Over the past 20 years, scientists have observed a subtle but widespread shift in the color of our oceans. While these changes might not be noticeable during a day at the beach, you can easily see them from airplanes and satellites in space.



This is happening on a massive, global scale, signaling to anyone paying attention that significant transformations are taking place beneath the surface of our seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sounding-alarm-bells">Sounding alarm bells</h2>



Stephanie Dutkiewicz, a senior research scientist at <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>, has been studying this phenomenon closely. She's part of a team that's raising concerns about what these color changes mean for the health of our planet.



"We hope people take this seriously," says Dutkiewicz. "It's not only models predicting these changes; we can now see them happening, and the ocean is changing."



In a study published in Nature, researchers from the <a href="https://noc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanography Center</a> in the UK and other institutions revealed that more than half of the world's oceans have experienced a shift in color. 



They found that these changes can't be chalked up to natural variations alone -- they're likely a result of human-driven climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-ocean-color-near-the-equator">Greener ocean color near the equator</h2>



Tropical regions near the equator have become noticeably greener over time. This isn't just a visual tweak; it's a sign that the ecosystems within the surface ocean are changing. 



The color of the ocean is influenced by what's in its upper layers, especially tiny organisms like phytoplankton.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_south-carolina-coast_landsat8_green-color_nasa-1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_south-carolina-coast_landsat8_green-color_nasa-1s.webp" alt="Winyah Bay (roughly midway between Charleston and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina) receives input from a number of blackwater rivers whose dark, reddish hues arise from the absorptive properties of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) which some have likened to nature's tea. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1951739"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Winyah Bay (roughly midway between Charleston and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina) receives input from a number of blackwater rivers whose dark, reddish hues arise from the absorptive properties of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) which some have likened to nature's tea. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a> are microscopic, plant-like creatures that contain chlorophyll, giving them their green tint. They're a cornerstone of the marine food web and play a key role in capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 



Shifts in their populations can have ripple effects throughout marine ecosystems and impact the global carbon cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blame-the-humans-of-course">Blame the humans, of course</h2>



Lead author B.B. Cael from the National Oceanography Center points out that this isn't a random occurrence. 



"This evidence shows how human activities are affecting life on Earth on a vast scale," he says. "It's another way humans are impacting the biosphere, affecting even the most extensive environments on the planet."



Traditionally, scientists have monitored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chlorophyll levels</a> to keep tabs on phytoplankton populations. But tracking changes using chlorophyll alone can take decades because of natural year-to-year fluctuations. 



Back in 2019, Dutkiewicz and her colleagues suggested that looking at the full spectrum of ocean colors could reveal climate change-driven trends more quickly. They estimated that such changes could become apparent within 20 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-spot-the-difference">Satellites spot the difference</h2>



The team analyzed data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (<a href="https://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MODIS</a>) on NASA's Aqua satellite. 



Since 2002, this instrument has been observing ocean color across seven visible wavelengths. Their analysis showed a clear trend over two decades, lining up with what their models had predicted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_new-zealand-coast_modis-satellite_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_new-zealand-coast_modis-satellite_nasa_1s.webp" alt="Phytoplankton blooms are evident throughout the South Pacific Ocean with sediment re-suspended from the ocean floor by waves and tides along much of the New Zealand coastline. Credit: MODIS/NASA" class="wp-image-1951737"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Phytoplankton blooms are evident throughout the South Pacific Ocean with sediment re-suspended from the ocean floor by waves and tides along much of the New Zealand coastline. Credit: MODIS/NASA</figcaption></figure>



Cael explains that these trends match up with the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-induced</a> climate change, not just random shifts in the Earth's system. 



This means the changes in ocean color are a direct response to how we're altering the planet's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-ocean-color-matter">Why does ocean color matter?</h2>



So, what's the big deal about the ocean turning a bit greener? It suggests that the types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton communities</a> are changing. 



Different phytoplankton have varying abilities to capture carbon and support marine life. Changes in these communities can affect the entire food web, from tiny marine organisms all the way up to fish and whales.



Dutkiewicz emphasizes that these shifts will impact all creatures that rely on plankton for food. 



"Different types of plankton influence how much carbon the ocean can absorb," she notes, highlighting the broader implications for climate regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visible-sign-of-invisible-changes">Visible sign of invisible changes</h2>



This research shines a light on the far-reaching effects of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>. Monitoring ocean color offers a tangible way to detect and understand these shifts. 



The findings are a stark reminder of the significant impact human activities have on Earth's complex systems.



"The evidence is clear: human activities are altering the very color of our oceans," says Cael. This isn't just about aesthetics; it's about the intricate balance of marine life that keeps our planet healthy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-we-do-to-help">What can we do to help?</h2>



This shift in the ocean's hue is more than just a scientific curiosity -- it's a call to action. 



Scientists are continuing to study these trends to grasp the full impact on marine ecosystems and the global climate.



By keeping a closer eye on the full spectrum of ocean colors, researchers hope to gain a quicker understanding of how climate change is affecting the oceans.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_lake-erie_great-lakes_modis_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_lake-erie_great-lakes_modis_nasa_1s.webp" alt="At the end of winter the ice is nearly all gone from Lake Erie, and growing phytoplankton populations are revealed mingling with suspended sediments in this relatively shallow Great Lake. Credit: MODIS/NASA" class="wp-image-1951741"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">At the end of winter the ice is nearly all gone from Lake Erie, and growing phytoplankton populations are revealed mingling with suspended sediments in this relatively shallow Great Lake. Credit: MODIS/NASA</figcaption></figure>



This could lead to faster responses and more effective strategies to lessen the impacts.



