The story of Earth's climate can be found locked away in tiny shells that are scattered across ancient rocks. These seemingly modest remains have just helped scientists crack open one of the most significant climate mysteries in our planet's history. 



Researchers at the University of St Andrews have made remarkable discoveries about the fundamental role of carbon dioxide (CO2) in shaping Earth's climate.



The study provides new insights into how CO2 regulated Earth's warming and cooling over hundreds of millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co-2-earth-s-climate-architect">CO2: Earth's climate architect</h2>



CO2 is the most influential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas on Earth</a>. It traps heat from the Sun by absorbing it and radiating some of it back toward the planet's surface. 



This natural process keeps the Earth warm enough to sustain life. However, when CO2 levels in the atmosphere increase, the planet becomes warmer, leading to significant climate changes.



While scientists understand how CO2 affects the climate today, its role in shaping Earth's climate millions of years ago has been harder to uncover. 



Much of this information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-rise-as-nations-tackle-fossil-fuel-dependence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> is hidden in geological records in the form of layers of rock and fossils that act like time capsules of Earth's past environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-climate-secrets">Fossils reveal climate secrets</h2>



A team of scientists, led by Dr. Hana Jurikova at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St Andrews</a>, has made a breakthrough in understanding this history.



The researchers studied a crucial period called the Late Paleozoic Ice Age, which occurred between 335 and 265 million years ago. This was a time of dramatic climate change when the Earth experienced extensive glaciation (ice ages) and subsequent warming.



The research revealed that CO2 levels played a central role in driving these massive climatic transitions. By unlocking the secrets of this ancient period, the team showed how CO2 fluctuations caused Earth to cool into ice ages and then warm as CO2 levels rose again.



This discovery sheds light on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-losing-their-ability-to-absorb-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> has been a powerful driver of climate shifts throughout Earth's history, influencing both the environment and the evolution of life on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-past-co-2-levels">Reconstructing past CO2 levels</h2>



The team used the fossilized shells of brachiopods - ancient, clam-like organisms that date back hundreds of millions of years - to reconstruct past atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2 levels</a>.



These shells, which are preserved across geological time, store chemical fingerprints of Earth's past climate. By analyzing these fingerprints, the researchers determined how atmospheric CO2 fluctuated during the Carboniferous and Permian periods.



"This showed that the Late Paleozoic Ice Age had prolonged low CO2 levels, unprecedented in Earth's history," explained Dr. Jurikova. "Atmospheric CO2 then rose abruptly, 294 million years ago, due to large-scale volcanic eruptions, warming the planet and melting back the ice."



The study demonstrates that these CO2 changes were instrumental in transitioning Earth out of an ice age and spurring the evolution of reptiles.



"The end of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age was a turning point in the evolution of life and the environment, leading to the rise of reptiles. Now we know it was paced by carbon dioxide," said Dr. Jurikova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-the-present-and-future">Lessons for the present and future</h2>



The findings highlight the central role that CO2 has played in regulating Earth's climate over geological timescales.



Low CO2 levels during the Carboniferous period triggered extensive glaciation, while higher levels in the Permian period led to global warming and ice sheet melting.



"This time interval gives a potential geological analog for the impact of CO2 on our planet. CO2 emissions in the past caused major global warming and sea level rise, and if left unchecked, they will do so again in the future," noted Dr. James Rae, a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co-2-drives-major-climate-transitions">CO2 drives major climate transitions</h2>



This research highlights the immense power of CO2 levels in shaping Earth's climate over millions of years. CO2 has been a key driver of major climate transitions, including ice ages and periods of significant warming.



By studying how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-levels-linked-to-cascading-effects-that-last-for-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> influenced the planet's ancient climate, scientists have gained valuable insights into the ways greenhouse gases affect Earth's environment over long timescales.



Today, humanity faces a similar challenge: rising CO2 levels due to human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation. This modern surge in greenhouse gases is causing global temperatures to rise, leading to melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events.



The findings from this research serve as a stark reminder that unchecked CO2 emissions can have dramatic and lasting impacts on our planet.



