A recent study presents a new curve of global mean surface temperature, revealing that Earth's temperature has varied more than previously thought over much of the Phanerozoic Eon -- a period marked by the diversification of life, colonization of land, and multiple mass extinctions. 



The curve also confirms that Earth's temperature is strongly correlated with the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-temperature-of-earth-s-past">Studying the temperature of Earth's past</h2>



The Phanerozoic Eon began approximately 540 million years ago with the Cambrian Explosion, a time when complex, hard-shelled organisms first appeared in the fossil record.&nbsp;



Although researchers can create simulations dating back to this era, the temperature curve in the study focuses on the last 485 million years due to limited geological temperature data from earlier periods.



“It's hard to find rocks that are that old and have temperature indicators preserved in them - even at 485 million years ago we don't have that many. We were limited with how far back we could go,” said study co-author Jessica Tierney, a paleoclimatologist at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-the-temperature-curve">Developing the temperature curve</h2>



The researchers developed the temperature curve using an approach called data assimilation. This method allowed them to combine data from the geologic record and climate models to create a more cohesive understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient climates</a>.



“This method was originally developed for weather forecasting,” said Emily Judd, lead author of the paper and a former postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History</a> and the University of Arizona. 



“Instead of using it to forecast future weather, here we're using it to hindcast ancient climates.”



Refining scientists' understanding of how Earth's temperature has fluctuated over time provides crucial context for understanding modern climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-way-back-to-predict-the-future">Looking way back to predict the future</h2>



Study co-author Scott Wing is a co-author on the paper and a curator of paleobotany at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.&nbsp;



“If you're studying the last couple of million years, you won't find anything that looks like what we expect in 2100 or 2500,” said Wing.



“You need to go back even further to periods when the Earth was really warm, because that's the only way we're going to get a better understanding of how the climate might change in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-is-the-biggest-driver-of-temperature-nbsp">CO2 is the biggest driver of temperature&nbsp;</h2>



The new curve reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> varied more significantly during the past 485 million years than previously thought.&nbsp;



Over this period, global temperatures ranged from 52 to 97 degrees Fahrenheit. Periods of extreme heat were most often linked to elevated levels of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.



“This research illustrates clearly that carbon dioxide is the dominant control on global temperatures across geological time,” Tierney said. “When CO₂ is low, the temperature is cold; when CO₂ is high, the temperature is warm.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-warming-temperatures-on-earth">Rapidly warming temperatures on Earth</h2>



The findings also show that Earth's current global temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit is cooler than it has been over much of the Phanerozoic.&nbsp;



However, greenhouse gas emissions from human-caused climate change are currently warming the planet at a much faster rate than even the fastest warming events of that eon, the researchers say.&nbsp;



This rapid warming poses risks to species and ecosystems worldwide and is causing a swift rise in sea levels. Some other episodes of rapid climate change during the Phanerozoic have sparked mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greater-temperature-changes-linked-to-worse-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinctions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-evolved-in-a-colder-climate">Humans evolved in a colder climate</h2>



Rapidly moving toward a warmer climate could spell danger for humans, who have mostly lived within a 10-degree Fahrenheit range for global temperatures, compared to the 45-degree span over the last 485 million years.



“Our entire species evolved to an 'ice house' climate, which doesn't reflect most of geological history,” noted Tierney. 



“We are changing the climate into a place that is really out of context for humans. The planet has been and can be warmer - but humans and animals can't adapt that fast.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-global-temperature-across-the-phanerozoic-nbsp">Earth's global temperature across the Phanerozoic&nbsp;</h2>



The collaboration between Tierney and researchers at the Smithsonian began in 2018. 



The team aimed to provide museum visitors with a curve that charted Earth's global temperature across the Phanerozoic, which began around 540 million years ago and continues into the present day.



The researchers collected more than 150,000 estimates of ancient temperatures calculated from five different chemical indicators preserved in fossilized shells and other types of ancient organic matter.&nbsp;



Their colleagues at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> created over 850 model simulations of what Earth's climate could have looked like at different periods in the distant past, based on continental positions and atmospheric composition.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accurate-curve-of-earth-s-temperature-variation">Accurate curve of Earth's temperature variation</h2>



By combining these two lines of evidence, the team created the most accurate curve of how Earth's temperature has varied over the past 485 million years.



