Gender wage gaps aren't just a concern for adults. Recent studies show that these inequities begin to form much earlier.



In a study from NYU, researchers have found that boys and girls as young as six years old already exhibit signs of the wage gap, thus perpetuating the cycle of economic disparity.



The experts found that boys tend to value their worth more - asking for bigger rewards for the same work- while girls tend to undervalue their worth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boys-overestimate-their-abilities">Boys overestimate their abilities </h2>



The wage gap isn't just about work. It's about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perception</a>. How much do you think you're worth? 



It turns out that boys estimate themselves to be worth more than girls do, even when performing the same activities. They don't just think they're worth more - they ask for more too.



“Our findings suggest that boys tend to overestimate their abilities compared to girls - and relative to their actual performance. This inflated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-digital-technology-influence-our-sense-of-self/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-perception</a> may lead boys to feel more entitled to push the boundaries during negotiations,” explained Sophie Arnold, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boys-and-girls-same-work-different-pay">Boys and girls: Same work, different pay?</h2>



The research was focused on boys and girls who were between six and nine years old. The children were introduced to hypothetical scenarios where they could negotiate bonuses with a teacher or a neighbor for completing tasks.



The tasks were identical, and both boys and girls believed they would face little backlash for negotiation and would receive similar rewards.



When asked to identify images rapidly on a computer screen, boys and girls performed the same. After the task, the children were informed that they were due to receive a bonus: pictures of animals.



When asked how many pictures they thought they deserved, boys asked for larger bonuses than girls, even after performing at the same level. And this wasn't a slight difference. A typical boy asked for more bonus pictures than about 65% of the girls did.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-perception">The power of perception </h2>



Boys thought they did better than girls, even though the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-sleep-transforms-brain-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">performance</a> was equal. And those boys who believed they did better were more likely to negotiate for higher bonuses.



This suggests that one key to understanding the wage gap may involve focusing on perception - not ability.



“Boys leveraged their perceptions of how common and permissible it is to ask for more, while girls did not,” explained Katherine McAuliffe, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Boston College.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-wage-gap">Addressing the wage gap</h2>



Understanding the early roots of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gender</a> wage gap can help us shape strategies and policies that tackle the issue head-on.



It's not enough to simply address wage disparities among adults. We need to tackle the problem at its source - in childhood.



Addressing the early emergence of the gender pay gap requires targeted interventions to boost girls' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/power-posing-gives-children-an-instant-confidence-boost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">confidence</a> and negotiation skills. Experts suggest that parents and educators play a critical role in shaping how children perceive their worth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-the-cycle">Breaking the cycle</h2>



Encouraging girls to advocate for themselves and providing positive reinforcement for negotiating can help close the gap before it widens.



Structured activities that teach financial literacy and negotiation techniques tailored for young children could equip girls with the tools they need to value their contributions appropriately.



Schools can also incorporate lessons that highlight successful female role models who have broken barriers in their respective fields, thus inspiring young girls to challenge societal expectations.



By normalizing self-advocacy and negotiation from an early age, both boys and girls can learn to approach opportunities with equal confidence and ambition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-media-and-society">The role of media and society</h2>



Beyond individual efforts, societal and media representations contribute significantly to the early development of gendered perceptions of worth. 



Studies suggest that traditional portrayals of gender roles in media often reinforce the idea that boys should aim higher and ask for more, while girls are encouraged to be accommodating and grateful for what they receive. 



Cartoons, books, and movies often depict male characters in leadership and negotiation roles, while female characters take on supportive, nurturing roles.



Addressing this requires a cultural shift in how we represent gender in media, in addition to encouraging narratives that showcase equality in leadership and success.



Parents and educators can introduce children to diverse media that challenge these stereotypes and promote the idea that ambition and self-advocacy are valuable traits for everyone, regardless of gender. 



The earlier these ideas are introduced, the more likely they are to influence long-term perceptions and behaviors.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fdev0001898" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Developmental Psychology</a>.