Understanding CO2's role in Earth's past climate transitions offers crucial lessons for addressing climate change today and highlights the urgent need for action to prevent further damage to the environment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01610-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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CO2 has regulated Earth’s climate for millions of years

The story of Earth's climate can be found locked away in tiny shells that are scattered across ancient rocks. These seemingly modest remains have just helped scientists crack open one of the most significant climate mysteries in our planet's history. Researchers at the University of St Andrews have made remarkable discoveries about the fundamental role of carbon dioxide (CO2) in shaping Earth's climate. The study provides new insights into how CO2 regulated Earth's warming and cooling over hundreds of millions of years. CO2: Earth's climate architect CO2...

Song sparrows are a widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-song-of-the-east-african-sunbird-may-be-a-million-years-old/">songbird</a> in North America. Among them, only males sing in order to defend their territory and court mates. They usually have a “repertoire” of up to 12 different two-seconds songs, which can take nearly 30 minutes to get through, because they repeat the same song several times before starting another track. 



A new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> and the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> has found that song sparrows deliberately shuffle and mix their song repertoire, probably as a way to keep it interesting for their female audiences.



The researchers recorded the songs of over 30 birds in the backwoods of northwest Pennsylvania and found that male sparrows can keep quite an accurate track of the order of their songs and how often each song is played for over half an hour, possibly in order to avoid repetition and build up hype and novelty.&nbsp;



The more a sparrow sang a particular song, the longer he took to get back to that song. For example, if Song A was played ten times in a row, the bird would sing more renditions of other songs before returning to Song A. However, if Song A was played just two or three times, the bird would usually recite a shorter rendition of the other songs in order to return faster to the relatively new and underplayed Song A.



These findings suggest that song sparrows are capable of “long-distance dependencies” – the ability to choose what to sing at a given point by taking into account what they sang up to half an hour before. According to the scientists, this is a 360 times larger memory capacity than the canary’s (the previous record holder), who can only juggle about five seconds of song information in this way, and makes male sparrow song much more similar to human language than any other animal’s vocal behavior.



Further research is needed to understand why this impressive trait emerged and evolved. The current hypothesis is that it may help keep females interested and less bored, much like shuffling a Spotify playlist keeps us entertained during a gym session. “You've got your playlist for running and the reason you've got that is because running is kind of boring,” said study senior author Stephen Nowicki, a professor of Biology at Duke University. “You know that these 10 songs are going to keep you motivated, but if you are going to run for 20 songs long, why not shuffle it so the next time you don't hear the same songs in the same order?”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.2473">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Song sparrows shuffle and mix their tunes

Song sparrows are a widespread songbird in North America. Among...

How life adapts to extreme or demanding environments is a persistent question in evolutionary biology. Arid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-environments-play-an-overlooked-role-in-public-health/">environments</a> such as the desert region of central Australia can be very harsh, especially for a fish.&nbsp;



New research from the Molecular Ecology Lab at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> focused on Australia’s desert rainbow fish (Melanotaenia splendida tatei). The scientists showed that genetic adaptations to dry conditions can allow entire populations of fish to survive.&nbsp;



"How populations of aquatic fauna persist in extreme desert environments is an enigma," wrote the study authors. "Individuals often breed and disperse during favorable conditions. Theory predicts that adaptive capacity should be low in small populations, such as in desert fishes."



The experts compared variations in genetics from different populations of desert rainbow fish with satellite images showing water in central Australia. They found that populations of rainbow fish from drier areas were smaller but had a greater ability to adapt to dry conditions.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This turns on its head traditional thinking that small populations are evolutionary dead ends. Life finds a way, even in the most extreme and unpredictable environments on Earth,” said Professor Luciano Beheregaray.



A large gene pool is important for the survival of any species, novel genes are the raw material that evolution works with. This made the survival of small populations of fish living in dry, demanding environments that much more surprising.&nbsp;



“A small gene pool can lead to inbreeding and poor health, which is sometimes seen in endangered species,” explained study lead author Dr Catherine Attard. “However, we found that desert fish in Australia can hold on to life through adapting to harsh environments, then breeding and spreading during rare flooding events.”



