A recent study presents a new curve of global mean surface temperature, revealing that Earth's temperature has varied more than previously thought over much of the Phanerozoic Eon -- a period marked by the diversification of life, colonization of land, and multiple mass extinctions. 



The curve also confirms that Earth's temperature is strongly correlated with the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-temperature-of-earth-s-past">Studying the temperature of Earth's past</h2>



The Phanerozoic Eon began approximately 540 million years ago with the Cambrian Explosion, a time when complex, hard-shelled organisms first appeared in the fossil record.&nbsp;



Although researchers can create simulations dating back to this era, the temperature curve in the study focuses on the last 485 million years due to limited geological temperature data from earlier periods.



“It's hard to find rocks that are that old and have temperature indicators preserved in them - even at 485 million years ago we don't have that many. We were limited with how far back we could go,” said study co-author Jessica Tierney, a paleoclimatologist at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-the-temperature-curve">Developing the temperature curve</h2>



The researchers developed the temperature curve using an approach called data assimilation. This method allowed them to combine data from the geologic record and climate models to create a more cohesive understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient climates</a>.



“This method was originally developed for weather forecasting,” said Emily Judd, lead author of the paper and a former postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History</a> and the University of Arizona. 



“Instead of using it to forecast future weather, here we're using it to hindcast ancient climates.”



Refining scientists' understanding of how Earth's temperature has fluctuated over time provides crucial context for understanding modern climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-way-back-to-predict-the-future">Looking way back to predict the future</h2>



Study co-author Scott Wing is a co-author on the paper and a curator of paleobotany at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.&nbsp;



“If you're studying the last couple of million years, you won't find anything that looks like what we expect in 2100 or 2500,” said Wing.



“You need to go back even further to periods when the Earth was really warm, because that's the only way we're going to get a better understanding of how the climate might change in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-is-the-biggest-driver-of-temperature-nbsp">CO2 is the biggest driver of temperature&nbsp;</h2>



The new curve reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> varied more significantly during the past 485 million years than previously thought.&nbsp;



Over this period, global temperatures ranged from 52 to 97 degrees Fahrenheit. Periods of extreme heat were most often linked to elevated levels of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.



“This research illustrates clearly that carbon dioxide is the dominant control on global temperatures across geological time,” Tierney said. “When CO₂ is low, the temperature is cold; when CO₂ is high, the temperature is warm.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-warming-temperatures-on-earth">Rapidly warming temperatures on Earth</h2>



The findings also show that Earth's current global temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit is cooler than it has been over much of the Phanerozoic.&nbsp;



However, greenhouse gas emissions from human-caused climate change are currently warming the planet at a much faster rate than even the fastest warming events of that eon, the researchers say.&nbsp;



This rapid warming poses risks to species and ecosystems worldwide and is causing a swift rise in sea levels. Some other episodes of rapid climate change during the Phanerozoic have sparked mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greater-temperature-changes-linked-to-worse-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinctions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-evolved-in-a-colder-climate">Humans evolved in a colder climate</h2>



Rapidly moving toward a warmer climate could spell danger for humans, who have mostly lived within a 10-degree Fahrenheit range for global temperatures, compared to the 45-degree span over the last 485 million years.



“Our entire species evolved to an 'ice house' climate, which doesn't reflect most of geological history,” noted Tierney. 



“We are changing the climate into a place that is really out of context for humans. The planet has been and can be warmer - but humans and animals can't adapt that fast.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-global-temperature-across-the-phanerozoic-nbsp">Earth's global temperature across the Phanerozoic&nbsp;</h2>



The collaboration between Tierney and researchers at the Smithsonian began in 2018. 



The team aimed to provide museum visitors with a curve that charted Earth's global temperature across the Phanerozoic, which began around 540 million years ago and continues into the present day.