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Wage gap starts young: Boys value their worth more than girls

Gender wage gaps aren't just a concern for adults. Recent studies show that these inequities begin to form much earlier. In a study from NYU, researchers have found that boys and girls as young as six years old already exhibit signs of the wage gap, thus perpetuating the cycle of economic disparity. The experts found that boys tend to value their worth more - asking for bigger rewards for the same work- while girls tend to undervalue their worth. Boys overestimate their abilities The wage gap isn't...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> have pinpointed the ideal balance of daily activities for optimal bone health in children. The study shows that children typically need more sleep, more physical activity, and less sedentary time to build strong bones. 

"Children's activities throughout the whole 24-hour day are important for their bone health, but until now, we haven't known the perfect combination of exercise, sleep and sedentary time," explained study lead researcher Dr. Dot Dumuid.

"Higher levels of physical activity are known to be good for children's bone health, yet we can't just increase children's exercise without impacting their other activities."

"In this study, we looked at the interrelating factors of physical activity (both light, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity), sedentary time and sleep, finding an ideal combination that delivers the best daily balance."

To identify the "Goldilocks Day" for bone health and function, the researchers focused on 804 children between the ages of 11 and 13. The participants were selected from the Child Health CheckPoint study, which collected exercise data from activity trackers, bone measurements from QCT scans, and self-reported information on sleep duration. 

According to the analysis, the perfect day for children's bone health includes: 1.5 hours of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, such as running or engaging in sports; 3.4 hours of light physical activity like cleaning or walking; 8.2 hours of sedentary time, such as reading or sitting in class; and 10.9 hours of sleep.

"The 'Goldilocks Day' tells us the durations of physical activity, sleep and sitting that are 'just right' for children's optimal bone health," said Dr. Dumuid. "Up to 90 percent of peak bone mass is achieved by age 18-20, which makes this especially important during childhood and adolescence."

"Optimizing bone health in children is a key protector against osteoporosis, the leading preventable cause of fracture in adults and a major public health problem with considerable economic and societal costs."

In Australia alone, 1.2 million people suffer from osteoporosis and 6.3 million people have low bone density. Dr. Dumuid said the current research also emphasizes the importance of sleep for bone health, especially among boys.

"We always talk about getting enough exercise to help build bones, but for children, it's vital that they also get enough sleep," said Dr. Dumuid. "Curiously, the study also showed that sleep is more important for boys' bone health than for girls, with boys needing an extra 2.4 hours of sleep a day. However, boys tended to be at earlier stages of pubertal development than girls, causing us to speculate that the need for longer sleep is related to rapidly changing hormonal processes rather than gender.

"By knowing the best balances and interrelations of sleep, exercise and rest, parents and caregivers can guide their child's daily activities to put them in good stead for future bone health."

The study is published in the <a href="https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15234681">Journal of Bone and Mineral Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sleep and physical activity can optimize bone health in children

Scientists at the University of South Australia have pinpointed the...

A new study from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> describes how the overall dynamics of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-have-core-relationships-with-certain-bacteria-and-fungi/">relationships</a> could be changed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The experts predict that the psychological fallout from the pandemic will affect families, work lives, relationships, and gender roles for years.

A team of 12 leading scientists analyzed 90 research studies to evaluate the potential social consequences of COVID-19.

According to senior author Professor Martie Haselton, marriages will be postponed, birth rates will drop, and planned pregnancies will decrease in the post-pandemic world. She said that people who are single will be less likely to start new relationships, and women who can afford to be independent will stay single longer.

Unlike many past crises, this pandemic is not bringing people closer together, noted study lead author Benjamin Seitz. Despite some exceptions, it is not producing an increase in kindness, empathy or compassion, especially in the United States, said Seitz. 

Professor Haselton explained that with children home due to the pandemic, women are spending more time providing care and schooling and are less available for paying work. This means that many women will have to rely more on male partners as breadwinners, and society could shift back toward socially conservative gender norms.

"The psychological, social and societal consequences of COVID-19 will be very long-lasting," said Professor Haselton. "The longer COVID-19 continues, the more entrenched these changes are likely to be."

As marriage rates drop and pregnancy is postponed, the populations of some nations will shrink and fall precipitously below "replacement level," wrote the researchers. Lower birth rates have cascading effects of their own, such as slowing economic growth and affecting job opportunities.