Interestingly, even though the fish populations seem isolated, gene flow occurs when periodic flooding connects different populations. This seems to be a key to the survival of these small populations.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The Flinders team collaborated with experts from Laval University and the University of Canberra.&nbsp; The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15585646">Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does a fish survive in the desert?

How life adapts to extreme or demanding environments is a...

Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> worked for 15 years to understand how rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-may-be-superspreaders-of-plant-viruses/">plant</a> species manage to survive in the harsh conditions of the rapidly warming Arctic. The study, which was conducted at a site in Greenland, revealed that caribou and other large herbivores help protect rare plants, lichens, and mushrooms from the severe impacts of climate change.



The study authors said that by constraining the abundance of dwarf birch and gray willow - the two most common plant species - large herbivores clear the way for less common species to persist. There is less of a chance that the rare plants will be shaded or outcompeted for nutrients by the woody shrub’s canopy, or suppressed by leaf litter and cooler soils, explained the researchers.



“This is more evidence that conserving large herbivores is really important to maintaining the compositional integrity of species-poor systems like the Arctic tundra,” said study lead author Eric Post, director of the UC Davis Polar Forum.



Previous studies have shown that greater numbers of rare species persist in regions with a stable climate compared to regions with a changing climate. The current study demonstrates how species interactions are also important for maintaining rare plants as the climate shifts.&nbsp;



The researchers investigated how the presence of caribou and muskoxen influenced 14 species of tundra plants, lichens and mushrooms. Three of the species were common, while 11 were rare.



The results showed that the presence or absence of caribou and muskoxen made a clear difference in the persistence of rare plants.&nbsp;



“The conservation of large herbivores will serve a critical role in preserving arctic tundra as it warms,” said Post. “If caribou or muskoxen eventually go locally extinct from parts of the Arctic, or even fall to severely low abundance, what we’ll likely see in response to warming is a tundra increasingly dominated by a few common species, like shrubs.”



According to Post, rare species contribute vitally to biodiversity, ecosystem function and resilience, largely because there are so many of them compared to common species.



“Creative solutions to sustaining tundra biodiversity, such as maintaining intact populations of large herbivores, will help buffer this sensitive biome against climate change.”&nbsp;



The research was funded by the National Science Foundation, National Geographic Committee for Research and Exploration, and Penn State University. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Caribou help rare plants survive climate change

Researchers from UC Davis worked for 15 years to understand...

Closeup,Of,Coffee,Fruit,In,Coffee,Farm,And,Plantations,In

Coffee, cashew and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocado-linked-to-overall-healthier-diets/">avocado</a> crops are of high economic importance in many tropical and subtropical areas around the world. These crops are often grown by individual farmers on small-holdings and provide much needed cash income in many poor countries. Trees that produce these crops are, however, long-lived and often take years to become mature. The effects of climate change could have devastating effects for crop farmers as the Earth warms and conditions become unsuitable in many growing regions.



A new analysis, conducted by Roman Grüter and colleagues at Zurich University of Applied Sciences, combines the predictions of 14 different climate change models. Based on three different levels of greenhouse gas emissions, the team modeled the possible impacts on crop growing regions by 2050. The analysis investigates the impacts both on a global scale and on the scale of the individual countries that are currently major producers of these crops.



Previous research has predicted that most of the current areas in which coffee arabica (the dominant coffee species) is grown will become unsuitable as climate change progresses, but there have been no studies on the possible consequences for the production of cashew nuts or avocados. These are important crops for consumers all over the world, as well as for tropical small-scale farmers, and long-term planning for the establishment of plantations of these trees is essential.&nbsp;



The results of previous research have predicted that by mid-century, there will be significant reductions in climate suitability across growing regions for coffee arabica. According to these studies, however, some regions in higher latitudes or at higher altitudes will benefit from increases in temperature and will become more suitable. None of these studies has taken into account the soil characteristics, such as pH, slope or soil texture, and so their identification of newly suitable areas may be overestimated.&nbsp;



To address this shortcoming, Grüter and colleagues incorporated these land and soil requirements for the different crops into their modeling scenarios. They considered land and soil parameters such as protected areas, areas covered by artificial surfaces, soil texture, coarse fragments, pH, organic carbon content and salinity in identifying future areas suitable for growing these crops. In addition, the climate parameters they considered in determining suitability included temperature maxima and minima, precipitation, humidity and the length of the dry season.



