timeline of how the disease spread.

Three of the seven lineages that now exist were found to be native to Africa and Eurasia, while the other four had spread out into other regions.

The movement of the four strains of TB out of Africa was discovered to coincide with the peak of the Roman Empire, when activities such as group bathing were common.


Study author and geneticist Caitlin Pepperell told the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a>:

“The timing is consistent with the Romans causing an incredible amount of movement and exploration around the Mediterranean.”


“There was contact between human populations that had not had contact before."

Across Asian and African countries, about 80 percent of people are affected by TB, while about 5 to 10 percent of the American population has tested positive for the disease. 

Understanding how tuberculosis spread in the past will help experts to predict the ways that this deadly disease may spread in the future.

The research can be accessed on the site <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/">bioRxiv</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient Romans spread tuberculosis at the height of their success

Researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have found that ancient...

On Thursday, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) chief Scott Pruitt submitted his resignation after an unprecedented number ethical scandals plagued his tenure.

Pruitt, the former attorney general of Oklahoma, came under fire for excessive spending of taxpayer dollars for personal first-class travel, a condo rental from a Washington D.C. lobbyist, and the purchase of $43,000 soundproof phone booth for his own office.

In addition, Pruitt was said to have ordered his staff to attend to his personal tasks, including finding a six-figure job for his wife, according to the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Washington Post</a>.

But beyond his appalling use of funds, Pruitt was more widely criticized for prioritizing oil companies and profit over the health of the planet and future generations.

Just last week, a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/03/politics/scott-pruitt-mom-restaurant-confrontation/index.html">video</a> went viral online of a young mother confronting Pruitt at a restaurant holding her young child and urging the EPA head to resign.

"We deserve to have somebody at the EPA who actually does protect our environment, somebody who believes in climate change and takes it seriously for the benefit of all of us, including our children,” Kristin Mink told Pruitt to his face.

As we reported, the initial appointment of Scott Pruitt to run the EPA infuriated environmentalists, as Pruitt time and time again <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scott-pruitt-doubts-global-warming/">denied</a> the existence of climate change and questioned basic scientific facts about global warming. President Donald Trump’s decision to appoint Pruitt to run the EPA was widely viewed as a move to dismantle the organization and empower oil companies and fossil fuel suppliers.

During his time at the EPA, Pruitt ordered that climate change information be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-defense-fund-emails/">scrubbed</a> from the official website of the government agency. He also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pruitt-clean-power-plan/">oversaw</a> the repeal of Obama’s Clean Power Plan, which aimed to limit greenhouse gas emissions.

In one interview, Pruitt even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pruitt-global-warming-good/">suggested</a> that global warming might even be a good thing for the planet.

Shortly after the resignation was announced, Donald Trump tweeted, “I have accepted the resignation of Scott Pruitt as the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. Within the Agency Scott has done an outstanding job, and I will always be thankful to him for this.”

Meanwhile, environmental advocacy group <a href="https://environmentamerica.org/home">Environment America</a> released their own response.

“It took an endless stream of ethical lapses for Scott Pruitt to lose his job, but he never should have had that position in the first place, nor kept it as long as he did, given his actions to undermine core environmental protections such as clean air and clean water,” said Christy Leavitt, the senior director of <a href="https://www.environmentamericas.org/">Environment America’s</a> Campaign to Defend Our Environment.

“Presidents don’t always get a ‘do-over’ so soon after appointing cabinet secretaries who fail to properly serve the American people. We call on the president to remember that conservation is part of being conservative. And we implore him to honor the bipartisan history of environmentalism from Republicans Theodore Roosevelt and Richard Nixon through modern administrations by nominating a true protector of the environment – so that his children and grandchildren, as well as ours, can inherit an Earth worth inheriting.”

--

By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

EPA head Scott Pruitt resigns after endless ethical scandals

On Thursday, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) chief Scott Pruitt submitted...

The Summer of 2018 is shaping up to be the hottest on record and global climate change is at the root of it.

It was recently reported by the <a href="http://www.noaa.gov/news/contiguous-us-had-its-warmest-may-on-record">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) that the contiguous United States had its warmest May on record, and now temperatures show no signs of cooling down. 