As we face the realities of climate change, understanding what's happening in our oceans is crucial. Changes in the oceans can affect weather patterns, sea levels, and biodiversity on a global scale.



Addressing these challenges isn't something scientists can do alone. It requires all of us to pitch in -- from reducing our carbon footprints to supporting policies that protect marine environments. 



Every action, no matter how small, contributes to the bigger picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-color-climate-change-and-human-health">Ocean color, climate change, and human health</h2>



To sum it all up, scientists have noticed that over the past 20 years, more than half of the world's oceans have subtly changed color. 



Stephanie Dutkiewicz points out that this shift matches what climate change models have been predicting. 



The color change is linked to alterations in phytoplankton communities -- tiny, plant-like organisms with chlorophyll that give the ocean its green tint. 



These little guys are essential for marine life and play a big role in capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



By analyzing satellite data, researchers found that these changes aren't just natural fluctuations; they're consistent with human-driven climate change. 



The shift in ocean color suggests significant changes in marine ecosystems, which could impact the entire food web -- from microscopic organisms to large marine animals. 



This finding highlights how human activities are affecting the planet in profound ways, even down to changing the very color of our oceans. It's a clear sign that we need to take climate change seriously and start making changes now.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06321-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Earth's oceans are rapidly changing colors, and it's too late to stop it

Over the past 20 years, scientists have observed a subtle but widespread shift in the color of our oceans. While these changes might not be noticeable during a day at the beach, you can easily see them from airplanes and satellites in space. This is happening on a massive, global scale, signaling to anyone paying attention that significant transformations are taking place beneath the surface of our seas. Sounding alarm bells Stephanie Dutkiewicz, a senior research scientist at MIT, has been studying this phenomenon closely. She's part...

It's generally assumed that drought spells disaster for trees. But in a surprising revelation, recent research shows that certain trees may indeed benefit from a record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-collapse-of-mayan-civilization-was-not-caused-by-drought/">drought</a>. This curious phenomenon, which defies expectations, is the subject of a study in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.



A team of scientists led by Professor Joan Dudney from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> delved into how whitebark pine, an endangered tree species, responded to droughts over the past century. This particular tree grows in harsh, chilly climates, often found at high altitudes and latitudes.&nbsp;



Professor Dudney's team discovered that in these hostile conditions, drought could, quite unexpectedly, provide an advantage to the trees by extending their growing season.



<h2 id="h-important-insights-will-help-guide-climate-change-initiatives">Important insights will help guide climate change initiatives</h2>



What does this mean for the future? This research offers crucial insight into the locations most vulnerable to the threats of extreme drought and how different species and ecosystems will likely react to climate change.



Trees encounter several obstacles to their growth. Cold temperatures, insufficient sunlight, and lack of water and nutrients can all hinder a tree's growth. The distinction between energy-limited and water-limited systems, where trees struggle to grow due to either freezing conditions or drought, respectively, is of particular importance.



Over the years, numerous tree species have adapted to these harsh conditions, showing broadly similar responses. When faced with extreme weather, trees typically scale back on growth-related activities, such as photosynthesis and nutrient uptake, essentially going into survival mode until conditions improve.



"Intriguingly, the shift from energy-limited to water-limited growth can result in quite unexpected outcomes," said Professor Dudney. "In severe, energy-limited climates, extreme drought can actually amplify growth and productivity, even in a place like California."



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



Dudney's team conducted thorough research by collecting 800 tree core samples from whitebark pine across the Sierra Nevada. They compared the tree rings to historical climate records from 1900 to 2018, a period encompassing three extreme droughts: 1959-61, 1976-77, and 2012-15.&nbsp;



Their meticulous record-keeping highlighted where tree growth and temperature shared a positive relationship, and where it was negative.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The findings were startling. The experts observed a distinct change in growth during periods of drought when the average maximum temperature hovered around 8.4° Celsius (47.1° Fahrenheit) from October to May. Above this temperature threshold, extreme drought stunted growth and photosynthesis. But below it, drought seemed to spur the trees to grow more.



"The key question is, 'how long is the growing season?'" said Dudney. Trees in colder climates with heavier snowpack usually face shorter growing seasons, thus limiting their growth. Even during intense droughts, many trees growing in these extreme environments did not exhibit severe water stress.



This discovery surprised the research team, several of whom had witnessed first-hand the unprecedented tree death that occurred at slightly lower elevations in the Sierra Nevada.



Professor Dudney wondered whether the impact of drought was confined to the main trunk or if it affected the entire tree. To answer this question, the team turned to chemistry.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-uncertain-future-for-the-whitebark-pine">Uncertain future for the whitebark pine</h2>



By examining the different isotopes of carbon found in the tree's tissues, such as leaves and needles, they could estimate the level of water stress the tree experienced during droughts. This proved especially useful, as the whitebark pine retains its needles for approximately eight years, providing a wealth of data across both drought and non-drought years.



What they found was that the entire tree, from trunk growth and needle growth to photosynthesis and nutrient cycling, was affected by the tipping point between water-limited and energy-limited systems.



The future of whitebark pine is fraught with uncertainty. The species, recently categorized as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, confronts numerous challenges, including disease, pine beetle infestation, and disturbances from altered fire regimes.&nbsp;



This research underscores that drought and warming are likely to exacerbate these threats in water-limited regions. However, in energy-limited environments, warming could actually aid in their growth.