The findings of this analysis suggest that most areas where coffee, cashews and avocados are currently grown will become unsuitable by 2050. Coffee turns out to be the most vulnerable of the three crops to climate change because of its sensitivity to increased temperature. Suitable coffee growing areas will decrease significantly in all of the major production regions, including Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Colombia.&nbsp;



Cashews and avocados were predicted to be less affected by the changes associated with global warming. For cashews, highly suitable regions are predicted to decrease slightly in some major producing countries, including India, Côte d’Ivoire, and Benin. However, new suitable areas would increase by 17 percent globally, and would include regions in the USA, East Africa, southern Africa, Vietnam, China and Australia.



Both negative and positive effects of climate change were predicted for avocado production. Suitable areas for growing avocados will decline for some major producers, such as the Dominican Republic, Peru, and Indonesia. The parameters most important for the cultivation of this crop were the minimum temperature in the coldest month, and the amount of precipitation. As the climate warms, the minimum temperature will increase and many new areas will become suitable.



Overall, areas suitable for growing all three crops may expand at higher altitudes and latitudes, especially for cashews and avocados. Areas with greater future suitability are located in regions such as the United States, Argentina, China, and East Africa.



The authors suggest that climate change adaptation measures will be necessary in the major producing regions of all three crops. These could include breeding varieties that are tolerant of higher temperatures or changes in precipitation. In addition, farmers may have to change their management strategies or even consider planting a different crop, such as the robusta species of coffee.&nbsp;



The study also cautions that new policies will be required to mitigate potential consequences of moving production activities to new areas. These would need to&nbsp; include policies to conserve biodiversity, prevent habitat destruction and protect ecosystem services in the new farming areas.&nbsp;



“The study presents the first global assessment of climate change impacts on cashew and avocado suitability," said the researchers. "For both cashew and avocado, areas suitable for cultivation are expected to expand globally while in most main producing countries, the areas of highest suitability may decrease.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Major crop growing regions are shifting as the climate warms

Coffee, cashew and avocado crops are of high economic importance...

Weight gain is often the result of overeating, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sedentary-behavior-is-not-always-bad-for-the-brain/">sedentary</a> lifestyle, or genetics. Now, a new study from the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU) has linked weight gain and obesity to chemicals found in plastic packaging.



Anyone who lives in the modern world knows plastics and plastic packaging are ubiquitous. Plastics contain thousands of chemicals, and the new research shows that some of these chemicals may impact your metabolism and cause weight gain.&nbsp;



The experts looked at 34 different plastic products such as yogurt containers and water bottles. The team found a startling 55,000 chemicals in these plastics, only 629 of which they were able to identify. Eleven of the chemicals are known to disrupt metabolism in humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Unfortunately, the researchers were able to demonstrate that many of these chemicals, which were thought to remain in the plastics, can actually leach out of them and enter the human body. Previous studies have shown that some of the chemicals found in plastics can disrupt development and fertility. Now, it seems that these chemicals may play a role in weight gain as well.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our experiments show that ordinary plastic products contain a mix of substances that can be a relevant and underestimated factor behind overweight and obesity,” said Martin Wagner, an associate professor in the NTNU Department of Biology.