The heat has caused cracked roads and roof tiles in Britain to buckle, according to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5916967/Global-warming-blame-heat-records-worldwide-experts-warn-heatwave-continue.html">Daily Mail.</a> Further north in Scotland, a record-shattering 91.8 degrees Fahrenheit was reported In Motherwell. 

In Ireland, Belfast created a new record for the United Kingdom overall with temperatures reaching 86.2 degrees Fahrenheit. While temperatures in the 80s and 90s are typical for many states during the summer months, the cooler, wetter climates in Ireland and the UK make the heat wave unprecedented. 

The country of Oman in the Middle East experienced the highest nighttime temperature on Earth at 126 Degrees Fahrenheit. 

Many cities are issuing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-waves-increase-mortality-rates/">heat warnings</a>, and already eight people have died due to the high temperatures in North America. 

While heat waves are common and not necessarily always attributable to climate change, this unusual bout of literal global warming is too extreme and too long to be simply explained by natural climate phenomena. 

“Summers keep getting hotter,” heat wave expert Friederike Otto of the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> told the Daily Mail. “Heatwaves are far more intense than when my parents were growing up in the 1950s. If we do nothing to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions, the kind of extreme heat we saw this past summer will be the norm when my young son is a grown man.”

In the US and Canada, a heat dome that has been lingering over the United States since June is part of the reason temperatures have been so stifling in that region. The dome is now predicted to spread even further throughout the week. 

As weather extremes become the new norm and countries around the world experience hotter and hotter summers, more severe hurricane seasons, and frigid winter cold snaps, it can only be hoped that policymakers will work quickly to cap emissions and combat climate change. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Record setting heat waves continue across the globe

The Summer of 2018 is shaping up to be the...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> are reporting that anticipating a stressful day can actually make your mindset worse. The experts say that waking up with expectations of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/service-dogs-veterans-ptsd/">stressful</a> day can take its toll on the brain’s working memory.

Despite any distractions that may arise, working memory helps us learn and retain information. This ability was found to be lower among individuals that felt stress in the beginning of the day, regardless of the reality of stressful situations.

Study co-author Jinshil Hyun is a doctoral student in Human Development and Family Studies. 

“Humans can think about and anticipate things before they happen, which can help us prepare for and even prevent certain events,” said Hyun. “But this study suggests that this ability can also be harmful to your daily memory function, independent of whether the stressful events actually happen or not.” 

Martin Sliwinski, the director of Penn State's Center for Healthy Aging, said that working memory can affect many aspects of a person's day. Sliwinski explained that lower working memory can have a negative impact on daily life, particularly among older adults who already experience cognitive decline.

“A reduced working memory can make you more likely to make a mistake at work or maybe less able to focus,” said Sliwinski. “Also, looking at this research in the context of healthy aging, there are certain high stakes cognitive errors that older adults can make. Taking the wrong pill or making a mistake while driving can all have catastrophic impacts.”

The investigation was focused on 240 racially and economically diverse adults over course of two weeks. 

The individuals were prompted seven times a day to respond to questions about whether they expected their day to be stressful, current stress levels, and whether they thought the next day would be stressful. In addition, the participants completed working memory tasks five times per day.

“Having the participants log their stress and cognition as they went about their day let us get a snapshot of how these processes work in the context of real, everyday life,” said Hyun. “We were able to gather data throughout the day over a longer period of time, instead of just a few points in time in a lab."

The study revealed that, when people anticipated stress more in the morning, they had a  poorer working memory later in the day. The anticipation of stress in the evening, however, was not associated with poorer working memory.

Sliwinski said that the findings demonstrate the importance of a person's mindset first thing in the morning, before anything stressful has happened yet.

“When you wake up in the morning with a certain outlook for the day, in some sense the die is already cast,” said Sliwinski. “If you think your day is going to be stressful, you're going to feel those effects even if nothing stressful ends up happening. That hadn't really been shown in the research until now, and it shows the impact of how we think about the world.”