"This research can guide us towards more precise conservation strategies to help restore this historically widespread tree species," Dudney stated, highlighting the critical relevance of their findings. The habitat of whitebark pine spans an impressive region, from California to British Columbia, and east to Wyoming.



<h2 id="h-research-has-global-implications">Research has global implications</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond just the whitebark pine. Approximately 21% of the world's forests are energy-limited, with an even higher percentage classified as water-limited. Therefore, it's likely that transitions between these two climate regimes occur globally.



This transition also appears to influence nitrogen cycling. Trees in water-limited environments seemed to rely less on symbiotic fungi for nitrogen, which is indispensable for tree growth in harsh, energy-limited environments.



"Droughts are causing widespread tree mortality worldwide, which can accelerate global warming," said Professor Dudney.



Understanding the multifaceted ways trees react to drought is a critical part of forecasting which ecosystems are most vulnerable to climate change. This knowledge will also guide us in crafting more focused strategies to protect our invaluable forests. After all, understanding how some trees grow despite adversity is a lesson in survival - not just for the trees, but for our planet too.



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-and-trees">More about climate change and trees</h2>



Climate change has significant impacts on trees and forests around the world. With rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns, trees are being forced to adapt to new and challenging conditions, while forests face threats of altered habitats, biodiversity loss, and changes in carbon storage capacity.



Rising temperatures are one of the most direct effects of climate change. While it might seem that warmer weather would be beneficial for plant growth, it's not that simple.&nbsp;



Many trees are adapted to specific temperature ranges, and a sudden shift can result in stress and even death for those that can't adapt quickly enough. This is particularly true for species in high altitudes and latitudes, which are adapted to cold environments and may struggle with even a slight increase in temperature.



Additionally, warmer temperatures can lead to more frequent and severe heatwaves, which can cause water stress and increase susceptibility to pests and diseases.



Changes in precipitation patterns are another major impact of climate change on trees and forests. Some areas are experiencing increased rainfall, leading to flooding and waterlogged soils, while others are becoming drier, leading to drought.&nbsp;



Both situations can be detrimental to trees. Flooding can suffocate tree roots and promote disease, while drought can reduce growth and increase mortality. Drought can also make trees more susceptible to pests and wildfires.



<h3 id="h-pests-and-diseases-broaden-their-range">Pests and diseases broaden their range</h3>



The impact of climate change on pests and diseases is a growing concern. Warmer temperatures can allow pests to expand their range and increase their population size. It can also accelerate the lifecycle of pests and diseases, allowing them to reproduce more quickly. This, coupled with trees weakened by heat and drought stress, can lead to outbreaks that can devastate entire forests.



Wildfires, too, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. Warmer, drier conditions increase the risk of fire, and once a fire starts, it can spread more quickly and burn more intensely.&nbsp;



Forests that are adapted to occasional fires may struggle to recover from these intense burns, leading to a loss of tree cover and biodiversity.



Lastly, climate change can also impact the role of forests as carbon sinks. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as they grow, helping to mitigate climate change.&nbsp;



But as forests are stressed, damaged, and destroyed by the impacts of climate change, their capacity to store carbon is reduced. This can create a feedback loop, where the loss of forests exacerbates climate change, leading to further forest loss.



In conclusion, climate change poses a major threat to trees and forests worldwide. However, understanding these impacts and how different tree species and forest ecosystems respond to them is crucial for developing strategies to conserve and manage our forests in a changing climate.



—-



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Droughts can actually benefit trees in certain circumstances

It's generally assumed that drought spells disaster for trees. But...

For decades, scientists have relied on the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundbreaking-technique-turns-rotting-seaweed-into-biofuels/">seaweed</a> at the ocean’s surface as an indicator for estimating the health of the coral reefs below. However, according to a new global study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC), such an approach has been misleading, and may have even hidden signs of reef stress.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that scientists should find new ways to determine whether and to what extent human activity is harming coral reefs.



Seaweed belongs to a group of organisms known as macroalgae that usually float on the ocean’s surface, covering coral reefs. The extent and features of macroalgae are relatively easy and quick to measure, and have long served as a proxy to assess reef health. Since the 1970s, experts have assumed that local human impacts increase macroalgae, while damaging the reefs below.



However, by examining data from over 1,200 sites in the Indian and Pacific Oceans during a 16- year period, the UBC researchers found that the previous assumptions may have been faulty. For instance, macroalgae covering depends heavily on the species growing in particular regions. While Sargassum is unlikely to grow in water contaminated by agricultural runoff, a species such as Halimeda will thrive.



Thus, using macroalgae cover as an indicator of local human impacts can actually obscure how much anthropogenic actions are damaging coral reefs, and cause scientist to misidentify the reefs that are most in need of intervention.



“Despite evidence that macroalgae respond to local stressors in diverse ways, there have been few efforts to evaluate relationships between specific macroalgae taxa and local human-driven disturbance. The convention to use percent cover of macroalgae as an indication of local human disturbance therefore likely obscures signatures of local anthropogenic threats to reefs," said the researchers.



"Our limited understanding of relationships between human disturbance, macroalgae taxa, and their responses to human disturbances impedes the ability to diagnose and respond appropriately to these threats."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16694">Global Change Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-human-impacts-on-coral-reefs">Human impacts on coral reefs</h2>



Human activities have profound impacts on coral reefs. These activities largely exacerbate the natural threats that reefs face, causing more frequent and severe damages. Here are the key ways humans impact coral reefs:



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



Human-induced climate change is one of the most significant threats to coral reefs. The burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have led to an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, causing global warming and ocean acidification. This results in coral bleaching events and impedes coral growth, respectively.