Chemicals found in one third of the plastic products were shown to contribute to fat cell growth in laboratory studies. Even some plastics without known metabolism disrupting chemicals were shown to contribute to fat cell development.&nbsp;



“It’s very likely that it is not the usual suspects, such as Bisphenol A, causing these metabolic disturbances," said study first author Johannes Völker. "This means that other plastic chemicals than the ones we already know could be contributing to overweight and obesity,”



The scientists point out that overweight and obesity contribute to leading causes of death such as heart disease, making this research quite important. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chemicals in plastic packaging contribute to weight gain

Weight gain is often the result of overeating, a sedentary...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">BMJ</a>, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been linked to workplace exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-biodiversity-reduces-the-need-for-pesticides/">pesticides</a>. The researchers found strong evidence - based on nearly 100,000 participants in the UK Biobank - to suggest that pesticides in the workplace heighten the risk of COPD by as much as 32 percent.&nbsp;



According to the American Lung Association, 16.4 million people reported a diagnosis of any type of COPD in 2018, including chronic bronchitis or emphysema. In the United States alone, more than three million cases of COPD are diagnosed each year.&nbsp;



The results of previous studies indicate that around 14 percent of all COPD cases are related to work, noted the researchers. They found that the damaging effects of workplace exposure to pesticides are independent of the two main COPD risk factors, smoking and asthma.



Volunteers in the UK Biobank submit their personal information such as age, sex, and lifetime smoking and job history. For the investigation, the researchers analyzed this data alongside measurements of physical health that were taken. 



The physical assessments measured lung function. The participants' job history was also scrutinized, with an emphasis on exposure to all pesticides, vapors, gases, dusts, and fumes.



The prevalence of COPD corresponded with 7,603 individuals, nearly half of whom had been exposed to a mixture of several agents. 



Ultimately, workplace exposure to pesticides (to any degree) was associated with a 13 percent heightened risk of COPD. In addition, high levels of pesticide exposure were associated with a 32 percent greater risk of developing COPD. 



According to the researchers, the findings were confirmed after factoring in simultaneous exposure to other agents and additional analyses restricted to those who had never been diagnosed with asthma and those who had never smoked.



“In a large population-based study, occupational exposure to pesticides was associated with risk of COPD," wrote the study authors. “Focused preventive strategies for workers exposed to pesticides can prevent the associated COPD burden.” 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://thorax.bmj.com/">Thorax</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Workplace exposure to pesticides linked to greater COPD risk

In a new study published by BMJ, chronic obstructive pulmonary...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.17904">New Phytologist</a> has investigated how changes in temperature affect the height of sorghum plants. The research is shedding new light on the mechanisms which determine how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetics-not-environmental-stress-increases-thc-in-hemp/">genetics</a> interact with changing environmental conditions during crucial developmental stages in plants – a process called “phenotypic plasticity.”



According to a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.iastate.edu/">Iowa State University</a>, understanding phenotypic plasticity will not only shed more light on the mechanisms that play a critical role in plant growth, but will also help plant breeders design more resilient crop varieties that perform well under a variety of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



In order to clarify this intricate process, the scientists examined the growth rate of sorghum, a globally cultivated cereal crop, during a critical stage of development (40 to 53 days after planting), by measuring plant height at several points during the growth season, over multiple years. Then, they applied statistical regression analyses to clarify the relationship between height and diurnal temperature change (the difference in temperature between daytime highs and nighttime lows). The database the researchers used was highly substantial, including 3,500 phenotype records collected in four years, which were further validated with 13,500 records in another four years.



The results suggest that increase in diurnal temperature change tended to produce shorter plants. “We found that these genes actually interact with environmental stimuli and control the maximum growth rate as well as time to reach maximum growth rate,” said study first author Qi Mu, a postdoctoral research associate in Agronomy. “And that eventually determines the final plant height.”&nbsp;



According to Dr. Mu and her colleagues, climate change increases the urgency to understand phenotypic plasticity, since it causes more volatile swings in weather, and thus influences the development of crops. Research into phenotypic plasticity will allow plant breeders to develop more efficient tools for predicting how different types of crops will perform across a variety of environmental conditions.



“With climate change, crops need to adapt to different climates and environments. In order to breed crops that are more adaptive we have to understand the mechanism of how they respond to environments. With that knowledge, we can design resilient crops that thrive in future environments,” Dr. Mu concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetics and the environment interact in plant development

A new study published in the journal New Phytologist has...