According to the study authors, the research has implications for treatment that could help people predict when they may not be cognitively functioning at their full potential.

“If you wake up and feel like the day is going to be stressful, maybe your phone can remind you to do some deep breathing relaxation before you start your day,” said Sliwinski. “Or if your cognition is at a place where you might make a mistake, maybe you can get a message that says now might not be the best time to go for a drive.”

The research is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology">Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Expecting a stressful day actually makes the day more difficult

Researchers at Penn State are reporting that anticipating a stressful...

In 1806, 19 men set out on the Burke-Willis expedition from Melbourne with the objective of crossing Australia.  By May 1861, the expedition was trading sugar for essential food with aborigines. 

Burke, one of the leaders of the expedition, shot his pistol at one of the Native Australians.  The whole group of aborigines left the area and within a month, Burke and Willis were both dead.  In total, seven men on the expedition died and only one man crossed Australia and returned to Melbourne alive.  The whole expedition in its structure followed European standards. Several camels and one horse were used to carry supplies across a land where the indigenous people traditionally had no pack animals.  Broken down wagons slowed the expedition down. 

Burke was a former Australian army officer born in Ireland with little actual outdoor expedition experience.  As was typical of the day, being a military officer meant that more competent leadership was assumed and greater authority assumed over others with more outdoor but less military experience.

The foolishness of ignoring experience and alienating helpful natives highlights the arrogance and assumptions that has been inherent in most exploration in European experiences from Columbus onward.  

The expeditions often most successful in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-loss-antarctica-sea-level/">Antarctica</a> learned how to live and travel in Polar Regions from Natives in the Arctic first.  Roald Amundsen, the first man to lead a successful expedition to the geographic South Pole, learned much from the Inuit. Amundsen, a Norwegian, was quick to learn from working seal hunters and whalers that had sailed the edges of the Arctic for centuries, while these men were generally looked down upon by the British navy.  Amundsen learned to train and use dog sled teams from time spent with the Inuit as well as how to hunt, fish and kayak. Essentials like expedition clothing were also based on clothes worn in the Arctic by the Inuit.

In December 1911 and January 1912, Robert Falcon Scott, a British explorer of a different sort, raced Amundsen to the pole.  At stake was an antiquated sense of national pride as well as personal reputation and scientific discovery. Scott embodied the assumptions of the official British Navy of the time.  Scott had the impression from his first polar expedition that dogs weren’t an efficient means of travel in Antarctica. Scott’s experience though was the experience of men who never properly learned how to use sled dogs.  In fact, Scott and his men were inefficient skiers, who overloaded the dogs to slow them down and keep pace with their inexperienced skiing. Amundsen, on the other hand, had years of experience on skis, starting from his youth in Norway. 

With Scott’s distrust of sled dogs, his expedition relied more on ponies, which couldn’t handle the Antarctic conditions and new motorized sledges that still in their infancy broke down often.  Scott’s expedition quickly turned to hauling their sledge’s manually, an exhausting and slow way to travel. In the end, Scott’s party reached the pole to find Amundsen had planted his flag there a month earlier.  Scott’s entire party died on their return from the geographic South Pole. Amundsen’s men were healthy enough to actually gain weight on their return trip from the pole. 

The example of Scott and Amundsen highlights something important in the history of European exploration.  When Europeans set out to ‘explore’ the globe, there were already people living in almost all the places they intended to explore.  The exception of course is Antarctica, but it’s still obvious that there were people already living comfortably in similarly demanding environments in the Arctic.  Europeans general failed or succeeded by how much they were willing to accept or illicit help from indigenous people the world over. 

Henry Rowe Schoolcraft was a geologist, geographer and ethnologist originally from Guilderland New York.  In 1832, he set out to explore and find the headwaters of the Mississippi River for the U.S. government. Schoolcraft is often credited with the discovery of the headwaters of the Mississippi River but this account fails to acknowledge the reality.  Three branches of the Algonquin tribe lived in the area before Europeans ever arrived. Schoolcraft’s discovery was mainly an exercise in asking Native Americans where the source of the Mississippi River was, visiting it and then taking credit for discovering it.  