The researchers collected more than 150,000 estimates of ancient temperatures calculated from five different chemical indicators preserved in fossilized shells and other types of ancient organic matter.&nbsp;



Their colleagues at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> created over 850 model simulations of what Earth's climate could have looked like at different periods in the distant past, based on continental positions and atmospheric composition.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accurate-curve-of-earth-s-temperature-variation">Accurate curve of Earth's temperature variation</h2>



By combining these two lines of evidence, the team created the most accurate curve of how Earth's temperature has varied over the past 485 million years.



Another significant finding from the study pertains to climate sensitivity, a metric of how much the climate warms with the doubling of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>.



“We found that carbon dioxide and temperature are not only really closely related, but related in the same way across 485 million years. We don't see that the climate is more sensitive when it's hot or cold,” Tierney concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adk3705" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How Earth’s temperature has changed over the past 500 million years

A recent study presents a new curve of global mean surface temperature, revealing that Earth's temperature has varied more than previously thought over much of the Phanerozoic Eon -- a period marked by the diversification of life, colonization of land, and multiple mass extinctions.  The curve also confirms that Earth's temperature is strongly correlated with the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Studying the temperature of Earth's past The Phanerozoic Eon began approximately 540 million years ago with the Cambrian Explosion, a time when complex, hard-shelled...

Shallow reefs and the diverse creatures that inhabit them are changing due to rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-be-the-oceans-biggest-enemy/">ocean</a> temperatures. Researchers in Australia have been tracking these changes for over a decade. Their findings illustrate how warming waters impact tropical and temperate reef fish communities differently.



“Reefs provide a ton of benefits to people, from food, livelihoods, recreation, physical protection from storms, and I dare say even happiness and inspiration,” said study lead author Rick Stuart-Smith, a marine ecologist at the University of Tasmania.&nbsp;



“We specifically considered the fishes that live on reefs, as these are important for many of those aspects, and also help maintain the natural ecological function of the reefs.”



The Reef Life Survey was created by the authors to collect data to better understand how Australia’s reefs are changing. For this study, the survey data was combined with two reef monitoring programs amongst the longest running in the world.&nbsp;



“The combination of these datasets provided a more comprehensive picture of what is happening on reefs than would be imaginable for any other continent.” said Stuart-Smith.



The research teams looked at impacts such as habitat change, coral bleaching and temperature change and found that impacts varied depending on location. Fish on temperate and subtropical reefs showed signs of temperature change, while tropical reef fish were more affected by habitat change.&nbsp;



The experts also examined how a loss of coral and kelp resulted in less unique fish populations. Northeastern Australia showed evidence of habitat degradation leading to fish populations of generalist species, rather than niche species adapted to specific habitats.



The research team is hopeful for more coordinated local research to evaluate global trends.&nbsp;



“Climate change clearly has a huge impact on marine biodiversity, with changes we observed around the Australian continent over short time scales indicating that much larger changes are likely over the next half century as ocean warming progresses,” wrote the researchers.



The study is published by Cell Press in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.067">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Reef fish populations are altered by rising temperatures

Shallow reefs and the diverse creatures that inhabit them are...

According to new research led by the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS), the Pine Island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-shelves-are-likely-melting-faster-than-expected/">Ice Shelf</a> in West Antarctica – which holds enough ice to raise sea levels by 0.5 meters if melted – could be much more vulnerable to disintegration than previously thought. The experts showed that two processes – melting and calving – may interact in a dangerous feedback loop, threatening the stability of the shelf and increasing the likelihood of its collapse.



This huge ice shelf controls the flow of ice from the Pine Island Glacier – one of the world’s largest and fastest changing glaciers - into the Amundsen Sea. Currently, the shelf is becoming increasingly fragile due to two processes: enhanced thinning caused by an increase in ice shelf melting into the sea, and a rise in calving events, in which masses of ice break off into icebergs.



“This study highlights the extreme sensitivity of ice shelves to climate change. It shows the interplay between calving and melting can promote disintegration of the Pine Island Ice Shelf, which we already thought was vulnerable to collapse,” explained study lead author Alexander Bradley, an ocean modeler at BAS.