Another significant finding from the study pertains to climate sensitivity, a metric of how much the climate warms with the doubling of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>.



“We found that carbon dioxide and temperature are not only really closely related, but related in the same way across 485 million years. We don't see that the climate is more sensitive when it's hot or cold,” Tierney concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adk3705" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How Earth’s temperature has changed over the past 500 million years

A recent study presents a new curve of global mean surface temperature, revealing that Earth's temperature has varied more than previously thought over much of the Phanerozoic Eon -- a period marked by the diversification of life, colonization of land, and multiple mass extinctions.  The curve also confirms that Earth's temperature is strongly correlated with the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Studying the temperature of Earth's past The Phanerozoic Eon began approximately 540 million years ago with the Cambrian Explosion, a time when complex, hard-shelled...

Wildfires are known to pump <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-damages-the-ozone-layer/">smoke</a> up into the stratosphere, where the particles can drift for more than a year. By focusing on the “Black Summer” megafire that devastated eastern Australia from December 2019 to January 2020, pumping over one million tons of smoke into the atmosphere, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has found that smoke particles can trigger chemical reactions that erode the protective ozone layer protecting the Earth from ultraviolet radiation.



Building upon a previous study that identified a chemical reaction between fire aerosols and chlorine-containing compounds originally emitted by factories in the form of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that produces an ozone-depleting molecule (chlorine monoxide), the experts discovered that aged wildfire smoke particles play a disproportionate role in this process, enhancing ozone loss rates even over mid-latitudes, at relatively warm stratospheric temperatures.



By triggering this reaction, the Australian wildfires likely contributed to a three to five percent depletion of total ozone at mid-latitudes in the southern hemisphere, in regions over Australia, New Zealand, and parts of South America and Africa. The scientists were surprised to find that these fires had an effect even in the polar regions, affecting the edges of the ozone hole over Antarctica, and widening it by 2.5 million square kilometers.



The long-term effects of wildfires on ozone recovery are still unclear. Although the ozone hole – and ozone depletion around the globe – are currently on a recovery track due to sustained international efforts to phase-out ozone depleting chemicals, the recent findings suggest that, as long as these chemicals persist in the atmosphere, massive wildfires may spark reactions that could temporarily deplete ozone.



“The Australian fires of 2020 were really a wake-up call for the science community,” said study lead author Susan Solomon, a professor of Environmental Studies at MIT. “The effect of wildfires was not previously accounted for in [projections of] ozone recovery. And I think that effect may depend on whether fires become more frequent and intense as the planet warms.”



“There’s now sort of a race against time. Hopefully, chlorine-containing compounds will have been destroyed, before the frequency of fires increases with climate change. This is all the more reason to be vigilant about global warming and these chlorine-containing compounds,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05683-0">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Wildfire smoke particles erode the ozone layer

Wildfires are known to pump smoke up into the stratosphere,...

Since rice is one of the most important crops in the world, constituting the primary food source for more than half of the Earth’s population, protecting rice plantations from disease such as bacterial blight (BB) – an infection caused by the bacterium&nbsp;Xanthomonas oryzae that leads to losses of hundreds of millions of dollars each year – is essential in modern agriculture.&nbsp;



Although one of the best strategies to control BB and other crop diseases is to grow genetically resistant cultivars, since pathogens often evolve rapidly, scientists have to constantly explore new genes that could offer resistance and apply them to breeding. To be able to do this, they must regularly sample multiple rice plants at different times of the year and measure their responses to bacterial infection, which is a manually intensive and time-consuming labor.



Now, a research team led by <a href="https://www.zju.edu.cn/english/">Zhejiang University</a> (ZJU) has developed an innovative method combining unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs, popularly known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-can-assist-efforts-to-save-bees-and-other-pollinators/">drones</a>) and machine learning algorithms to assess BB outbreaks in the field and screen for potentially resistant genes. After setting up two experimental sites in the Zhejiang Province in China containing 60 types of rice cultivars with different resistances to BB, the experts used drones equipped with regular and multispectral cameras to image the crop sites at different stages of development. Afterwards, they combined these images with accumulated temperature (AT) data and used them to train a deep learning computer model to evaluate the severity of BB.&nbsp;



By testing whether a model trained with data gathered at one site could be supplied with a small amount of training data from another site to improve its predictions for the latter, the experts found that a transfer of only 20 percent of new data was a useful and cost-effective updating strategy leading to reliable predictions of BB severity across different sites.