<h3 id="h-pollution">Pollution</h3>



Coastal development, industrial activities, and agricultural runoff can increase the amount of sediment, nutrients, and pollutants in the water, which can smother coral reefs or lead to destructive algal blooms.



<h3 id="h-overfishing-and-destructive-fishing-practices">Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Practices</h3>



Overfishing can disrupt the balance of reef ecosystems, removing key species that help control algal growth. Destructive fishing practices, like blast fishing or cyanide fishing, can directly destroy coral reefs.



<h3 id="h-unsustainable-tourism">Unsustainable Tourism</h3>



While eco-tourism can bring attention and resources to the conservation of coral reefs, irresponsible practices can harm them. Damage can be done through direct physical damage from anchors or divers and indirect impacts like increased waste and pollution.



<h3 id="h-coastal-development">Coastal Development</h3>



Construction along coastlines can lead to increased sediment in the water, which can smother corals. Coastal development can also result in the destruction of mangroves and sea grass beds, which serve as important buffer zones that reduce the amount of sediment and pollutants reaching coral reefs.



<h3 id="h-coral-mining">Coral Mining</h3>



Coral reefs are often mined for limestone, used in construction, and for coral rock, used in souvenir industry. This practice directly removes the reef.



<h3 id="h-introduction-of-invasive-species">Introduction of Invasive Species</h3>



Human activities can unintentionally introduce non-native species to reef environments. These invasive species can outcompete native species for resources, disrupt local ecosystems, and cause significant harm to the reefs.



<h2 id="h-can-these-human-impacts-be-reduced">Can these human impacts be reduced?</h2>



The impact of human activities on coral reefs can be mitigated with various strategies and efforts. Here are some key ones:



<h3 id="h-policy-changes">Policy Changes</h3>



Government regulation can play a critical role in coral reef conservation. Policies can regulate fishing to prevent overfishing and destructive practices, enforce pollution controls to maintain water quality, manage coastal development to reduce habitat destruction, and encourage renewable energy and other climate change mitigation strategies.



<h3 id="h-education-and-public-awareness">Education and Public Awareness</h3>



Education can help the general public understand the value of coral reefs and the threats they face, inspiring individuals to adopt practices that support reef health. This can include understanding safe and sustainable tourism practices, supporting sustainable seafood choices, and reducing carbon footprints.



<h3 id="h-sustainable-practices">Sustainable Practices</h3>



Businesses and industries can adopt sustainable practices to reduce their impact on coral reefs. This can include responsible waste management, sustainable sourcing and supply chain management, and transition to renewable energy sources.



<h3 id="h-direct-action-and-restoration">Direct Action and Restoration</h3>



Conservation groups and researchers are working on reef restoration initiatives. This includes projects that actively restore damaged reefs, such as coral gardening and the use of artificial reefs.



<h3 id="h-scientific-research">Scientific Research</h3>



Continued research is critical to understanding coral reef ecosystems, the threats they face, and the most effective methods for their conservation.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-mitigation">Climate Change Mitigation</h3>



Given the impact of climate change on coral reefs, efforts to mitigate climate change are critical. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, adopting renewable energy sources, and promoting carbon sequestration efforts.



<h3 id="h-marine-protected-areas">Marine Protected Areas</h3>



Establishing and enforcing marine protected areas (MPAs) can provide a refuge for coral reefs and the species that inhabit them. MPAs can help maintain biodiversity, prevent overfishing, and provide areas for reefs to recover from disturbances.



These strategies together can significantly reduce the human impact on coral reefs. The challenge is substantial but so too is the importance of these unique and invaluable ecosystems.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Seaweed can mislead scientists about reef health

For decades, scientists have relied on the amount of seaweed...

New research has shed light on an unforeseen benefit of the 1987 global agreement, known as the Montreal Protocol, which aimed to protect the ozone layer. The study reveals that this international accord may have delayed the inaugural ice-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-algae-heavily-contaminated-with-microplastics/">Arctic</a> summer by up to 15 years, with the timeline now projected for mid-century.



The Montreal Protocol was a landmark agreement, ratified by every member of the United Nations. It focused on regulating nearly 100 synthetic chemicals, identified as ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). These chemicals were largely developed during the 20th century for industrial applications such as refrigerants and propellants, the most well-known being chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs.



Despite the primary objective being the conservation of the ozone layer - a shield protecting us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation - the Montreal Protocol had a broader impact. The ODSs in focus also double as potent greenhouse gases, which means that the agreement inadvertently played a role in mitigating global warming.



The recently conducted study, backed by the US National Science Foundation, unveiled some astonishing insights about this unforeseen impact. The research team - comprising scientists from UC Santa Cruz, Columbia University, and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> - found that for every 1,000 tons of ODS emissions prevented, approximately seven square kilometers of Arctic sea ice were saved.



<h2 id="h-how-odss-impact-the-environment">How ODSs impact the environment</h2>



Dr. Mark England, a senior research fellow at the University of Exeter under the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, clarified the influence of ODSs on our environment.&nbsp;



“While ODSs aren’t as abundant as other greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, they can have a real impact on global warming,” said Dr. England. “ODSs have particularly powerful effects in the Arctic, and they played a major role in driving Arctic climate change in the second half of the 20th Century.”



Dr. England also noted that while curbing these impacts was not the primary aim of the Montreal Protocol, it turned out to be a "fantastic by-product." He said that despite some critics forecasting negative outcomes from the Protocol, these mostly did not materialize. Instead, the treaty has delivered numerous unexpected climate benefits.