Food production is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), thus contributing to climate change. In comparison to livestock farming, marine aquaculture, or mariculture, has a significantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-seafood-has-one-sixth-the-carbon-footprint-of-red-meat/">lower carbon footprint</a>. This means that mariculture is a more sustainable option than land-based food production.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> and the <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/">Nature Conservancy</a> has investigated mariculture’s unique potential to sustainably feed a rapidly growing human population.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, mariculture already constitutes 52 percent of the aquatic animal products people consume. These high-protein products have a markedly lower carbon footprint than terrestrial ones and, unlike in the case of livestock grazing, they don’t require substantial land-use change such as deforestation to make room for cattle.&nbsp;



"The GHG emissions per unit of protein produced by aquaculture generally compare favorably with most livestock production,"&nbsp;reported the study authors.



In order to further improve marine aquaculture’s sustainability advantage, the scientists lay out additional ways to reduce emissions related to this sector. For instance, an increased focus on supply chain improvements could permit the transport of mariculture products to consumers with a largely improved GHG footprint. Relying on regional markets would be crucial and would also provide greater food security.



Furthermore, at the mariculture sites, there are several ways to reduce emissions, such as "co-farming bivalves with seaweed, which can lead to a net reduction in CO2 emissions, and co-farming fed finfish with seaweed or bivalves." These measures would result in greater absorption of excess nutrients which would reduce <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eutrophication.html">eutrophication</a> and the further degradation of marine habitats that already act as major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a>.



In conclusion, the researchers hope that efforts to improve mariculture’s environmental benefits will support the development of climate-friendly practices that generate sustainable ecological, social, and economic outcomes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://fdslive.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/production_in_progress.pdf">BioScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mariculture is highly sustainable and climate friendly

Food production is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions...

Georgetown, Australia is quite literally sitting on top of a goldmine of ancient history. The town sheds light on how Australia and North America were once connected in the supercontinent Nuna over a billion years ago. 

Researchers from <a href="http://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> in Perth, Australia found that sediment samples in Georgetown matched deposits in Canada. The study was published in the journal Geology. 

It has long been theorized that both Australia and North America were connected as part of a supercontinent, but this new research proves it to be true. 

After analyzing sediment samples from Georgetown and Mount Isa in Australia, the researchers were able to show how and when Georgetown broke apart from Nuna.
<h2>Results of the study</h2>
The results show that Georgetown, Australia broke apart from Nuna 1.6 billion years ago and collided with another landmass to make what is now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-inhabitants-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Australia</a>. 

“'Our research shows that about 1.7 billion years ago, Georgetown rocks were deposited into a shallow sea when the region was part of North America,” said Adam Nordsvan, the study’s lead author. “Georgetown then broke away from North America and collided with the Mount Isa region of northern Australia around 100 million years later.

Supercontinents were common during the Earth’s early years, and the formation and breaking apart of supercontinents is known as the “supercontinent cycle.” 

There have been several supercontinents, and Nuna, or as it is sometimes called Columbia, is one of the earliest known in the cycle. Pangea, probably the most well-known and recent of the supercontinents, formed millions of years after Nuna broke apart. 

The Curtin researchers are excited about their findings and the implications it could have on future supercontinent research.

“This new finding is a key step in understanding how Earth's first supercontinent Nuna may have formed, a subject still being pursued by our multidisciplinary team here at Curtin University,”  said Zheng-Xiang Li, a co-author of the research.
<h2>What we know about supercontinents</h2>
Supercontinents are massive landmasses that have existed throughout Earth's history. These landmasses are formed when several smaller continents collide and merge together. This results in a single, large landmass. The most well-known supercontinent is Pangaea, which existed around 300 million years ago during the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-early-tetrapods-lived-within-the-antarctic-circle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Paleozoic</a> and early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-mesozoic-reptile-was-an-ancient-relative-of-the-tuatara/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mesozoic</a> eras.

Pangaea was formed through the collision and merging of several smaller continents. This includes North America, South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. The supercontinent was surrounded by a single, massive ocean called Panthalassa. The formation of Pangaea had a significant impact on the planet's climate and the evolution of life on Earth.