Together with his colleagues, Bradley used advanced ocean modelling techniques to simulate the effects of calving events on melt rate. The analyses revealed that calving events will most likely result in further thinning of the ice shelf, which will in turn make the shelf more vulnerable to calving. The feedback loop between these two processes could lead to the complete disintegration of the ice shelf, which would reduce its ability to stem the flow of ice from the Pine Island Glacier into the sea and cause devastating sea-level rises.



“Complete disintegration of the Pine Island Ice Shelf will have profound consequences not only for the glacier but all of West Antarctica as it is thought to play an integral role in maintaining the stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet,” Bradley concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022JC018621">Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans</a>.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Pine Island Ice Sheet is more vulnerable than previously thought

According to new research led by the British Antarctic Survey...

New research published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058286">BMJ Open</a> suggests that brief exposure to air pollution could lead to hospitalization among children with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-autism-related-to-pollution-and-stress-during-pregnancy/">autism</a>. Boys were found to be more at risk than girls. The study also suggests that hospitalizations could be prevented by reducing exposure to air pollution.&nbsp;



Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a range of symptoms. It is often accompanied by neuroinflammation and systemic inflammation.&nbsp;



Short-term exposure to air pollution can induce systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation, potentially increasing the risk of hospital admission in autistic people.&nbsp;



A child’s developing nervous system is more susceptible to environmental exposures than adults. This led researchers to investigate whether short-term exposure could aggravate ASD symptoms among school-aged children.



The study was focused on data from hospital admissions of autistic children in 16 regions in the Republic of Korea between 2011 and 2015. Information was collected on national daily levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3) for up to six days.



During the study period, the average daily number of hospital admissions for autism was 8.5 for autistic children. This rate was higher for boys, at 7, than for girls at 1.6. Short-term exposure to PM2.5, NO2, and O3 was associated with a heightened risk of hospital admission for autism.



Small increases in PM2.5 levels were associated with a 17 percent higher risk of hospital admission for autism, and a 10 parts per billion increase in NO2, and O3 was associated with a 9&nbsp; and 3 percent greater risk, respectively.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"These results emphasize that reduction of air pollution exposure should be considered for ASD symptom management, with important implications for the quality of life and economic costs," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



The use of regional air pollution levels could have affected these findings. It was also acknowledged that autistic children with mild symptoms could be less likely to receive psychiatric treatment and may not have been included.&nbsp;



This is the first study to assess the effects of short-term exposure to air pollution on ASD-related health outcomes.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air pollution linked to hospital visits among autistic children

New research published in the journal BMJ Open suggests that...

Symphony is a digital tool using GIS data to help marine planners along the coast of Sweden. The tool shows different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wooden-shipwrecks-have-become-diverse-microbial-habitats/">marine habitats</a> and how they might be impacted by something like pollution or water traffic. One thing Symphony doesn’t take into account, however, is climate change.



Scientists with the ClimeMarine project modified the tool to see how things changed when they accounted for rising levels of temperature and salinity.



“It showed that the anticipated climate changes will increase the total environmental impact by at least fifty percent, and in some areas, as much as several hundred per cent,” explained study co-author Per Jonsson, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg.



The different ecosystems recorded on the GIS maps react differently to these changes, as Symphony shows.&nbsp;



“It’s a clear sign that we may need to reduce other impacts to lower the total rate of impact in some areas. For example, in areas with valuable eelgrass meadows, we might consider rerouting a shipping line or slowing the expansion of marinas and leisure boating,” said Jonsson.



Some areas experience upwellings of cold water, creating islands of protection for otherwise embattled species. “Marine reserves may be considered to protect these areas, where we ‘remove’ other factors that have an impact," said Jonsson. "Sweden has committed to establishing several new protected marine areas, and Symphony can help identify where they should be located.”



Per Jonsson acknowledges that these types of tools have limitations, with their modeling being only so predictive, explaining that more research is needed,&nbsp;



“We also need to better understand how sensitive different ecosystems and species are to climate change. We need experimental studies that show what happens when the temperature rises and salt content decreases.”