<h2 id="h-first-ice-free-arctic-summer-will-be-a-pivotal-moment">First ice-free Arctic summer will be a pivotal moment</h2>



Taking a similar stance, Professor Lorenzo Polvani from Columbia University emphasized the significance of the first ice-free Arctic summer - a pivotal moment in the narrative of climate change.&nbsp;



“Our findings clearly demonstrate that the Montreal Protocol has been a very powerful climate protection treaty, and has done much more than healing the ozone hole over the South Pole,” said Professor Polvani. “Its effects are being felt all over the world, especially in the Arctic.”



The research utilized cutting-edge climate model simulations to draw these conclusions. It emphasized that the protection of the ozone layer did not contribute to the preservation of the Arctic sea ice. Instead, the primary factor was the greenhouse gas role played by the ODSs.



Post the Montreal Protocol, the atmospheric concentrations of ODSs have been on the decline since the mid-1990s. This successful effort has led to the first signs of the ozone layer's healing process. Nonetheless, a small rise in ODS concentrations was recorded between 2010 and 2020, prompting Dr. England to emphasize that vigilance remains crucial.



The study's findings, highlighting the unexpected climate benefits of the Montreal Protocol, are published in the prestigious journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2211432120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-ozone-layer">More about the ozone layer</h2>



The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) molecules. It plays a vital role in protecting life on Earth by absorbing the majority of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation.&nbsp;



Without this protective shield, humans and other organisms could be subjected to harmful levels of UV radiation, potentially causing skin cancer, cataracts, weakened immune systems, and damaging crops and marine ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-depletion-of-the-ozone-layer">Depletion of the ozone layer&nbsp;</h3>



However, in the mid-20th century, scientists discovered that the ozone layer was depleting, primarily over the Antarctic, creating what is commonly known as the "ozone hole." The primary culprits were man-made chemicals, particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform.&nbsp;



These chemicals were widely used in air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol propellants, fire extinguishers, and in various industrial processes. Once released into the atmosphere, they could stay there for a long time, slowly rising to the stratosphere where they could be broken down by solar radiation, releasing chlorine and bromine atoms, which could then catalyze the destruction of ozone.



<h3 id="h-the-1987-montreal-protocol">The 1987 Montreal Protocol</h3>



Concern over this growing environmental issue led to the establishment of the 1987 Montreal Protocol. This international treaty was designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of these ozone-depleting substances (ODSs).&nbsp;



The Montreal Protocol was remarkable in the broad global consensus it achieved; it is the first treaty in the history of the United Nations to achieve universal ratification, with all 198 UN member countries signing on.



Since its implementation, the Montreal Protocol has been incredibly successful. It has resulted in the phase-out of 99% of ODSs globally. According to a 2018 scientific assessment by the UN, the ozone layer is recovering and the Antarctic ozone hole is expected to gradually close, returning to 1980 levels in the 2060s.&nbsp;



This assessment also indicates that the Protocol will have prevented 2 million cases of skin cancer annually by 2030, averted damage to human eyes and immune systems, and protected wildlife and agriculture.



<h3 id="h-inadvertent-positive-consequences">Inadvertent positive consequences</h3>



Furthermore, because many ODSs are also potent greenhouse gases, the Montreal Protocol has inadvertently mitigated some climate change. Recent studies have suggested that the Montreal Protocol's controls on ODSs have avoided a significant amount of global warming, potentially more than any other measure taken so far.



However, despite these successes, challenges remain. Some ODSs continue to be emitted, either from existing equipment and products or from certain exempted uses. Furthermore, some substances that replace ODSs, while not depleting the ozone layer, are potent greenhouse gases.&nbsp;



In response, the Montreal Protocol was amended in 2016 (the Kigali Amendment) to include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are used as replacements for CFCs but contribute to global warming.



In conclusion, the 1987 Montreal Protocol stands as a successful example of global cooperation in response to a planetary environmental threat. The continued vigilance and cooperation of the international community will be critical in ensuring the full recovery of the ozone layer and the successful management of ODSs and their substitutes.



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1987 ozone treaty had an unexpected benefit for the environment

New research has shed light on an unforeseen benefit of...

The specter of a dangerously hot future awaits more than a fifth of the global population by 2100, according to compelling new research. This warning comes despite pledges made under the Paris Agreement to maintain global warming well below 2°C when compared to pre-industrial levels.&nbsp;



Researchers fear that existing climate policies may fail to curb the rising mercury and lead to an average global temperature increase of 2.7°C by the century's close.



This groundbreaking study, a collaborative effort of the Global Systems Institute at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, Earth Commission, and Nanjing University, presents a sobering picture of what such a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-changes-negatively-impact-bumblebees/">temperature</a> increase could mean for humanity.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



In essence, the researchers studied the impact of this warming on the number of people living outside the “climate niche” - a term describing the conditions under which our species has thrived.



The study reveals that approximately 60 million people are currently exposed to dangerously high heat levels, defined as an average temperature of 29°C or higher. Alarmingly, should global warming reach 2.7°C, this figure is projected to swell to two billion. This represents a staggering 22% of the projected population by 2100.



However, amidst the grim statistics, the paper also underscores the significant potential of resolute climate policy to mitigate the human costs and inequities of climate change.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-sticking-to-climate-policy-can-make-a-huge-impact">Sticking to climate policy can make a huge impact</h2>



By implementing more stringent policies that limit global warming to 1.5°C, we could significantly reduce the number of people exposed to dangerous heat levels - saving a sixth of humanity from this fate compared to a scenario of 2.7°C warming.