Sacagawea has of course been well known for her help as a guide and translator for the Lewis and Clark expedition.  What is less known is the level of help given to the expedition by other Native Americans. 

In April 2018, a graduate student from University of New Mexico rediscovered a map drawn by Too Né, a leader of the Arikara; a Native American tribe from the modern Dakota region.  The map was drawn for the expedition, showing that the land Lewis and Clark were entering wasn’t terra incognita except in the European mind. Too Né also accompanied the expedition for a time. The Nez Perce probably saved the Lewis and Clark expedition by deciding to aid them rather than kill them, as they considered doing at first contact.  

Food from the Nez Perce came at a time when the expedition was nearly starving.  All together the Lewis and Clark expedition encountered almost 50 Native American tribes during their journey.  It’s not hard to imagine that any one of the tribes could have killed an expedition of at most 59 people (and one dog) in lands they were much less familiar with.  Instead many tribes helped the expedition by trading, supplying food and giving good advice. It’s an interesting commentary that we consider Lewis and Clark’s expedition as one of discovery rather than simply one of establishing new trading routes with already established indigenous communities.  

Exploration of the Amazon Rainforest by Europeans began in earnest when Francisco de Orellana took boats down the Coca River and subsequently the Amazon.  The expedition is stunning, Orellana basically stumbled blind into the trip, sailing farther than he was originally ordered and building ships at the mouth of the Amazon to sail home to Spain.  On the trip Orellana encountered populations of Native Americans in densities contested by modern historians. The reluctance to accept Orellana’s firsthand accounts of native villages says as much about the European concept of ‘wilderness’ as it does about how many people lived in the area in pre-Columbian times.  The fact is that when the Spanish first came into the Amazon, there were a number of thriving native civilizations already there.

The truth of the matter is that when Europeans encountered other parts of the world, they carried their biases with them.  You can see a bias towards a certain pastoral landscape when you look at an expansive golf course created with imported grasses in Tucson Arizona.  The same landscape is recreated in its basics in every corner of North America and indeed Europe. Instead of living in the landscape as it is, European Americans have imported their own landscape.  We’ve dammed rivers and pumped out aquifers to create the illusion. There are fountains everywhere in Las Vegas Nevada, and an artificial seascape where pirate ships fight to the fictional death, all on an average of less than 5 inches of rainfall a year.  

Europeans act as if they’ve discovered new continents, new islands, colonized barren landscapes.  In reality all too often what we’ve done is destroyed the landscape and culture left behind by people crushed under the boot of imperialism.  Time and again we’ve purported the myth of empty landscapes, most notably in North America. The reasons we do this is as much about creating an illusion of an inhospitable landscape that must be conquered through technology and hard work as it is about justifying the destruction and robbery of natives.  Instead of learning from native peoples how to live in harmony with a different type of environment, European exploration is a legacy of destroying and reducing environments. It’s no coincidence that the help given to these ‘explorers’ by native peoples is often discredited or ignored, instead emphasizing the destructive European view point.  Instead of learning landscapes, we’ve all too often destroyed them until they’re compatible with our established and unimpeachable world view. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

European “discoveries” have long relied heavily on native guides

In 1806, 19 men set out on the Burke-Willis expedition...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.biomedcentral.com/">BioMed Central</a> has revealed that a woman's diet during pregnancy has an impact on the microbial content of her baby's gut. The researchers also found that this effect may vary depending on the method of delivery.

“Our study demonstrates an association of a readily modifiable factor, maternal diet, with the infant gut microbiome,” said study lead author Sara Lundgren. “This knowledge may be key for developing evidence-based dietary recommendations for pregnant and lactating women.”

Lundgren and her team at <a href="http://www.dartmouth-hitchcock.org/">Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center</a> analyzed the gut microbiomes of infants at six weeks old and found that they consisted primarily of Enterobacteriaceae, Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, and Streptococcus.

Among 97 newborns that had been vaginally delivered, the researchers identified three distinct clusters of gut microbes. Cluster 1 was found to contain an abundance of Bifidobacterium, cluster 2 had high levels of Streptococcus and Clostridium, and cluster 3 had an abundance of Bacteroides. 