“What we present in the study can be viewed as informed guesses based on the information we currently have. But the effects of a changed climate clearly must be incorporated into marine planning.”



This study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16312">Global Change Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change may be the ocean's biggest enemy

Symphony is a digital tool using GIS data to help...

A new study led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> (WSU) has discovered the genetic factors structuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hibernating-bears-could-help-humans-prevent-muscle-loss/">hibernating bears</a>’ insulin control – a major scientific advance that could ultimately lead to the treatment of diabetes. Although the experts observed thousands of changes in gene expression during hibernation, they managed to narrow this multitude of genetic changes down to only eight key proteins that play a fundamental role in bears’ insulin control during hibernation.



“There seem to be eight proteins that are working either independently or together to modulate the insulin sensitivity and resistance that’s seen in hibernating bears,” said study corresponding author Joanna Kelley, an evolutionary geneticist at WSU. “All of these eight proteins have human homologues. They’re not unique to bears. The same genes are in humans, so that means maybe there’s a direct opportunity for translation.”



The scientists examined changes in bear cell cultures which were exposed to blood serum drawn from grizzly bears housed at the WSU Bear Center. Both the cells and the blood serum were drawn from the bears during active and hibernating seasons, as well as from an interrupted hibernation period when the scientists woke the bears and fed them honey-water.&nbsp;



The serum extracted during this period helped the most in identifying the eight proteins. “By feeding the bears just for two weeks during hibernation, it allowed us to control for other things like daylength and temperature as well as food availability,” Kelley explained.



“This is progress toward getting a better understanding of what’s happening at the genetic level and identifying specific molecules that are controlling insulin resistance in bears,” added study co-lead author Blair Perry, a postdoctoral fellow in Functional and Evolutionary Genomics at WSU.&nbsp;



In future research, the scientists aim to investigate how these proteins work to reverse insulin resistance – which is a key factor in allowing bears to hibernate for several months – in order to find new ways of preventing and treating human diabetes.



“There's inherent value to studying the diversity of life around us and all of these unique and strange adaptations that have arisen. By understanding the genomic basis of these adaptations, we gain a better understanding of what we share with other species, and what makes us unique as humans,” Perry concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105084">iScience</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How hibernating bears could help treat human diabetes

A new study led by Washington State University (WSU) has...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Centre</a> have found a correlation between early winter temperatures and crop yields for some economically significant crops. The researchers combined laboratory work with fieldwork to conduct their study and found that a chilling period in late November/early December promotes growth in oilseed rape plants. Although this process has been well studied in perennial plants, this was the first study to demonstrate this phenomenon in an annual crop.



“It was surprising to find that winter annuals have this flower bud dormancy - no one has ever suggested that this mechanism is important to flowering time control in annual plants," said Professor Steve Penfield, a group leader at the John Innes Centre. "Our experiments further show that if flower buds experience warmer than average temperatures then growth slows down and plants produce aberrant flowers and low yield. Conversely, we know that if plants get chilled at this stage this promotes faster growth and higher yield.”&nbsp;



Study first author Dr. Carmel O’Neil explained why this information is critical: “We want to understand the effect of climate change on the UK crop yields. To predict these effects and respond to them we must understand all the processes by which varying weather affects yield. And that is what we have done here in this study – proving experimentally what we have seen previously in correlated studies.”&nbsp;



The researchers determined that the expression of a gene called FLC influenced the bud dormancy response to winter temperatures.&nbsp;



“We had seen this correlation between chilling and yield in the data, but until now we could not say that chilling was linked to the physiology of the crop - it is not for example that chilling just kills some disease or pest - although it might do that as well," explained Professor Penfield. "But we now know why chilling influences yields and it is down to physical effect on the growth rate of the plants.”&nbsp;



Researchers hope that this study can be used to help us adapt our agricultural practices in a changing climate.&nbsp;&nbsp;



This study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2204355119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warmer winters lead to lower crop yields

Experts at the John Innes Centre have found a correlation...