In a next step, the scientists employed this method to effectively measure BB severity using drones to perform quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping. “QTL mark the location in the genome where a gene controls specific quantitative traits, such as susceptibility to a disease. Mapping QTL to crop responses under pathogen stress can help breeders identify the functions or traits of crops that a given set of QTLs controls,” explained study senior author Xuping Feng, an expert in Biosystems Engineering at ZJU. Through this innovative approach, Feng and his colleagues managed to detect both previously identified QTLs related to BB resistance and three new ones.



Implementing these findings in real plantations all over the globe could help minimize crop losses due to disease and secure sufficient food sources. “Compared with manual measurements of disease severity, UAV remote sensing techniques enable us to gather large-scale phenotypic information rapidly, which provides technical support for accelerating breeding research,” Dr. Feng concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.34133/plantphenomics.0019">Plant Phenomics</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Drones can assess the severity of crop diseases

Since rice is one of the most important crops in...

Solar,System,And,Space,Objects.,Elements,Of,This,Image,Furnished

A new experiment examines a hypothetical planet between Mars and Jupiter that would disturb our solar system and push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/almost-no-place-on-earth-is-safe-from-air-pollution/">Earth</a> into outer space. <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UCR</a> astrophysicist Stephen Kane held this experiment to address two notable gaps in planetary science.&nbsp;



The first is the gap between the size of terrestrial and giant gas planets. The largest terrestrial planet is Earth, and the smallest gas planet is Neptune, which is 17 times more massive than Earth. There is nothing in between. 



“In other star systems there are many planets with masses in that gap. We call them super-Earths,” said Kane.&nbsp;



The other gap is the empty space between Mars and Jupiter. “Planetary scientists often wish there was something in between those two planets. It seems like wasted real estate,” he said.&nbsp;



These gaps could offer important insights into our solar system and Earth’s evolution. To fill them in, Kane ran computer simulations of a hypothetical planet between Mars and Jupiter with a range of different masses, and then observed the effects on the orbits of all other planets.&nbsp;



The results were mostly disastrous for the solar system. “This fictional planet gives a nudge to Jupiter that is just enough to destabilize everything else,” said Kane. “Despite many astronomers having wished for this extra planet, it’s a good thing we don’t have it.”



Jupiter is larger than all other planets combined and its gravitational influence is profound. If any celestial object like a super-Earth or a passing star disturbed Jupiter, all other planets would be profoundly affected.



The presence of a super-Earth could eject Mercury, Venus and Earth from the solar system. It could also destabilize the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, tossing them into outer space as well. The shape of the Earth’s orbit would also change, making it far less habitable, if not ending life entirely.



This experiment demonstrates the fragility of our solar system and serves as a reminder of the delicate order that holds the planets together around the sun.



“Our solar system is more finely tuned than I appreciated before. It all works like intricate clock gears. Throw more gears into the mix and it all breaks,” said Kane.&nbsp;



The research is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/acbb6b">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Study reveals the delicate balance of our solar system

A new experiment examines a hypothetical planet between Mars and...

The <a href="https://www.nd.edu/">University of Notre Dame</a> has recently conducted a study to determine if products containing PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) could negatively impact human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-among-college-students-linked-to-unhealthy-diets/">health</a>. These substances make up a toxic class of fluorine compounds known as a “forever chemicals."



The researchers tested fluorinated containers made with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic. These containers are often used for household cleaners, pesticides, personal care products, and food packaging.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study revealed that, in as little as seven days of exposure, PFAS were able to migrate from the fluorinated containers into olive oil, ketchup, and mayonnaise.&nbsp;



“Not only did we measure significant concentrations of PFAS in these containers, we can estimate the PFAS that were leaching off creating a direct path of exposure,” said study co-author Professor <a href="https://news.nd.edu/people/graham-peaslee/">Graham Peaslee</a>.



Exposure to PFAS has been associated with kidney, testicular, and prostate cancer, low birth weight, and thyroid disease.