For the 48 babies delivered using cesarean section, the composition of these clusters was very different.

The study findings also suggest a link between the diets of the mothers and the gut microbiomes of the infants. When the mothers ate more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-and-veggie-prescriptions-found-to-improve-childrens-diets/">fruit</a> and had a vaginal delivery, Bifidobacterium was found in lower levels. On the other hand, this bacteria was found in higher levels among babies born by caesarian when mothers consumed more red and processed meat. 

According to the analysis, the odds of being in cluster 2 were 2.73 times higher for each additional daily serving of fruit consumed by mothers who had a vaginal delivery. The odds of being in cluster 2 were 2.36 times higher for each additional daily serving of dairy when the babies were delivered by caesarian section.

“We analyzed infants delivered vaginally and by cesarean section in separate groups due to our previous knowledge of the transfer of maternal microbiota to the infant that occurs during vaginal delivery, but not with cesarean section delivery,” said Lundgren.

“We expected results to differ based on delivery mode, but we were surprised to find that the abundances of some microbes were increased in association with maternal intake of a food group in one delivery mode group, but decreased in the other delivery mode group.”

The researchers pointed out that this study is strictly observational and has some limitations. For example, it was focused only on mothers and infants from Northern New England, which has a relatively homogenous population. The researchers also explained that the effect identified through their analysis may be influenced by the mother's diets while they are breastfeeding. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/">Microbiome</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What you eat while pregnant can change your baby’s gut

A new study published by BioMed Central has revealed that...

Walking upright marked a major landmark for the evolution of our ancient ancestors. Bipedalism is one of our major defining traits as homo-sapiens, and paleontologists have now discovered evidence of bipedalism as early as <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/becoming-human-the-evolution-of-walking-upright-13837658/">4 million years ago. </a>

Experts in early human origins can study fossils and determine how they walked and what life was like back then. 

A new study, published in the journal Science Advances, found that young toddlers millions of years ago walked on two feet but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-hominids-walk-upright/">spent considerable time in trees</a>. 

Researchers from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> were able to paint a vivid picture of how young children learned to navigate ground and trees thanks to one of the most complete skeletons of a young child dating back 3.32 million years. 

The skeleton belongs to the species Australopithecus afarensis and was discovered in the Dikika region of Ethiopia in 2002. 

“For the first time, we have an amazing window into what walking was like for a 2½-year-old, more than 3 million years ago,” said Jeremy DeSilva, the study’s lead author. “This is the most complete foot of an ancient juvenile ever discovered.”

The researchers studied the Dikika skeleton foot and discovered a wealth of information about why the bones formed the way they did and why the child both walked and lived in trees clinging to its mother.  

The fossil found in 2002 is the same species as Lucy, a famous find that effectively changed our entire understanding of humanity's origins. The Dikika skeleton was alive 200,000 years before Lucy.

“Placed at a critical time and the cusp of being human, Australopithecus afarensis was more derived than Ardipithecus (a facultative biped) but not yet an obligate strider like Homo erectus,” said Zeresenay (Zeray) Alemseged, a senior author of the study and the person who found the Dikika skeleton. The Dikika foot adds to the wealth of knowledge on the mosaic nature of hominin skeletal evolution.” 

The Dikika skeleton was 2 and half years old when she died and the Dartmouth researchers found that the toddler was already waking at this point. However, there was also evidence in the skeleton's foot that the young child foraged for food in the trees because of the shape of its big toe. 

The researchers even suggest that young Australopithecus afarensis children spent more time in trees than their parents. 

“If you were living in Africa 3 million years ago without fire, without structures, and without any means of defense, you'd better be able to get up in a tree when the sun goes down,” said DeSilva. 

The new study brings us closer to understanding our early origins and evolution. 

“These findings are critical for understanding the dietary and ecological adaptation of these species and are consistent with our previous research on other parts of the skeleton especially the shoulder blade,” said Alemseged. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Jeremy DeSilva &amp; Cody Prang

Ancient ancestors could walk as toddlers but also lived in trees

Walking upright marked a major landmark for the evolution of...