From the 1980s to the mid-1990s, a fungal pathogen called&nbsp;Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (or “Bd”) dispersed across Costa Rica, wreaking havoc among amphibian populations, and continued its path eastward across Panama during the 2000s. Globally, this deadly pathogen led to the extinction of over 90 amphibian species, and the decline of at least 500 additional species. 



Shortly after this gruesome mass die-off of amphibians in Costa Rica and Panama, both countries experienced significant spikes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-malaria-colder-areas/">malaria</a> cases. According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>, this spike in malaria was caused by the amphibian die-off.&nbsp;



“Stable ecosystems underpin all sorts of aspects of human wellbeing, including regulating processes important for disease prevention and health,” said study lead author Michael Springborn, a professor of Environmental Sciences and Policy at UC Davis. “If we allow massive ecosystem disruptions to happen, it can substantially impact human health in ways that are difficult to predict ahead of time and hard to control once they’re underway.”



Since many frogs, salamanders, and other amphibians consume hundreds of mosquito eggs per day, their massive die-off caused by the fungal pathogen led to a large increase in mosquito populations, which are vectors for malaria. By combining their knowledge of amphibian ecology with newly digitized public health record data and data-analysis methods developed by economists, the researchers discovered a clear connection between the time and location of the spread of the fungal pathogen and the time and location of the spikes in malaria cases.&nbsp;



Moreover, no evidence of other variables which could both drive malaria and follow the same pattern of die-offs has been found. Although tree cover loss is also associated with increases in malaria cases (by 0.12 cases per 1,000 people), the massive spike witnessed in Costa Rica and Panama (1 extra case per 1,000 people) was most likely caused by the amphibian die-off.



The researchers argue that measures to help prevent the spread of pathogens to wildlife – such as updating trade regulations to better target major host species – are necessary. “The costs of putting those protective measures in place are immediate and evident, but the long-term&nbsp;benefits of avoiding ecosystem disruptions like this one are harder to assess but potentially massive, as this paper shows,” Professor Springborn concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Massive spike in malaria linked to amphibian die-off

From the 1980s to the mid-1990s, a fungal pathogen called&nbsp;Batrachochytrium...

As a result of a budget crisis in 2014, the city of Flint in Michigan, U.S., switched its water supply from Lake Huron and the Detroit River to the Flint River. The new supply of water was not treated properly and consequently nearly all 100,000 residents of the city were exposed to drinking water with unsafe levels of bacteria, disinfection byproducts, and lead, which is neurotoxic. The residents soon began to experience health issues and testing revealed up to seven times the acceptable level of lead in the water supply of homes.



The source of the contamination was found to be aging lead pipes in the water supply line. Usually, water is treated with substances to minimize leaching of lead from supply pipes, but in the case of the Flint water crisis, this treatment was not carried out. Of particular concern was the fact that between 6,000 and 12,000 children were exposed to drinking water with high levels of lead during the year in which water was derived from the Flint River. Children are particularly at risk from the long-term effects of lead poisoning, which can include a reduction in intellectual functioning and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ">IQ</a>, and an increased chance of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> later in life.



Although Michigan Governor&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Snyder">Rick Snyder</a>&nbsp;declared a state of emergency in the county, and President&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama">Barack Obama</a>&nbsp;declared a federal state of emergency and funding to assist affected residents, a new study indicates that the people of Flint are still suffering the consequences of this environmental disaster. Despite financial reparations to victims, 15 indictments of people potentially responsible, several resignations, firings and suspensions, the consequences of this traumatic time persist.&nbsp;



The study, which involved the largest mental health survey of the Flint community, questioned 1,970 adults from different households in Flint between August 13, 2019, and April 10, 2020. Surveys were conducted online and via mail by a national survey research firm. The results, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.32556">Journal of the American Medical Association</a> (Network Open), indicate that&nbsp; one in five adults, or roughly 13,600 people, are estimated to have clinical depression, and one in four, or 15,000 people, are estimated to have PTSD, more than five years after the drinking water of Flint was declared lead-free in January 24, 2017.