The types of containers used in the study are not currently intended for food storage. However, there are no laws or government regulations to prevent such use.&nbsp;



Moreover, PFAS could infiltrate our food sources indirectly if pesticides stored in these containers are used on crops. Furthermore, since PFAS are forever chemicals, there are multiple other potential paths to exposure.&nbsp;



“We measured concentrations of PFOA that significantly exceeded the limit set by the EPA’s 2022 Health Advisory Limits,” said Peaslee. “Now, consider that not only do we know that the chemicals are migrating into the substances stored in them, but that the containers themselves work their way back into the environment through landfills. PFAS doesn’t biodegrade. It doesn’t go away. Once these chemicals are used, they get into the groundwater, they get into our biological systems, and they cause significant health problems.”



This study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00083">Environmental Science and Technology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Plastic containers may release forever chemicals into food

The University of Notre Dame has recently conducted a study...

Coffee crops are an important source of income for millions of people around the world, but with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-disruption-threatens-humanitys-survival/">climate</a> changes anticipated, coffee plantations may be in danger of dying or failing to thrive. Coffee plants are sensitive to climate variability and change, and have fairly narrow ranges of tolerance to temperature and precipitation. It is already considered that climate change will reduce the currently suitable areas for coffee cultivation by as much as 50 percent, which would have serious economic consequences.&nbsp;



However, a recent study has highlighted another way in which climate change is set to affect coffee cultivation. Annual yields are susceptible to certain climate hazards, such as heat waves, droughts, frosts and floods, all of which are likely to become more frequent in future. In addition, when these hazards occur simultaneously over coffee-producing regions, they can cause large-scale crop failures that threaten the global coffee trade.&nbsp;



In order to better understand how large-scale climate modes such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) may lead to simultaneous coffee crop failures in multiple countries, the researchers conducted a systematic analysis of literature on climate hazards and compound events in coffee producing regions between 1980 and 2020. They identified 12 climate hazards that threaten coffee crops in the top 12 coffee-producing countries, for example, when temperatures are too cold during the flowering season, or too warm during the growing time.



They found that the annual number of hazards globally has increased since 1980. In fact, most of the regions considered (excluding Uganda and India) have experienced a greater number of hazards in the past decade alone. Since 2010, there have been five years during which at least 20 hazards occurred across all regions, compared to just once in the years before this. This implies that large-scale coffee supply is at risk, globally, from compounding climate hazards.



The researchers state: “In 2016, for example, every region experienced at least one hazard, with most of the top growing-regions (northern and southern Brazil, Colombia and Indonesia) experiencing multiple hazards simultaneously.”



The analysis, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000134">PLOS Climate</a>, also reveals that the type of climate hazards have changed over the past 40 years from those associated with overly cool conditions to those occurring in overly warm or dry circumstances. The scientists say more research is needed, however, to understand what kind of adaptations might mitigate global coffee crop failures under these new conditions.



“Our results suggest that El Niño is the primary mode in explaining compound climate event variability, both globally and regionally. Region-level hazards are therefore indicative of systemic risk to coffee production, rather than local risk. As with other crops, a systemic risk to the global coffee trade is posed by synchronized crop failures. With climate change projections showing a continued rise in temperatures in the tropics is likely, we posit that coffee production can expect ongoing systemic shocks in response to spatially compounding climate hazards," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Since 1980, global coffee production has become increasingly at risk of synchronized crop failures, which can be driven by climate hazards that affect multiple key coffee-producing areas simultaneously.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Global coffee trade is increasingly threatened by climate change

Coffee crops are an important source of income for millions...

Pollinator populations are rapidly declining all around the world, causing a vast variety of plant species to vanish too. In North America, for instance, some pollinator species have fallen by over 95 percent along with many native plants, while in some parts of Europe, wild pollinator diversity has more than halved, and a third of bee, butterfly, and hoverfly species are currently facing extinction. Due to this worrisome global situation, better methods to monitor pollinators are urgently needed.&nbsp;



Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> in Australia has examined DNA traces – known as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-help-track-endangered-species/">environmental DNA</a>” (eDNA) - left by animal pollinators on native flora in the Helena and Aurora Range in western Australia, and were surprised to discover traces of not only insect pollinators, as expected, but also mammal and bird ones. While highlighting the benefits of using eDNA to examine the interaction between plants and their pollinators, these findings suggests that the range of pollinators may be larger than previously thought.



“We know the significant role that animal pollinators play in the reproduction of about 90 percent of flowering plants, but this crucial relationship is under threat as many of these species are experiencing declines across the globe,” said study lead author Joshua Newton, a PhD student in Molecular and Life Sciences at Curtin. “That means effective pollinator monitoring methods are now more important than ever before, as we search for new, fast, and accurate ways of safeguarding the future of endangered flora.”