Studies have shown that women were more stressed by work and family responsibilities even before the pandemic, whereas now they have been forced to take over new jobs related to child care and education. In medicine and other sciences, women scholars are already publishing substantially less research than they did a year ago, while men are showing increased productivity, said Professor Haselton.

The study authors predict a shift toward social conservatism in the months and years to come. They refer to the pandemic as a "worldwide social experiment" that exploits our weaknesses by infecting us through contact with people we love who seem to be healthy. 

"Our social features that define much of what it is to be human make us a prime target for viral exploitation," said Professor Haselton. "Policies asking us to isolate and distance profoundly affect our families, work lives, relationships and gender roles."

Viruses and other infectious agents must evolve to better manipulate their hosts so they can survive and continue to spread. In this case, SARS-CoV-2 may be altering human neural tissue to change our behavior, the researchers explained. The virus appears to be suppressing feelings of sickness, and perhaps even enhancing our social impulses, during times of peak transmissibility before symptoms appear. 

According to the experts, we must gain a clearer understanding of how SARS-CoV-2 is enhancing its own transmission through behavioral and psychological impacts in an effort to make the virus less harmful and less lethal.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic will alter families and relationships for years to come

A new study from UCLA describes how the overall dynamics...

<a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard</a> researchers have found that, like humans, chimpanzees become very selective about who they socialize with later in life. As people get older, they begin to favor smaller social circles, focusing on friendships that are already established rather than seeking out new ones. Chimpanzees are surprisingly similar, and gravitate toward more meaningful relationships in their older age, according to the study.

When it comes to people, adults tend to steer clear of drama and conflict and lean toward positive relationships - a preference known as a positivity bias. Prior to this study, however, there was no evidence to suggest that nonhuman animals actively select who they socialize with during aging.

A team of psychologists and primatologists analyzed the social interactions of 21 male chimpanzees between the ages of 15 and 58 years old in the Kibale National Park in Uganda. The study was based on 78,000 hours of observations from more than two decades. 

The researchers focused on male chimpanzees because they exhibit stronger social bonds and have more frequent social interactions compared to female chimps.

The team recognized much of the same behavior in aging chimpanzees that is seen in aging humans. For example, the older chimpanzees preferred grooming and spending time with chimps they had developed mutual bonds with over the years. Meanwhile, the younger chimps engaged in many one-sided relationships where grooming was not always returned. 

The males spent more time alone when they were older, but also made time for their important social partners, such as aging mutual friends. Just like older humans who seek out peace and quiet, there was a noticeable shift among chimpanzees from negative interactions to more positive ones as they got older.

"The really cool thing is that we found that chimpanzees are showing these patterns that mirror those of humans," said Professor Alexandra Rosati. She said that future research may help to determine if these behaviors constitute the normal or successful course that aging should take. "There's really a pressing need to understand the biology of aging. More humans are living longer than in the past, which can change the dynamics of aging."

When friendships were categorized as mutual, chimps preferred sitting close to those who preferred sitting close to them, as was most often observed among the older individuals. In the one-sided friendships, one chimp preferred to sit close to a chimp that did not share that preference.

The study revealed that 15-year-old chimps had an average of 2 one-sided friendships and just one mutual friend. On the other hand, 40-year-old chimps hardly even bothered with one-side relationships and had an average of 3 mutual friendships.

"We see individuals having these more lopsided friendships and then as they age they start really spending time with individuals that reciprocate," said Professor Machanda. "When you have this kind of mutual friendship, you actually groom that individual more, so these older chimps have these mutual friendships and they're actually grooming those individuals quite a bit. They're really invested in these relationships."

A prevailing theory as to why people prioritize close, positive relationships during aging is known as socioemotional selectivity. This theory proposes that the central process driving social selection during aging results from people becoming aware that their time is running out and wanting to make the best of that time. The findings from the Harvard study, however, suggest there is more to understand.

"Even though chimps are very smart, they do not understand they're going to die," said Professor Zarin Machanda. "Much more likely something else is going on in chimps to explain why their relationships become more positive as they get older, and then the question is what applies to chimps the same as what applies to humans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chimpanzees are picky about friendships when they get older

Harvard researchers have found that, like humans, chimpanzees become very...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> is giving new meaning to the popular saying "couples that pray together stay together." According to the research, attending religious services at churches, mosques, synagogues, or other places of worship helps to strengthen marriages, especially later in life. 