“The mental health burden of America’s largest public-works environmental disaster clearly continues for many adults in Flint,” said Aaron Reuben, a postdoctoral scholar at <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> and leader of the research study.



As the water crisis unfolded over a period of several years, residents manifested symptoms of anxiety over the potential physical and mental health impacts of lead poisoning in themselves and their children. They experienced anger at political leaders and felt guilty about giving their children contaminated water. Despite the fact that numerous prominent figures have been indicted for crimes relating to the water crisis, only one has yet been convicted.



“We know that large-scale natural or human-caused disasters can trigger or exacerbate depression and PTSD,” said study senior author Dr. Dean Kilpatrick, a professor at Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC). Dr. Kilpatrick noted that there was clear evidence of high rates of mental health problems in the Flint community during the first years of the crisis. “What we did not know until now was the extent to which Flint residents continued to have mental health problems at the clinical diagnosis level, five years after the crisis began.”



During the study, Flint residents answered survey questions pertaining to their perceived exposure to contaminated water, their past year prevalence of depression and PTSD (using DSM-5 diagnostic criteria), and their potential risk factors for depression and PTSD, including prior exposure to potentially traumatic events, prior physical or sexual assault, and low social support. Adults were also asked whether they were ever offered or received mental health services.



According to Dr. Kilpatrick, past year rates of depression and PTSD identified in Flint today are three to five times higher than national estimates among US adults overall, and likely result from a combination of higher base rates of mental health problems in Flint before the crisis as well as a significant exacerbation of problems resulting from the crisis.&nbsp;



Dr. Kilpatrick said residents of Flint, a predominantly low-income, Black community, faced many challenges, before the water crisis, that can negatively impact mental health, including socioeconomic disadvantage, racism, and high exposure to potentially traumatic events, including prior physical or sexual assault.



Particularly striking was the finding that those with prior physical or sexual assault were more than three times more likely to have depression and more than six times more likely to have PTSD than those without this history. “This highlights the importance of considering the cumulative effects of prior exposure to traumatic events when evaluating the effects of environmental disasters on mental health,” Kilpatrick said.



It is clear from the study’s results that more should be done to provide mental health treatment for the residents of Flint. “We study these problems after disasters because they are&nbsp;common outcomes and because they are significantly impairing to individuals and communities. But we also study these problems because we have good treatments that are effective for most people," said study co-author Dr. Sandro Galea of the Boston University School of Public Health.



“There is a clear unmet need,” said Reuben. “Nearly 100 percent of surveyed Flint residents reported that they changed their behavior to avoid consuming contaminated water during the crisis, and the vast majority still worry that the exposures they had may cause future health problems for themselves or their family members.”



According to Reuben, uncertainties about exposures and future harms meaningfully contribute to psychological distress after environmental disasters, and the study found that adults who thought exposure to contaminated water had harmed their or a family member’s health were significantly more likely to have past year depression and PTSD.&nbsp;



“The vast majority of our respondents were never offered mental health services,” said Reuben, “despite clear indication that the crisis was psychologically traumatic.” Most Flint residents who were offered mental health services went on to use and benefit from them. “Now that pipes are being replaced, the time is right to begin a second phase of recovery from the water crisis – one that focuses on providing additional resources to heal psychological wounds."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flint’s water crisis continues to impact mental health of residents

As a result of a budget crisis in 2014, the...

Many scientists have already investigated how flooding caused by rising sea levels and storms may damage the coastal built environment. Now, a team of civil engineers from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> has shed new light on a largely ignored aspect from previous studies: the hidden costs to building foundations due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-at-an-alarming-rate/">sea level rise</a>. According to the experts – who also proposed a method for inspection and repair to lower the costs associated with deterioration from saltwater corrosion – it is highly important to look and plan ahead, especially considering the fact that there are over 16 million buildings along the United States’ Atlantic and Gulf coasts.