As Pangaea broke apart, it created the modern continents that we see today. This process is known as continental drift. It occurs as a result of tectonic plate movements. The theory of plate tectonics explains how the Earth's crust is divided into several plates. These plates are in constant motion, causing the continents to move and shift over time.
<h3>Earth's landmass has changed a lot over time</h3>
Supercontinents are not a rare phenomenon in Earth's history. In fact, scientists have identified several supercontinents that existed before Pangaea. These include Rodinia, which existed around one billion years ago, and Gondwana, which existed around 500 million years ago.

The study of supercontinents is important because it helps us understand the evolution of the Earth's crust, the movements of tectonic plates, and the changes in climate and biodiversity that have occurred throughout history. By studying supercontinents, scientists can also make predictions about the future of the planet and the potential formation of new supercontinents.

In summary, supercontinents are a fascinating topic of study for geologists and scientists alike. They represent a unique phase in the Earth's history. They also provide valuable insights into the planet's geological and biological evolution. As we continue to study supercontinents, we can deepen our understanding of the Earth's past and potentially even predict its future.

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Australia and North America were once part of a supercontinent

Georgetown, Australia is quite literally sitting on top of a...

In a new collaborative study between <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/">Trinity College Dublin</a> and Hokkaido University, experts have found that predators help protect the biodiversity of ecosystems against the negative impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-has-a-delayed-response-to-climate-change/">climate</a> change.



"Amidst the global extinction crisis, climate change will expose ecosystems to more frequent and intense extreme climatic events, such as heatwaves. Yet, whether predator species loss - a prevailing characteristic of the extinction crisis - will exacerbate the ecological consequences of extreme climatic events remains largely unknown," wrote the study authors.



For the investigation, the researchers observed communities of freshwater organisms in an experimental stream at the Tomakomai Experimental Forest in Northern Japan. The purpose of this experiment was to expose the animals to weather extremities similar to those produced by climate change in an attempt to understand how biodiversity would be affected.



Some of the stream communities included sculpin fish, a prime example of a dominant predator, while others did not include a predator. All of the communities were exposed to realistic heatwave conditions.



Ultimately, the team discovered that communities which included a predator were buffered against the extreme heat conditions more than those that did not include a predator. The heatwaves destabilized algal (plant) communities in the streams which resulted in biodiversity losses, but this was only the case when predators were absent.



“We found that predator extinctions can interact with heatwaves to further undermine the stability of ecosystems,” explained lead researcher Dr. Samuel Ross. “This highlights how the climate and biodiversity crises are completely intertwined, really just two sides of the same coin.”



“Taken together, our results show how the ecological consequences of heatwaves can amplify over time as their impacts propagate through ecological communities. However, predator species help to buffer such impacts, acting as allies in the fight against climate change.”&nbsp;



Algal communities provide the energy base for all other organisms, so the lack of predators which led to reduced algal biodiversity would ultimately result in less energy and biodiversity for other organisms. The researchers also found that these cascading effects were not apparent until long after the heatwave had passed.



"Taken together, our results suggest that the ecological consequences of heatwaves can amplify over time as their impacts propagate through biological interaction networks, but the presence of predators can help to buffer such impacts," wrote the study authors.



"These findings underscore the importance of conserving trophic structure, and highlight the potential for species extinctions to amplify the effects of climate change and extreme events."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Predators help prevent biodiversity loss

In a new collaborative study between Trinity College Dublin and...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/EHP8083">Environmental Health Perspectives</a> has found that climate change significantly increases health risks in children. According to a research team led by the <a href="https://www.bu.edu/sph/">Boston University School of Public Health</a> and <a href="https://www.childrenshospital.org/">Boston Children’s Hospital</a>, higher temperatures in late spring and summer were associated with a larger number of emergency-room visits for children across the United States.



While health hazards related to high temperatures, such as heat strokes, heat exhaustion, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-tea-and-coffee-lower-the-risk-of-fatal-cardiovascular-events/">cardiovascular</a> and respiratory disorders, are well documented in adults, the risks of such phenomena for children have not yet been thoroughly investigated.&nbsp;



“We know that, due to climate change, days with extreme heat are going to be more frequent and more intense,” said Francesca Dominici, a biostatistician at Harvard’s <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a>.&nbsp; “The degree to which children are susceptible to climate change risk, it should be a high priority for scientists to study.”