The team went on to highlight the climate crisis's inherent inequity. They found that the lifetime emissions of merely 3.5 average global citizens today, or just 1.2 US citizens, could expose one future person to dangerous heat.&nbsp;



This stark reality gains a further dimension when considering that the regions where these future heat-exposed individuals will reside typically emit only about half of the global average today.



Worst-case scenarios of 3.6°C or even 4.4°C global warming could push half the world's population outside the climate niche, an existential risk that researchers are urging us to avoid.



“The costs of global warming are often expressed in financial terms, but our study highlights the phenomenal human cost of failing to tackle the climate emergency,” said Professor Tim Lenton, director of the Global Systems Institute.



“For every 0.1°C of warming above present levels, about 140 million more people will be exposed to dangerous heat. This reveals both the scale of the problem and the importance of decisive action to reduce carbon emissions. Limiting global warming to 1.5°C rather than 2.7°C would mean five times fewer people in 2100 being exposed to dangerous heat.”



<h2 id="h-defining-the-human-niche">Defining the human “niche”</h2>



In order to better understand this crisis, the researchers defined the human "niche." Historically, human population density has peaked in areas with an average temperature of about 13°C, and to a lesser extent, 27°C - typically monsoon climates such as those found in South Asia. In line with this, wealth (as measured by GDP), along with crop and livestock density, follows a similar pattern.



Yet, as less than 1% of humanity currently lives in places of dangerous heat exposure, the study shockingly shows that climate change has already forced 9% of the global population (more than 600 million people) out of the niche.



“Most of these people lived near the cooler 13°C peak of the niche and are now in the ‘middle ground’ between the two peaks. While not dangerously hot, these conditions tend to be much drier and have not historically supported dense human populations,” explained Professor Chi Xu of Nanjing University.&nbsp;



“Meanwhile, the vast majority of people projected to be pushed outside the niche due to future warming will face dangerous heat. Such high temperatures have been linked to a plethora of problems, including increased mortality, decreased labor productivity, impaired learning, adverse pregnancy outcomes, reduced crop yield, escalated conflict, and the spread of infectious diseases.”



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The study also suggests that while climate change may render some cooler places more habitable, population growth is expected to spike in regions threatened by dangerous heat, notably India and Nigeria.



In a deep dive into the specifics, the research revealed that exposure to dangerous heat begins to escalate dramatically at 1.2°C above current global warming, increasing by approximately 140 million people for every additional 0.1°C of warming.



With a projected global population of 9.5 billion people, the numbers are even more concerning. At 2.7°C of global warming, India is set to bear the brunt, with more than 600 million people exposed to dangerous heat. If this warming can be limited to 1.5°C, this number could be drastically reduced to around 90 million.



Similarly, Nigeria would have the second-largest heat-exposed population at 2.7°C of global warming, with over 300 million people at risk. Reducing warming to 1.5°C would see this number decline to less than 40 million.



Even at this stage, "hotspots" of dangerous temperatures are apparent in India and Nigeria. If the globe warms by 2.7°C, nearly 100% of some countries, including Burkina Faso and Mali, will experience dangerously hot conditions. Brazil, despite having almost no areas exposed at 1.5°C, would have the largest land area exposed to dangerous heat at 2.7°C. Australia and India would also see massive increases in areas exposed to such conditions.



<h2 id="h-avoiding-crisis-through-rapid-action">Avoiding crisis through rapid action</h2>



Collaborating researchers from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, and the Universities of Washington, North Carolina State, Aarhus and Wageningen stress that these dire consequences can be avoided through rapid action to cut greenhouse gas emissions.



Reflecting on the motivation behind their study, Professor Marten Scheffer, of Wageningen University, stated, “We were triggered by the fact that the economic costs of carbon emissions hardly reflect the impact on human wellbeing. Our calculations now help bridge this gap and should stimulate asking new, unorthodox questions about justice.”



The study's findings offer valuable insights into the racialized nature of projected climate impacts. Ashish Ghadiali, of Exeter’s Global Systems Institute, said, “These findings from the leading edge of Earth systems science should inspire a policy sea-change in thinking around the urgency of decarbonization efforts, as well as in the value of massively up-shifting global investment into the frontlines of climate vulnerability.”



<h2 id="h-recommendations-from-the-research-team">Recommendations from the research team</h2>



Funded by the <a href="https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/">Open Society Foundations</a>, this research also serves as a cornerstone for the Global Commons Alliance through the Earth Commission.&nbsp;



Wendy Broadgate, Executive Director of the Earth Commission at Future Earth, remarked, “We are already seeing effects of dangerous heat levels on people in different parts of the world today. This will only accelerate unless we take immediate and decisive action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.”



The Global Systems Institute at the University of Exeter is keen to identify "positive tipping points" to expedite action against climate change. A recent report from the institute highlighted three "super-leverage points" that could trigger a cascade of decarbonization.



The researchers have made their findings available in a paper titled "Quantifying the Human Cost of Global Warming," published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01132-6">Nature Sustainability</a>. This comprehensive research not only highlights the human cost of global warming but also stresses the urgent need for decisive climate policy to avert a grim future.



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-and-the-paris-agreement">More about climate change and the Paris Agreement</h2>



Climate change refers to the long-term changes in temperature and typical weather patterns around the world. It's primarily driven by human activities that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to a warming effect known as global warming. These activities include burning fossil fuels like coal and oil, deforestation, and industrial processes.