The researchers looked at nearly 137,000 residential buildings in the lower regions of Mobile County, Alabama, in order to estimate possible foundation damages caused by saltwater corrosion. Their analysis revealed that, under the most extreme sea level rise projections, the annual repair cost for building foundations in Mobile could rise up to $90 million by the end of this century.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The significance here is that this value that we found for one of the saltwater intrusion scenarios is just for 137,000 buildings in Mobile,” said study senior author Hussan Mahmoud, a professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Colorado State University. “If you calculated the cost for the entire East Coast – or from the East to the West Coast – it would be staggering.”



By taking into account building locations and the probability of saltwater corrosion, the scientists developed a formula to help building owners determine when to inspect and repair their buildings. In addition, they proposed the use of low-cost sensors to monitor the water table level near a building’s foundation and thus avoid - as much as possible - uncertainty.&nbsp;



In a future study, they aim to examine structural performance beyond the foundation – such as how much wind and water surges during a hurricane a structure can withstand before alternative shelters should be sought. “This work will allow us to be proactive about finding solutions quickly to help those in need, instead of waiting until it’s bad,” Professor Mahmoud concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-18467-3">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How does sea level rise impact building foundations?

Many scientists have already investigated how flooding caused by rising...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-tides-and-dead-zones-threaten-floridas-west-coast/">Hypoxia</a>, low levels of oxygen in bodies of water, can be a major stressor on the health of marine life. To understand how hypoxia affects the Arabian Gulf, a team of researchers studied how dissolved oxygen has evolved over three decades.&nbsp;



Experts in the Arabian Center for Climate and Environmental Sciences (ACCESS) at NYU Abu Dhabi (NYUAD) used an ocean model to simulate hypoxia near the seafloor. The results indicated an expansion and intensification of hypoxia in the central Arabian Gulf, followed by a lengthening of the hypoxic season.



“Oxygen is an essential molecule, vital for the survival of the marine organisms and fish populations in the area.” said lead author Zouhair Lachkar.&nbsp;



“Our team found that the seasonal hypoxic zone in the Arabian Gulf has grown by over 50 percent since the 1980s, and it is now persisting for several more months each year compared with several decades ago,”&nbsp;



Changes in the local climate are changing the Gulf’s environment, and this could implicate the region's ecosystems and fisheries.&nbsp;



The expansion of hypoxia could lead to fish mortality and a loss of biodiversity, as well as the movement of fish to avoid hypoxic stress. This can alter the community structure of reef ecosystems and increase the vulnerability of coral reefs to ongoing warming.



“The expansion and intensification of these low-oxygen waters in the central Gulf represents a growing threat to regional fisheries, with this hypoxic zone growing steadily towards the UAE’s offshore fishing grounds," said study co-author John Burt.&nbsp;



"We will continue to study the evolution of this phenomenon and will work with the relevant government agencies to assess this risk going forward as climate change continues to put pressure on our marine systems.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Low-oxygen zone is expanding in the Arabian gulf

Hypoxia, low levels of oxygen in bodies of water, can...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forest-reveals-ancient-climate-change-effects/">Mangroves</a> are known to thrive in conditions that most other plants cannot tolerate, such as salty coastal waters. Several species have air-conducting, vertical roots which act like snorkels when tides are high, giving them the appearance of trees floating on stilts.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) and the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> (UCSD) has investigated how marine mangroves off the coast of La Paz in Mexico absorb and release substances such as carbon and nitrogen, through a process called biogeochemical cycling. The experts were amazed to discovered that these mangrove forests have been quietly keeping carbon out of the Earth’s atmosphere for nearly 5,000 years.



“What’s special about these mangrove sites isn’t that they’re the fastest at carbon storage, but that they have kept the carbon for so long,” said study senior co-author Emma Aronson, an environmental microbiologist at UCR. “It is orders of magnitude more carbon storage than most other ecosystems in the region.”



While the scientists expected that carbon would be found in the layer of peat beneath the forest – which consists of a mixture of submerged sediment and partially decayed organic matter, extending up to ten feet below the coastal water line – they did not expect that carbon to be 5,000 years old.