The analysis of eDNA helped scientists identify five mammal species (including the western pygmy possum), eight bird species (including singing honeyeaters and yellow-throated miners), and 57 arthropod species (including several moth species previously unknown to act as pollinators). The native flowers that attracted the greatest diversity of animal visitors were the larger, more generalist species Banksia arborea (commonly known as Yilgarn dryandra) and&nbsp;Grevillea georgeana.



“We were especially pleased to find evidence of a western pygmy possum visiting a flower because at the time it was the first eDNA metabarcoding based identification of an interaction of a mammal or bird species with flowers, to our knowledge,” said study co-author Bill Bateman, a wildlife biologist at Curtin.



“This finding shows us that the eDNA metabarcoding of flowers offers a more complete set of floral visitors and may prove an effective tool for monitoring rare plant species that are growing in remote regions, receive relatively few pollinator visits, or are visited by cryptic animal species.”



The use of eDNA is currently in the early stage of application in terrestrial systems, but soon it may help identifying not only pollinators, but also multiple other species - such as pests or invasive spies - that interact in various ways with plants.



“eDNA offers an opportunity to explore and monitor ecosystems at multiple levels - not just what we are able to easily see, hear, and identify under a microscope,” concluded senior author Paul Nevill, a molecular ecologist at Curtin.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/26374943">Environmental DNA</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Environmental DNA can help monitor pollinators

Pollinator populations are rapidly declining all around the world, causing...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> has found that even small aquatic organisms such as mussels play a crucial – yet often underappreciated - role in protecting and building <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-ecosystems-are-important-carbon-sinks/">coastal ecosystems</a>. These animals serve as “ecosystem engineers” - organisms that directly or indirectly drive habitat construction and control the availability of resources for other organisms.



“As sea levels rise, coastal ecosystems have to adapt and evolve to changing conditions,” said study lead author Sinéad Crotty, an expert in Ecosystem Restoration and Environmental Engineering at Yale. “This study shows that small and innocuous animals that live within an ecosystem can play a critical role in helping coastal systems persist in the face of climate change.”



For instance, mussels (Geukensia demissa) help keeping rivers and streams clean by absorbing heavy metals and filtering harmful silt and particulates as they breathe and feed in aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, their shells provide habitat and nesting sites for a variety of insects, small fish, and plants. Finally, through their feeding process, they also deposit large amounts of material on marsh surfaces, thus helping marshes grow through a process called “accretion,” which refers to the natural action of sand, soil, and silt washing up to the land from rivers or the seashore.



The experts designed a series of experiments to examine mussels’ impact on accretion from small, local scales to whole landscape scales, with the largest one involving the relocation of over 200,000 mussels from one landscape to another and measuring changes to the marsh elevation over a period of three years. “We found that, in reality, the effects of mussels are far greater than predicted by the models, and occur at large, landscape scales,” Crotty reported.



Since similar trends are likely to occur with other fauna engineers, such as worms or bioturbating crabs, including these ecosystem engineers in future modeling and ecosystem management is crucial as sea levels continue to rise.&nbsp;



“This study can help us think through how we prioritize certain marsh areas for protection. Given that mussels are disproportionately important in driving accretion and other ecosystem functions, we should prioritize their protection, or outplanting, as a means to promoting all of their associated benefits,” Crotty concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36444-w">Nature Communications</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Aquatic animals protect coastal ecosystems

A new study led by Yale University has found that...

Diving birds such as puffins and penguins face a higher risk of extinction compared to non-diving birds, according to a study from the Milner Centre for Evolution at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>. The researchers explained that a highly specialized foraging strategy makes these birds less capable of adapting to changing environments.



"Given the new evolutionary pressures being applied to the world's biodiversity by climate change, understanding if highly specialized taxa are evolutionarily ‘trapped’ in their current niches is of great interest," wrote the study authors.



Dr. Jane Younger and Joshua Tyler studied the evolution of diving in modern waterbirds. They set out to investigate how diving has impacted the morphology of these birds, how the species evolved to increase diversity, and the risk of extinction among waterbirds.&nbsp;



"We show that diving has been acquired independently at least 14 times within waterbirds, and this acquisition is apparently irreversible, in a striking example of asymmetric evolution," said the study authors.