Researchers are looking at ways to revitalize the agriculture industry so that crops are sustainable in their water use and continue to provide enough nutrients and food as demand continues to grow with population.

India is a country that already deals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/war-urbanization-global-malnutrition/">severe nutrient deficiencies</a> and 30 percent or more of its citizens are anemic. 

Water shortages and drier and drier monsoon seasons are also causing problems with water and crop shortages and by 2050, India is expected have 394 million more people to feed. 

A new study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> examined ways to replace wheat and rice with other more nutrient-rich crops to see if it would impact water use and food demand. 

In the 1960s, India experienced a green revolution and a boom in rice and wheat production helped reduce hunger but the increase in crops and agriculture also increased water use and greenhouse gas emissions. 

The truth is that wheat and rice simply aren’t sustainable crops for India at this time as climate change and population increases continue to take hold. 

The Indian government is working to reduce malnourishment while improving water use and the new study examined ways to make this possible.

“If we continue to go the route of rice and wheat, with unsustainable resource use and increasing climate variability, it's unclear how long we could keep that practice up,” said Kyle Davis, the lead author of the new study. “That's why we're thinking of ways to better align food security and environmental goals.”

For the study, the researchers reviewed data on six major grain crops in India: rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet. 

Each crop’s water use and nutritional values were then analyzed and compared to see if any crops could be reduced or replaced. 

As rice and wheat are the least sustainable when it comes to water use and the nutrients they provide, the researchers found that if rice was instead replaced with maize or millet it would have a significant positive impact. 

The results show that replacing rice crops could reduce water demand by 33 percent and increase nutrient production or iron by 27 percent. 

Both replacing crops and working with genetic modification to increase calories and nutrients of the crops grown would help lessen malnourishment and food shortages. 

More research is needed before India makes any widespread policy changes, but the study shows that sustainable, nutrient-rich crops are a possibility for India in the future. 

“If the government is able to get people more interested in eating millets, the production will organically respond to that,” said Davis. “If you have more demand, then people will pay a better price for it, and farmers will be more willing to plant it.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Kevin Krajick

India needs to switch crops to feed quickly growing population

Researchers are looking at ways to revitalize the agriculture industry...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uef.fi/en">University of Eastern Finland</a> and <a href="https://www.psshp.fi/web/en">Kuopio University Hospital</a> have found that teenage drinking leads to long-term changes in metabolism. According to the experts, some of these changes were particularly pronounced in young females who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/binge-drinking-cardiovascular/">drink heavily</a>.

“For instance, heavy-drinking adolescents showed increased concentrations of 1-methylhistamine, which, in turn, was associated with reduced brain grey matter volume,” explained study co-author Noora Heikkinen.


The body's natural immune responses produce histamine, which leads to the formation of 1-methylhistamine.

“Our findings suggest that the production of histamine is increased in the brains of heavy-drinking adolescents,” said Heikkinen. “This observation can help in the development of methods that make it possible to detect adverse effects caused by alcohol at a very early stage. Possibly, it could also contribute to the development of new treatments to mitigate these adverse effects.”


The study was focused on teenagers living in eastern Finland, who were monitored over the course of 10 years. The metabolite profiles of both light and heavy drinkers were established, and their gray matter volumes were measured using MRI scans.

“What is new and significant about our study is the fact that we observed metabolite profile changes even in young people who consumed alcohol at a level that is socially acceptable,” explained Heikkinen. “Moreover, none of the study participants had a diagnosis of alcohol dependence.”


The results of the study indicate that metabolism and grey matter volume in the brain are negatively impacted among young people by drinking levels that are  considered to be moderate.

“This observation can help in the development of methods that make it possible to detect adverse effects caused by alcohol at a very early stage,” said Heikkinen.

“Possibly, it could also contribute to the development of new treatments to mitigate these adverse effects.”


“Although adolescent drinking is declining on average, we can see polarization: some adolescents are very heavy drinkers and they also use other substances.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/alcohol/">Alcohol</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Teenage alcohol consumption impacts metabolism, brain capacity

Researchers at the University of Eastern Finland and Kuopio University...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...