Since biogeochemical cycling is largely driven by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, the researchers set out to investigate which of these microbes are thriving in in the peat beneath mangroves. The analysis revealed no fungi living there, most likely due to the fact that little oxygen – which is needed by fungi to break down carbon - can make it to the deepest peat layer.&nbsp;



While the scientists identified over 1,100 types of bacteria living beneath the mangroves that can function in extreme environments with low or no oxygen, these microbes are not sufficient for breaking down carbon – which could explain the mangroves’ immense potential of safely storing this hazardous gas.&nbsp;



“The deeper you go into the peat soils, the fewer microorganisms you find. Not much can break down the carbon down there, or the peat itself, for that matter,” said study co-author Mia Maltz, a microbial ecologist at UCR. “Because it persists for so long, it’s not easy to make more of it or replicate the communities of microbes within it.”&nbsp;



“These sites are protecting carbon that has been there for millennia. Disturbing them would cause a carbon emission that we wouldn’t be able to repair any time soon,” added study lead author Matthew Costa, a coastal ecologist at UCSD.



“If we let these forests keep functioning, they can retain the carbon they’ve sequestered out of our atmosphere, essentially permanently. These mangroves have an important role in mitigating climate change,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps14117">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Mexican mangroves have been storing carbon for nearly five millennia

Mangroves are known to thrive in conditions that most other...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a> has discovered a process far more dynamic than volcanologists had assumed to be possible in the two centuries they have been studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-volcanic-events-linked-to-the-slowing-of-tectonic-plates/">volcanic events</a>. The experts made this discovery while sampling magma from the Fagradalsfjall volcano in Iceland, which erupted in March 2021.



By trying to clarify how deep in the mantle the magma originated, how far beneath the surface it was stored prior to the eruption, and what was happening in the reservoir before and during the eruption, the researchers got “a big surprise” – as study co-author Matthew Jackson put it.



“The assumption was that a magma chamber fills up slowly over time, and the magma becomes well mixed. And then it drains over the course of the eruption.”&nbsp;



According to Jackson (and most other volcanologists), as a result of this well-defined two step process, there are usually no significant changes in the chemical composition of the magma as it flows out of the earth.&nbsp;



“This is what we see at Mount Kīlauea, in Hawaii,” said Jackson. “You’ll have eruptions that go on for years, and there will be minor changes over time.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“But in Iceland, there was more than a factor of 1,000 higher rates of change for key chemical indicators. In a month, the Fagradalsfjall eruption showed more compositional variability than the Kīlauea eruptions showed in decades. The total range of chemical compositions that were sampled at this eruption over the course of the first month span the entire range that has ever erupted in southwest Iceland in the last 10,000 years.”



The experts said this extreme variability is most likely a result of subsequent batches of magma flowing into the chamber from the deeper layers of the mantle. “Picture a lava lamp in your mind. You have a hot lightbulb at the bottom, it heats up a blob and the blob rises, cools and then sinks. We can think of the Earth’s mantle - from the top of the core to under the tectonic plates - operating much like a lava lamp,” explained Jackson.



As the heat causes some regions of the mantle to rise and plumes form and move upwards towards the surface, molten rock accumulates in chambers and crystallizes, gases escape through the crust, and pressure builds allowing the magma to eventually erupt. In the case of the Fagradalsfjall volcano, although what first erupted was the expected “depleted” magma type accumulating in the reservoir, in about a month, the chamber was recharged by deeper, “enriched” type melts with a different composition (higher magnesium and carbon dioxide levels). In yet another month, the magma which dominated the flow was the deeper, enriched type.&nbsp;



Although such rapid, extreme changes&nbsp;in magma composition have never been observed before – most likely due to the fact that opportunities to sample eruptions at such an early stage are not common - they may not be so rare. Further research is needed to assess the frequency of such phenomena in other volcanic eruptions, and clarify the mysterious ways in which volcanoes work.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04981-x">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Mysterious aspect of volcanic eruptions observed for the first time

A team of researchers led by the University of California,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

[sendtonews key="gRpsplpwpe-2251464-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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