The experts determined that body size evolved differently among waterbirds depending on the type of diving they did. They also found that diving traits were not reversed by evolution.



"Three key diving techniques are employed within waterbirds: wing-propelled pursuit diving (e.g. penguins), foot-propelled pursuit diving (e.g. cormorants) and plunge diving (e.g. gannets)," explained the researchers.&nbsp;



The study revealed that wing divers and foot divers tend to have larger body sizes adapted for swimming. On the other hand, plunge divers tend to be more constrained in their body size, as they were better adapted for flying than swimming.



“Our work shows that rather than being a random process, there are predictable patterns to evolution," said Tyler. “Waterbirds were grouped together as being highly related following genetic analysis of the bird family tree in 2015, so I wanted to investigate how evolving to be able to dive had affected their body shape, niche adaptation and evolutionary diversity."



“For example, penguins are highly adapted for their environment - they have a torpedo body shape that helps them swim fast, but they don’t fly and they can’t move that well on land."



“This means they can’t easily adapt to other environments or types of diet. In contrast, plunge divers like gulls are more generalists - they eat anything from fish to Cornish pasties - and we found they are exploding in diversity."



“Our data show that the specialist birds are in more trouble in terms of future extinction, and may be evolving into an evolutionary dead end.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2056">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Diving birds face a greater risk of extinction

Diving birds such as puffins and penguins face a higher...

Germination represents the first big step in a plant’s development. It involves a transition from the embryo state, inside the seed, to a fragile, small seedling that is exposed to the environment. A dormant embryo inside a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-needed-for-seed-dispersal-are-the-first-victims-of-deforestation/">seed</a> is protected from environmental conditions by a sturdy coat, whereas the seedling is far more vulnerable. The timing of this change is critical if the tender new seedling is to survive, but how exactly is this controlled?



Newly formed seeds are unable to germinate but, after a while (a few days or months), they acquire the ability to begin this transition to seedling, as long as the environmental conditions are favorable. However, even after they have ‘awakened,’ seeds can still choose not to germinate. For example, a non-dormant seed that is suddenly subjected to excessively high temperatures (&gt;28°C) can block its own germination to prevent the potentially fatal consequences; this allows for very fine control of the timing of germination.



This mechanism of repression by temperature (thermo-inhibition) enables a seed population to delay germination, even if there is only a small increase in temperature (1 to 2°C) that threatens the seedlings’ chances of survival. However, it is not known how a seed detects this change in environmental temperature or how it prevents germination.



In order to understand the detection mechanism that allows seeds to trigger thermo-inhibition, a group of researchers, led by Luis Lopez-Molina, professor at the Department of Plant Sciences of the Faculty of Science of the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE), has investigated the phenomenon in Arabidopsis thaliana. This is a species of plant belonging to the Brassicaceae family (cabbage, kale, broccoli) and used as a model in many research projects. They have published their findings in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36903-4">Nature Communications</a>.



The researchers first considered the mechanisms whereby young seedlings manage to respond to temperature changes, to help them pinpoint how seeds may accomplish this feat. Indeed, in seedlings a slight increase in temperature results in more rapid stem growth. This adaptation is similar to the one observed when a plant finds itself growing in the shadow of another: it lengthens to escape the shadow in order to expose itself to the sunlight which is more favorable for photosynthesis.&nbsp;



In seedlings, these variations are detected by a protein called phytochrome B that is sensitive to both light and temperature. This protein normally acts as a brake on plant growth in seedlings. An increase of 1 to 2°C tends to inactivate phytochrome B, making it less effective at preventing growth.&nbsp;



However, the role of phytochrome B in thermo-inhibition of seed germination was not known.&nbsp;The experts began by dissecting some Arabidopsis thaliana seeds to separate the two tissues inside the seed: the embryo (which will grow into the young plant) and the endosperm (which provides nutrition for the seed during dormancy and germination). They found that separated embryos were unable to prevent themselves from growing when temperatures were too high, whereas intact embryos showed thermo-inhibition. This indicated to the researchers that some factor within the endosperm was controlling the seeds’ ability to delay germination when it was too warm.&nbsp;



“We found that thermo-inhibition in&nbsp;Arabidopsis&nbsp;is not autonomously controlled by the embryo but implemented by the endosperm, revealing a new essential function for this tissue,” explains Urszula Piskurewicz, researcher at the Department of Plant Sciences of the UNIGE Faculty of Science, and first author of the study. ‘”In other words, in the absence of endosperm, the embryo within the seed would not perceive that the temperatures are too high and would begin its germination, which would be fatal.”