"Understanding ways to strengthen marriage in middle age and beyond is increasingly important as the population of older adults rises," explained the study authors. 

The research was focused on hundreds of couples, most of whom had been married for about 30 years. The experts found that partners who did not initially identify as religious, yet frequently engaged in common activities with their significant other, increased their engagement in worship and religion over the course of the study.

"I see this with many retirees - they're sitting in retirement and sometimes it seems as though they get stuck in a rut. At times it can seem like they don't know what to do with all this time they have now. This can be damaging not only to their own well-being, but it can take a toll on their relationship with their spouse," said study lead author Victoria King. 

"Engaging in joint hobbies and finding things that they can do together is important and can help strengthen their relationship. Perhaps that hobby might be getting more involved in church. I know that my grandparents look forward to their church related activities that they do together."

The study measured each partner's level of devoutness by assessing how important religion was to them, and also how often they attended religious services. The experts also weighed in the activities that each couple participated in, such as riding bicycles, trying new hobbies, or taking weekend trips solo. 

The participants reported on their happiness with their partners and overall satisfaction in their marriage.

Previous studies have shown that as individuals age, religion often becomes more of a priority in their lives. King explained that because most religions emphasize the sanctity of marriage and the family unit, it makes sense that religious involvement would encourage couples to place an added value on doing things together and keeping their families strong.

"Families and couples now are always pulled in so many different directions, with jam-packed schedules, and family time is often pushed aside," said King. "It is important to find those little times where families or couples can engage in some sort of joint activity together that they can enjoy."

The driving factor in church involvement appeared to be the wives, who often reported being more religious or spending more time with their husbands. This indicates that women spend the most time on relationship maintenance. As a result, the wives may be more likely to suggest doing things as a couple or becoming more involved in church.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Couples that pray together really do stay together

A new study from the University of Georgia is giving...

A new study from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> reveals that there is a direct link between <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/a-nutritional-diet-maximizes-the-benefits-of-exercise/">diet</a> and cancer risk. An international team of researchers has found that meat and dairy products are associated with the development of antibodies that increase the chances of developing cancer. 

According to the experts, the findings may explain the high incidence of cancer among individuals who consume large amounts of dairy products and red meat, which is similar to the connection between high cholesterol and heart disease.

The investigation was focused on Neu5Gc, a sugar molecule that is found in the tissues of mammals, but not in poultry or fish. Humans develop antibodies to Neu5Gc early in life - when they are first exposed to dairy and meat products. 

Even though these antibodies are known to increase the risk of cancers such as colorectal cancer, they had not been directly linked to meat and dairy consumption prior to the current study.

The team measured the amount of Neu5Gc sugar in a variety of foods that are common in the French diet and calculated the daily Neu5Gc intake of nearly 20,000 adults aged 18 and over. The study subjects had reported all of their food intake online over a period of several days as part of the NutriNet-Santé, a national nutritional survey conducted in France.

A representative sample of 120 participants were selected for blood testing so the researchers could examine the levels of the anti-Neu5Gc antibodies in their blood.

Based on the results, the team created an index called the Gcemic index, which ranks foods that can lead to an increase in the antibodies - and possibly to a subsequent increase in the risk of cancer.

"We found a significant correlation between high consumption of Neu5Gc from red meat and cheeses and increased development of those antibodies that heighten the risk of cancer," said study lead author Dr. Vered Padler-Karavani. "For years there have been efforts to find such a connection, but no one did. Here, for the first time, we were able to find a molecular link thanks to the accuracy of the methods used to measure the antibodies in the blood and the detailed data from the French diet questionnaires."

According to Dr. Padler-Karavani, the researchers predict that individuals who eat a lot of red meat and cheese will develop high levels and different varieties of the antibodies, which may place them at a higher risk for cancer.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Medicine</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Meat and dairy consumption linked to higher risk of cancer

A new study from Tel Aviv University reveals that there...

The human gut contains about 100 trillion <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-may-give-sea-turtles-their-magnetic-sixth-sense/">bacteria</a>, including some microbes that are helpful and others that are harmful to our health. In a new study, scientists at the <a href="https://omrf.org/">Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation</a> have discovered new clues that completely change our understanding about the gut microbiome and its role in protecting the human body from disease.