This global warming has far-reaching effects on the Earth's climate systems, leading to more intense and frequent heatwaves, rising sea levels due to melting ice caps, increased frequency and severity of natural disasters like storms and wildfires, and significant disruption to ecosystems and agriculture.



<h3 id="h-what-the-paris-agreement-hopes-to-accomplish">What the Paris Agreement hopes to accomplish&nbsp;</h3>



The Paris Agreement is an international treaty designed to address these challenges. It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.



This goal was established in response to scientific consensus that a global warming of 2 degrees Celsius would have catastrophic impacts on the planet, including severe and potentially irreversible changes to weather patterns, ecosystems, and biodiversity.&nbsp;



The lower goal of 1.5 degrees was included in recognition of the fact that even 2 degrees of warming could have serious consequences, particularly for vulnerable populations such as small island nations.



<h3 id="h-how-to-achieve-the-paris-agreements-goals">How to achieve the Paris Agreements goals&nbsp;</h3>



To achieve this goal, countries that are party to the Paris Agreement have made Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which are their own individual commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;



The Agreement also includes provisions for monitoring, reporting, and ratcheting up these commitments over time, to ensure that the global response to climate change continues to strengthen in the coming decades.



Furthermore, the Paris Agreement acknowledges the need for global cooperation in other areas, such as climate change adaptation, financial flows, technology transfer, and capacity building. This recognizes that some countries, particularly developing nations, will require support to both reduce their emissions and cope with the impacts of climate change.



However, despite the ambitions of the Paris Agreement, current pledges under the agreement are not yet enough to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees. As such, the Agreement includes mechanisms to increase the ambition of NDCs over time. Yet, significant action is needed to meet these goals and effectively mitigate the impacts of climate change.



—-



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Limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius would save billions of lives

The specter of a dangerously hot future awaits more than...

Approximately 252 million years in the past, our Earth was gripped by a cataclysmic event of mass extinction so severe it's now referred to as "the Great Dying." Vast volcanic eruptions ignited an unparalleled climate shift, leading to the extinction of 90% of all species, thus setting the stage for the era of the dinosaurs.&nbsp;



This catastrophic event, however, was not a sudden occurrence. Instead, the Great Dying stretched over the course of nearly a million years, marking the end of the Permian period with a drawn-out farewell.



During this prolonged extinction event, a tiger-sized, saber-toothed creature named Inostrancevia symbolized the struggle for survival in the face of the Earth's drastically shifting environments.&nbsp;



The fossil record reveals a recent discovery that this creature embarked on a 7,000-mile migration across the supercontinent Pangaea, establishing its presence in a far-off ecosystem that had lost its apex predators. Yet, despite its monumental journey, Inostrancevia was also eventually doomed to extinction.



"All the big top predators in the late Permian in South Africa went extinct well before the end-Permian mass extinction. We learned that this vacancy in the niche was occupied, for a brief period, by Inostrancevia," said Pia Viglietti, a research scientist at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago and a co-author of the new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.007">Current Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-inostrancevia-was-an-extraordinary-creature">Inostrancevia was an extraordinary creature</h2>



Indeed, Inostrancevia was not an ordinary creature. Viglietti explained: "Inostrancevia was a gorgonopsian, a group of proto-mammals that included the first saber-toothed predators on the planet."&nbsp;



Resembling a tiger in size, Inostrancevia likely bore skin akin to an elephant or a rhino, and despite its somewhat reptilian appearance, it was actually a part of the lineage leading to modern mammals.



Before this study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-marine-ichthyosaur-fossils-found-high-in-the-alps/">fossils</a> of Inostrancevia had only been identified in Russia. However, during the examination of South Africa’s Karoo Basin fossil record, Christian Kammerer, Viglietti's colleague, identified the fossils of two large predatory animals that were distinct from those typically found in the region.



"The fossils themselves were quite unexpected," said Viglietti. The mystery of how these creatures traveled from modern-day Russia, across Pangaea, and arrived in what's now South Africa remains. Yet, their distant journey was just one facet of what made these fossils remarkable.



<h2 id="h-researchers-make-exciting-revelation">Researchers make exciting revelation</h2>



The discovery brought forth an exciting revelation. "When we reviewed the ranges and ages of the other top predators normally found in the area, the rubidgeine gorgonopsians, with these Inostrancevia fossils, we found something quite exciting," explained Viglietti. “The local carnivores actually went extinct quite a bit before even the main extinction that we see in the Karoo - by the time the extinction begins in other animals, they're gone.”



Thus, the journey of Inostrancevia from 7,000 miles away and its subsequent extinction suggests that these top predators were like the proverbial “canaries in the coal mine” for the more substantial extinction event that was to follow.



“This shows that the South African Karoo Basin continues to produce critical data for understanding the most catastrophic mass extinction in Earth’s history,” explained study co-author Professor Jennifer Botha, director of GENUS Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences.



<h2 id="h-shifting-roles-of-apex-predators">Shifting roles of apex predators</h2>



This study also discovered that the role of apex predators shifted an unprecedented four times over a span of less than two million years around the Permian-Triassic mass extinction.&nbsp;



"This underlines how extreme this crisis was, with even fundamental roles in ecosystems in an extreme state of flux," said study lead author Christian Kammerer, a research curator of paleontology at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences and research associate at the Field Museum.