Further investigation of genetic factors, as well as experimentation with mutant plants, indicated that phytochrome B in the endosperm of a seed is indeed involved with this ability to delay germination. High temperatures were found to lower phytochrome B signaling in the endosperm, leading to changes in the production and release of abscisic acid into the embryo. This had the result of preventing growth of the embryo and germination of the seed.&nbsp;



Thermal inhibition of germination is a new example of the ways in which climatic variations can influence certain cyclic phenomena in plant life, such as growth and flowering. It is important to understand the mechanisms involved in this phenomenon, particularly as Earth’s climate warms and the germination of crop seeds may be affected.



“This trait is expected to have an impact on species distribution and plant agriculture and this impact will be greater as temperatures increase worldwide,” reports Luis Lopez-Molina, the study’s last author. A better understanding of how light and temperature trigger or delay seed germination could indeed help optimize the growth of plants exposed to a wide range of climatic conditions.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Seed germination is controlled by an internal thermometer

Germination represents the first big step in a plant’s development....

The last full moon of the winter season in the Northern Hemisphere – known as the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-worm-moon-tonight/">Worm Moon</a>” – will reach peak illumination at 7:42 A.M. E.T. on Tuesday, March 7, 2023. This year, the Worm Moon will coincide with another spectacular planetary phenomenon: the conjunction of Venus and Jupiter in the western sky right after sunset.&nbsp;



For many years, it was thought that the name of this full moon was given by Native American tribes to refer to the earthworms that appear as the soil warms up with the arrival of spring. However, according to the <a href="https://www.almanac.com/content/full-moon-march">Farmer’s Almanac</a>, this name may also be linked to a different type of “worms” – the beetle larvae – that start to emerge from the thawing bark of trees, as well as other winter hideouts during this period of the year, as testified in the 1760s by Captain Jonathan Carver, who learned about this alternative meaning when visiting the Naudowessie (Dakota) and other Native American tribes.



While some other names this full moon is known by also refer to the appearance (or reappearance) of certain animals at the end of winter – such as the Eagle Moon, the Goose Moon (Alonquin, Cree), or the Crow Comes Back Moon (Northern Ojibwe) – yet others point to different signs of the season, including: the Sugar Moon (Ojibwe), marking the time when the sap of sugar maples begins to flow; the Wind Strong Moon (Pueblo), referring to the strong winds characteristic of this period; or the Sore Eyes Moon (Dakota, Lakota, Assiniboine), highlighting the blinding sunrays reflecting off the melting snow.&nbsp;



In Christianity, this moon is known as the Lenten Moon if it occurs before the spring equinox – and corresponds with Lent, the traditional period of fasting preceding Easter - or the Paschal Full Moon if it occurs after the spring equinox. In the Hebrew tradition, it is related to the celebration of Purim, a religious holiday marking the Jewish people’s deliverance from a royal death decree around the fourth century BCE, in Hinduism it is linked to the feast of Holi (also known as the Festival of Colors), celebrating the victory of good over evil and the beginning of spring, and in Buddhism, it corresponds with Māgha Pūjā, celebrating a gathering of the Buddha with 1,250 of his first disciples that symbolizes the creation of an ideal, exemplary community.



Although the Worm Moon will be the most visible if the skies are clear, stargazers who get a bit of rain on Monday or Tuesday night might also get a glimpse of a moonbow, a phenomenon similar to a solar rainbow that is produced by moonlight when it is refracted through water droplets in the air. Since moonbows are only visible when a full moon is low in the sky, they may be visible after sunset, when the sky is dark.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tonight's Worm Moon marks the beginning of spring

The last full moon of the winter season in the...

In a recent study, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> in Australia has found that only 0.18 percent of the global land area and 0.001 percent of the world’s population are exposed to levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) deemed safe by the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO). While daily levels of these dangerous pollutants have reduced in Europe and North America during the two decades to 2019, in Australia, New Zealand, Southern Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean they have increased, with over 70 percent of days globally witnessing potentially hazardous levels.