The groundbreaking research helps explain why antibiotics can cause a range of problems in the digestive system. The findings may ultimately lead to improved treatments for inflammatory bowel disease and for people who have had some of their bowels removed due to conditions like colon cancer. 

The study revealed that the microbiome is responsible for the creation of a sticky layer of sugar-enriched mucus that envelops fecal matter and travels with it. This mucus serves as a barrier between bacteria in feces and the thousands of immune cells in the colon. Without the mucus, the whole system would get thrown off balance.

"The colon is not just a digestive organ, but an immune organ," said study lead author Dr. Lijun Xia. "Our microbiome begins to develop at the moment of birth and evolves throughout our lives. It's essential for the growth and maturation of the acquired immune system in our body. When it's not well developed or cared for, it doesn't operate as it should, which can lead to diseases."

The presence of this mucus determines the overall health of the gut microbiome. The researchers demonstrated that even though the mucus production can be interrupted, it can also be restored.

Experients showed that the fecal matter of mice treated with a broad-spectrum antibiotic had no trace of the mucus sheath. Some of the mice that were lacking the protective mucus barrier received a fecal matter transplant, which triggered mucus production.

According to Dr. XIA, this method may one day be used to treat patients whose microbiome is out of balance.

"Whether because of antibiotics interrupting mucus production or a total colon removal due to ulcerative colitis, painful inflammation can result," said Dr. Xia. "Now that we better understand the role and origin of this mucus, we will study how we can supplement it or restore its production."

OMRF President Dr. Stephen Prescott noted that the gut microbiome has taken on increasing importance in medical research as scientists have recognized the roles its microorganisms play in our overall health.

"Researchers have found these tiny organisms living in our digestive tracts may be key players in obesity, diabetes and a variety of autoimmune and digestive diseases. Dr. Xia's work proves a strong connection between the protective coating driven by the microbiome and the development of a disease like colitis," said Dr. Prescott.

The research may lead to alternatives to colonoscopies for monitoring conditions like inflammatory bowel disease. "Rather than repeated invasive procedures to track the progression of IBD, we may be able to measure the presence of the mucus in a fecal sample and assess a patient's gut health," explained Dr. Xia.

"Our researchers had to understand the origin and function of this mucus and how it relates to the microbiome to learn how it connects with disease, " said Dr. Prescott. "We now understand that the long-term health implications when this pair gets out of balance can be devastating, and Dr. Xia's work can guide us to answers."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How the gut microbiome protects us from disease

The human gut contains about 100 trillion bacteria, including some...

Is it really possible to improve strength in one of your arms without moving it? The answer is yes, according to a surprising new study from <a href="https://www.ecu.edu.au/">Edith Cowan University</a> (ECU). The researchers found that training one arm can increase strength in the other while also minimizing muscle loss. 

The findings could ultimately help to address injury-related muscle weakness by simply using eccentric training on the opposing arm. Eccentric exercises lengthen muscles during contraction, just like what happens when you walk down stairs or lower a dumbbell using your bicep.

In previous studies, experts have determined that eccentric exercises are more effective at growing muscle than concentric exercises, which shorten muscles as they are contracting.

Study co-author Professor Ken Nosaka said that the findings challenge conventional rehabilitation methods and could improve outcomes for post-injury and stroke patients.

"I think this could change the way we approach rehabilitation for people who have temporarily lost the use of one arm or one leg," said Professor Nosaka."By starting rehab and exercise in the uninjured limb right away, we can prevent muscle damage induced by exercise in the other limb and also build strength without moving it at all."

The study was focused on 30 participants who had one arm immobilized for a minimum of eight hours a day for four weeks. The individuals were divided into three groups who either performed a mix of eccentric and concentric exercise, performed only eccentric exercise, or did not exercise at all.

According to Professor Nosaka, the group who used a heavy dumbbell to perform only eccentric exercise on their active arm showed an increase in strength and a decrease in muscle atrophy, or wastage, in their immobilized arm.

"Participants who did eccentric exercise had the biggest increase in strength in both arms, so it has a very powerful cross-transfer effect," explained Professor Nosaka. 