By analyzing data from nearly four million emergency-room visits at 47 children’s hospitals across the United States in the late springs and summers between 2016 and 2018, the scientists found that almost 12 percent of these visits were caused by elevated temperatures. These rates were even higher for certain conditions, such as heat stroke or heat exhaustion (one third of the visits), or bacterial intestinal infections related to heat (one quarter of the visits).



According to the researchers, some of the health conditions that peaked during summer, including ear infections or bacterial intestinal infections, could be associated with changes in behavior caused by warm weather, such as increased visits to swimming pools, or picnicking or eating foods that have spoiled after being removed from refrigeration.



However, some conditions, such as blood, immune, and nervous-system disorders during periods of higher heat cannot be explained by changes in behavior and have not been found in studies focused on adults. Although children dissipate heat in the same way as adults, they can often suffer the effects of high temperatures differently, due to their different body surface areas, body fat composition, and hydration levels. “We’ve run into trouble previously assuming that children are little adults,” said study lead author Dr. Aaron Bernstein, a pediatrician at the Boston Children’s Hospital.&nbsp;



Thus, instead of just extrapolating from findings focused on adults, scientists should pay more attention to the specificity of children’s complex relation to heat. Further research is needed to understand the peculiarities of children’s reactions to high temperatures and assess the possibility for acute health episodes caused by heat to turn into chronic conditions later in life.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Health risks to children rise due to climate change

A new study published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives...

By the end of this decade, the space economy is on track to be valued at a trillion dollars. Yet, highly expensive equipment such as weather, navigation, and communications satellites which serve our society on a daily basis are threated by space debris. According to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>’s estimates, millions of pieces of space debris currently orbit the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-interior-is-cooling-faster-than-previously-thought/">Earth</a>, most of them in the low orbital regions, at altitudes between 200 and 1,000 kilometers.&nbsp;



Professor Piyush Mehta, an expert in mechanical and aerospace engineering at <a href="https://www.wvu.edu/">West Virginia University</a>, has recently been awarded the prestigious <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2020/nsf20525/nsf20525.htm">Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) Grant</a> from the National Science Foundation in order to improve orbital decay prediction and thus increase the sustainability of space economy.



“In low Earth orbit, our ability to safeguard these space assets depends on modeling of the aerodynamic forces acting on the satellites, specifically satellite drag. The drag force acting on a satellite is affected by various physical parameters, however, the most crucial and uncertain are the drag coefficient and mass density,” Professor Mehta explained.



According to Mehta, due to the interconnectedness of these two parameters, one of them (typically the drag coefficient) is held constant, while the other is investigated. However, this causes inconsistencies in our understanding of the mass density variability in the upper atmosphere or “thermosphere.” The CAREER grant will offer Professor Mehta and his team the opportunity to alleviate this inconsistency and develop a state-of-the-art model of thermosphere mass density, which will help scientists understand, model, and forecast the thermosphere variability.



“We will achieve this by not assuming the drag coefficient to be a constant but gaining statistical insights into the physical process that drives changes in drag coefficient, specifically the gas-surface interactions that describe the way energy and momentum are exchanged between the atmosphere and the satellite.” Mehta said. “The CAREER Award will alleviate this inconsistency through an innovative methodology that combines artificial intelligence and statistical estimation techniques.”&nbsp;



“Dr. Mehta’s cross-cutting research lies at the intersection of atmospheric sciences, space systems engineering, and machine learning,” said Jason Gross,&nbsp;an associate professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at West Virginia University.



“With the continued rapid increase of manmade satellites in low Earth orbit, his work toward improved orbital decay prediction becomes more important for the future of space environment sustainability with each passing day. His lab is at the forefront of this important field, and we are proud that he is on our faculty.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Millions of pieces of debris threaten the space economy

By the end of this decade, the space economy is...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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