The experts combined traditional air quality monitoring observations, satellite-based meteorological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/">air pollution</a> detectors, and statistical and machine learning methods to more accurately assess PM2.5&nbsp;concentrations worldwide.&nbsp;



“In this study, we used an innovative machine learning approach to integrate multiple meteorological and geological information to estimate the global surface-level daily PM2.5&nbsp;concentrations at a high spatial resolution of approximately 10km ×10km for global grid cells in 2000-2019, focusing on areas above 15 μg/m³, which is considered the safe limit by WHO (the threshold is still arguable),” explained senior author Yuming Guo, a professor of Global Environmental Health and Biostatistics at Monash.



The analysis revealed that, regardless of a slight decrease in high PM2.5 days globally, over 70 percent of days still had PM2.5&nbsp;concentrations higher than 15 μg/m³ by 2019, with areas in southern and eastern Asia witnessing such dangerous concentrations in more than 90 percent of days.&nbsp;



While the annual average concentration between 2000 and 2019 was 32.8 µg/m3 globally, the highest concentrations were found in eastern Asia (50.0 µg/m3), southern Asia (37.2 µg/m3), and northern Africa (30.1 µg/m3), and the lowest ones in Australia and New Zealand (8.5 μg/m³), Oceania (12.6 μg/m³), and southern America (15.6 μg/m³).



The researchers also discovered that unsafe PM2.5&nbsp;concentrations exhibited different seasonal patterns, with northeast China and north India facing high concentrations in winter, and eastern areas in northern America being exposed to more air pollution in summer.&nbsp;



According to Professor Guo, this study is important since it provides a deep understanding of the current state of outdoor air pollution and its possible impacts on human health. “With this information, policymakers, public health officials, and researchers can better assess the short-term and long-term health effects of air pollution and develop air pollution mitigation strategies,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00008-6">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Almost no place on Earth is safe from air pollution

In a recent study, a team of scientists led by...

Chinstrap,Penguin,,Antarctica,,January,2019

On February 21, 2023, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-sea-ice-levels-are-at-their-lowest-on-record/">Antarctic sea ice</a> extent dropped to its lowest level since satellite observations began 45 years ago, marking the second year in a row with an ice area below two million km2. These worrisome findings raise the question of whether this change is merely a brief anomaly – since sea ice in the Southern Ocean is known to be highly variable, both seasonally and interannually – or an early sign of a transition to a long-term decline comparable to the current situation in the Arctic.



After the 2022 minimum of 1.924 million km2, massive heatwaves in mid-March contributed to further declines – particularly in East Antarctica and coastal areas – and since late May, the pace of seasonal ice growth had slowed dramatically, mostly due to anomalous northerly and northwesterly winds in parts of the eastern Pacific, western Atlantic, and central Indian Oceans that transported warm air southwards. Later in the year, the seasonal ice melt continued to increase in response to a stronger seasonal warming anomaly, culminating in the seasonal minimum of 1.788 million km2 measured in February.



According to an analysis published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.34133/olar.0007">Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</a>, this new record low could be a sign that Antarctic sea ice might enter a new regime, involving “a robust transition from long-term increasing Antarctic sea ice to decreasing sea ice, in which anthropogenic forcing outweighs natural variability.”



“Concern about a tipping point is enhanced by the fact that the latest generation of climate and earth system models projects a large decrease in Antarctic sea ice associated with increased greenhouse gases during the 21st century,” the authors explained.



If sea ice continues to dwindle at such a rate, Antarctica will likely witness more frequent climate extremes and severe instability of its ice shelves, phenomena that will disastrously impact the local food chains and wildlife populations, and have major global consequences such as sea level rise and carbon cycle feedback.



“The question is, has climate change reached Antarctica? Is this the beginning of the end? Will the sea ice disappear for good in the coming years in the summer?” asked Christian Haas, head of the Sea Ice Physics Research Section at the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research</a> in Germany.&nbsp;



However, since until now Antarctica’s response to climate change has been highly different from the Arctic’s, it is not yet clear how Antarctic sea ice will evolve during the following years. “The downward trend in sea ice may be a signal that global warming is finally affecting the floating ice around Antarctica, but it will take several more years to be confident of it,”&nbsp;concluded Ted Scambos, a senior research scientist at the <a href="https://cires.colorado.edu/">Cooperative Institute for Research in the Environmental Sciences</a> (CIRES).



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Antarctic sea ice hits a new record low this year

On February 21, 2023, Antarctic sea ice extent dropped to...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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