"This group also had just two percent muscle wastage in their immobilised arm, compared with those who did no exercise who had a 28 per cent loss of muscle.

"This means that for those people who do not exercise, they have to regain all that muscle and strength again."

Professor Nosaka pointed out that this type of training is useful for athletes who can begin post-injury recovery sooner. Next, he plans to continue this investigation by expanding the research into other arm muscles and movements.

"In this study we focused on the elbow flexors as this muscle is often used as a model to examine the effects of immobilisation on strength and size, and of course it is an important muscle for arm movement," said Professor Nosaka.

"In the future, we hope to look at how eccentric exercise can help improve motor function, movement and fine muscle control, which is particularly important for stroke and rehabilitation patients."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/16000838">Scandinavian Journal of Medicine &amp; Science in Sports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

You can gain strength in your arm without even moving it

Is it really possible to improve strength in one of...

Climate instability drove early humans to become more adaptable. Early humans in the East African Rift Valley drastically changed their lifestyle to adjust to climate instability 320,000 years ago, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian</a>. The findings suggest that when faced with uncertainty, humans became more adaptable.

Study lead author Richard Potts is the director of the Human Origins Program at the National Museum of Natural History.

"The history of human evolution has been one of increasing adaptability," said Potts. "We come from a family tree that's diverse, but all of those other ways of being human are now extinct. There's only one of us left, and we may well be the most adaptable species that may have ever existed on the face of the Earth."

The research was focused on the analysis of a new sedimentary drill core, which produced a million-year record of the environmental history of the East African Rift Valley. The scientists discovered that humans had fairly predictable climate conditions and resources for hundreds of thousands of years. 

However, when unpredictable conditions emerged around 400,000 years ago, there was a major behavioral and cultural shift in human evolution. At this time, fluctuations in vegetation and water supply made resources less reliable. Early humans responded by replacing old tools with new technology and expanding their trade networks. 

The analysis of artifacts recovered at an archaeological site known as Olorgesailie showed that early humans in this region relied on the same tools - stone hand axes - for 700,000 years. The evidence suggests that life was remarkably stable during this time period.

Around 320,000 years ago, humans of the East African Rift Valley entered into the Middle Stone Age, when they began to design smaller and more sophisticated weapons, including projectiles. They also began to communicate and trade with distant groups. 

According to Potts, all these changes were a significant departure from their previous lifestyle, likely helping early humans cope with their newly variable landscape.

The team set out to understand the major evolutionary transition discovered at Olorgesailie by extracting and analyzing  a 139-meter sediment core, which has now produced the most precisely dated African environmental record of the past one million years. 

The study revealed that after hundreds of thousands of years of stability, the landscape in this region of Africa was fragmented by tectonic activity about 400,000 years ago. As a result, the vegetation in the region began shifting between grassy plains and wooded areas. Large grazing herbivores were gradually replaced by smaller mammals with more diverse diets.

"There was a massive change in the animal fauna during the time period when we see early human behavior changing," explained Potts. "The animals also influenced the landscape through the kinds of plants that they ate. Then with humans in the mix, and some of their innovations like projectile weapons, they also may have affected the fauna. It's a whole ecosystem changing, with humans as part of it."

Potts concluded that while adaptability is a hallmark of human evolution, that does not mean the species is necessarily equipped to endure the unprecedented change Earth is now experiencing due to man-made climate change and Anthropogenic biodiversity loss. 

"We have an astonishing capacity to adapt, biologically in our genes as well as culturally and socially. The question is, are we now creating through our own activities new sources of environmental disruption that will continue to challenge human adaptability?"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate instability drove early humans to become more adaptable

Climate instability drove early humans to become more adaptable. Early...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.cancer.org/">American Cancer Society</a> confirms that older adults can greatly improve their quality of life by staying <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-venus-is-still-an-active-planet/">active</a>. The researchers report that even moderate levels of physical activity are associated with healthier aging, and cancer survivors are no exception. 

There are nearly 16.9 million cancer survivors in the United States, and previous studies have shown that exercise may help reduce the risk of recurrence. Furthermore, exercise is known for a range of benefits, such as reducing anxiety, improving sleep, and boosting energy. 

A team led by Dr. Erika Rees-Punia set out to investigate the connection between physical activity and healthier aging. The study was focused on nearly 78,000 participants in the ACS's Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort, including cancer survivors and cancer-free adults with an average age of 78.

The analysis showed that regardless of cancer history, there were substantial improvements in the mental and physical health of the most active participants.

The most recent ACS physical activity guidelines recommend that adults get 150-300 minutes of moderate-intensity activity or 75-150 minutes of vigorous-intensity activity each week, while limiting sedentary behaviors such as screen time.

"The findings reinforce the importance of moving more and sitting less for both physical and mental health, no matter your age or history of cancer," said Dr. Rees-Punia. 

"This is especially relevant now as so many of us, particularly cancer survivors, may be staying home to avoid COVID-19 exposure, and may be feeling a little isolated or down. A simple walk or other physical activity that you enjoy may be good for your mind and body."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10970142">Cancer</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Moving more and sitting less leads to healthier aging

A new study from the American Cancer Society confirms that...

Food and beverages that are high in flavanols such as apples, berries, and tea can help lower <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/high-blood-pressure-doubles-risk-of-death-from-covid-19/">blood pressure</a>, according to a study from the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>. The research is the first of its kind to objectively measure the effect of a specific compound on blood pressure among thousands of people. 

"Previous studies of large populations have always relied on self-reported data to draw conclusions, but this is the first epidemiological study of this scale to objectively investigate the association between a specific bioactive compound and health," said study lead author Professor Gunter Kuhnle. "We are delighted to see that in our study, there was also a meaningful and significant association between flavanol consumption and lower blood pressure."

The researchers compared the diets and blood pressure readings of more than 25,000 adults in the UK. Instead of relying on self-reported flavanol intake, the team analyzed nutritional biomarkers present in the blood.

"This study adds key insights to a growing body of evidence supporting the benefits of dietary flavanols in health and nutrition. But, perhaps even more exciting was the opportunity to apply objective biomarkers of flavanol intake at a large scale," said Hagen Schroeter. "This enabled the team to avoid the significant limitations that come with past approaches which rely on estimating intake based on self-reported food consumption data and the shortcomings of current food composition databases."

The study revealed that participants with the highest levels of flavanol intake had a difference in blood pressure of between 2 and 4 mmHg compared to individuals who had the least flavanols in their diet. This drop in blood pressure is comparable to that observed among people following a Mediterranean diet or Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. The positive effect of flavanols was found to be even more pronounced in participants with hypertension.

"What this study gives us is an objective finding about the association between flavanols - found in tea and some fruits - and blood pressure," said Professor Kuhnle. "This research confirms the results from previous dietary intervention studies and shows that the same results can be achieved with a habitual diet rich in flavanols. In the British diet, the main sources are tea, cocoa, apples and berries."

"The methodology of the study is of equal importance. This is one of the largest ever studies to use nutritional biomarkers to investigate bioactive compounds. Using nutritional biomarkers to estimate intake of bioactive food compounds has long been seen as the gold standard for research, as it allows intake to be measured objectively." 

"The development, validation and application of the biomarker was only possible because of the long-term commitment of all collaborators. In contrast to self-reported dietary data, nutritional biomarkers can address the huge variability in food composition. We can therefore confidently attribute the associations we observed to flavanol intake."

The findings suggest that if the general public increased its flavanol intake, there could be a significant reduction in the prevalence of cardiovascular disease, which is the leading cause of death worldwide.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flavanols in apples, tea, and berries can lower blood pressure

Food and beverages that are high in flavanols such as...

A nutritional <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shift-in-american-diets-could-greatly-benefit-the-environment/">diet</a> maximizes the benefits of exercise and improves working memory, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.abbott.com/">Abbott</a>. In collaboration with the U.S. Air Force Research Lab and the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a>, researchers found a direct link between nutrition and physical and cognitive performance.

"The physical and mental health benefits of exercise are well known, but this study demonstrates how optimal nutrition can help boost brain function as well," said lead study author Dr. Chris Zwilling. "We are excited by the results because they provide critical insights into how simple dietary changes can make a big difference in helping people be as efficient and productive as possible in today's world. "

The investigation was focused on 148 active-duty men and women in the U.S. Air Force, who were divided into two groups. All of the study participants engaged in the same exercise training program five days a week. One group was given a high-protein nutritional drink which contained lutein, omega-3 fatty acids, phospholipids, vitamin D, and beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB).

The nutritional supplement was found to induce statistically significant changes compared to exercise alone. The participants who were given the nutritional drinks showed an 11-percent boost in working memory, including improvements in problem solving and information processing. 

The individuals who received supplements became faster and more accurate in their reaction times and increased their muscle mass by more than two pounds. In addition, they lowered their resting heart rate by 8 percent, which is a sign of increased cardiovascular fitness. 

Study co-author Dr. Matthew Kuchan said that Abbott has been researching the impact of nutrition on brain function for more than a decade. "These results confirm that by combining the right nutrition and exercise, people who are facing high-pressure situations can stay sharp physically and mentally when they need it most."

Healthy adults can prime their bodies and brains to work more efficiently by incorporating exercise with a nutritional diet. The experts shared the following recommendations: consume foods rich in protein to help build muscle after a workout; support memory and multi-tasking by getting enough DHA - an omega-3 fatty acid - in your diet; and boost your working memory by consuming more lutein, which can be found in egg yolks, dark leafy greens, and brightly colored fruits and vegetables like bell peppers, avocados, carrots, corn, and tomatoes.

"It is clear that nutrition is a critical component for developing and maintaining the physical and cognitive performance of the men and women in the U.S. Air Force," said Dr. Adam Strang, the study's lead investigator with the Air Force Research Laboratory. "This research confirms that a nutritional supplement with the right nutrients can support and facilitate those improvements when paired with balanced exercise training. We hope to use this knowledge now and, in the future, to better prepare them for the complex and diverse mission sets they are facing."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A nutritional diet maximizes the benefits of exercise

A nutritional diet maximizes the benefits of exercise and improves...

A new study suggests that people who are socially active have improved brain structure. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> Graduate School of Public Health found that older adults who report greater levels of social engagement have a healthier volume of gray matter in brain regions associated with reasoning, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/musically-training-children-have-improved-attention-and-memory-skills/">memory</a> loss, and dementia. 

The findings suggest that socialization could be "prescribed" to help protect older adults from dementia similar to how physical activity is recommended for preventing diabetes or heart disease.

"Our data were collected before the COVID-19 pandemic, but I believe our findings are particularly important right now, since a one-size-fits-all social isolation of all older adults may place them at risk for conditions such as dementia," said study lead author Cynthia Felix. 

"Older adults should know it is important for their brain health that they still seek out social engagement in safe and balanced ways during the pandemic."

The research was focused on relevant data from 293 individuals with an average age of 83 who participated in the Health, Aging and Body Composition (Health ABC) study. The participants received a brain scan that measured the cellular integrity of brain cells used for social engagement.

Based on self-reported levels of social activity, the participants were ranked on a scale developed by Dr. Felix. High scores were obtained by people who participated in church or community activities, traveled over long distances, played board games, attended classes or educational events, volunteered, worked, or lived with others. Individuals also received high scores for getting together with children, friends, relatives, or neighbors at least once a week.

The study revealed that social engagement was associated with greater microstructural integrity of gray matter. Social engagement with at least one relative or friend was found to activate specific brain regions that are needed to recognize familiar faces, make decisions, and feel rewarded. The experts report that even moderate "doses" of social engagement appear to be beneficial.

"We need to do more research on the details, but that's the beauty of this - social engagement costs hardly anything, and we do not have to worry about side-effects," said Dr. Felix. "There is no cure for dementia, which has tremendous costs in terms of treatment and caregiving. Preventing dementia, therefore, has to be the focus. It's the 'use it or lose it' philosophy when it comes to the brain."

According to Dr. Felix, it is still not clear whether greater social engagement keeps these brain regions healthy, or if having a healthy brain results in higher levels of social engagement.

"It would be good if we develop programs across the U.S. through which structured social activities can be prescribed for community-dwelling older adults, aimed at reducing rates of dementia and the resulting health care costs. Existing platforms providing group physical activities can be a good starting point."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology">Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Social engagement linked to healthier brain structure

A new study suggests that people who are socially active...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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