The susceptibility of these top predators mirrors what we observe in our current ecosystems.&nbsp;



"Apex predators in modern environments tend to show high extinction risk, and tend to be among the first species that are locally extirpated due to human-mediated activities such as hunting or habitat destruction," said Kammerer.&nbsp;



He referred to examples like the European wolves or Asian tigers, species that reproduce and grow slowly and require large areas to roam and hunt prey, but are now missing from most of their historic ranges. "We should expect that ancient apex predators would have had similar vulnerabilities, and would be among the species that first go extinct during mass extinction events."



<h2 id="h-valuable-lessons-learned">Valuable lessons learned</h2>



The study not only throws new light on the extinction event that paved the way for the rise of the dinosaurs, but also imparts valuable lessons about the ecological crises that our planet currently faces.



“It's always good to get a better understanding of how mass extinction events affect ecosystems, especially because the Permian is basically a parallel on what we’re going through now," said Viglietti.



She further emphasized the lack of modern analogs to compare with the mass extinction happening today. The Permian-Triassic mass extinction event offers one of the best references of what our planet might endure due to the ongoing climate crisis and extinctions. But unlike the past, "we know what to do and how to stop it from happening."



This groundbreaking study not only reveals intriguing aspects of prehistoric life but also serves as a timely reminder of the need to preserve our ecosystems and avert the looming ecological disasters threatening our planet today.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-great-dying">More about the Great Dying</h2>



The Great Dying, formally known as the Permian-Triassic (P-Tr) extinction event, is the most devastating mass extinction event that our planet has ever experienced. This catastrophic event occurred roughly 252 million years ago, marking the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geological periods, hence its name.



This extinction event wiped out approximately 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. The sheer scale of life lost earned it the moniker "the Great Dying." It was an extinction event so severe that it took the Earth up to 10 million years to recover its biodiversity levels.



Several theories attempt to explain the cause of this mass extinction. Most scientists agree that a combination of environmental changes likely led to this catastrophe, rather than a single event.



<h3 id="h-volcanic-activity">Volcanic Activity</h3>



Massive volcanic eruptions in the Siberian Traps released a vast amount of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, leading to drastic global warming. These eruptions also spewed out sulfur dioxide, which can cause acid rain and further environmental damage.



<h3 id="h-ocean-anoxia">Ocean Anoxia</h3>



The increased global temperatures could have led to the depletion of oxygen levels in the oceans, a state known as ocean anoxia. This could have made the oceans inhospitable for many marine species, leading to widespread death.



<h3 id="h-methane-hydrate-gasification">Methane Hydrate Gasification</h3>



Some scientists also theorize that warming oceans might have destabilized deposits of methane hydrates (a type of ice that contains a lot of trapped methane) on the seafloor, leading to a massive release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This could have caused temperatures to spike even further.



The Great Dying had significant long-term impacts on life on Earth. In the aftermath of the extinction, a group of reptiles known as archosaurs emerged as dominant, leading eventually to the age of dinosaurs in the later Mesozoic Era. It also took a long time for life to fully recover from this event, with some estimates suggesting it took as long as 10 million years for biodiversity to return to pre-extinction levels.



As we face our own environmental challenges today, understanding events like the Great Dying can help scientists predict potential outcomes and develop strategies to prevent similar scenarios from occurring due to human-induced climate change.



Image Credit: Art by Matt Celeskey



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Saber-toothed predator was king prior to the Great Dying

Approximately 252 million years in the past, our Earth was...

Biological diversity is an invaluable global asset that must be safeguarded for future generations. Yet, this biodiversity is increasingly threatened by human activities such as deforestation, overfishing, and pollution, which are dramatically reducing the number of species.&nbsp;



Recognizing the critical need for public awareness on this matter, the United Nations decided to annually celebrate the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/ibd/">International Day for Biological Diversity</a>, a day that highlights our responsibility to protect the natural world.



In an era of rapid technological advancement and increasing global connectivity, we must reassess our relationship with nature. The reality is that our survival depends on the health of the world's ecosystems.&nbsp;



Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=water&amp;start=0">water</a>, food, medicine, clothing, fuel, shelter, and energy all stem from the invaluable resources provided by nature, underscoring the urgency of nurturing and conserving our planet's biological diversity.



Protecting and restoring biological diversity has never been more crucial, or more possible. This year presents an unprecedented opportunity for biodiversity conservation.



The adoption of the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/gbf">Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework</a> in December 2022 has set a groundbreaking precedent for our battle against nature's loss. The historic agreement lays out definitive goals aimed at halting and eventually reversing the devastating loss of nature by 2050.



This transformative commitment is the inspiration for this year's International Day for Biological Diversity and its theme: "From agreement to action: build back biodiversity." The globally agreed-upon action plan must be implemented in its entirety before 2030, setting the stage for a thriving, sustainable ecosystem by 2050.&nbsp;



This powerful call to action comes from the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> (CBD). Recognized as the primary global mechanism advocating for sustainable development, the CBD emphasizes that our future rests heavily on how effectively we implement measures that are not merely reactive but also preemptive, to nurture and conserve our world's biological diversity



"Biological diversity has a problem, humanity has a problem," says the CBD. The concept of biodiversity extends beyond wildlife to the genetic variability within individual species, such as crop varieties and livestock breeds, and the diversity of ecosystems that sustain interactions among their inhabitants.



Biological diversity serves as the foundation upon which our civilizations are built, providing resources that are integral to our survival and well-being. For example, the critical role of fish as a primary protein source cannot be overstated. Fish fulfill 20 percent of the animal protein needs for an estimated three billion people globally. Meanwhile, plants are responsible for over 80 percent of the human diet.



Furthermore, the importance of traditional plant-based medicines is magnified in the context of rural communities within developing nations. In these regions, conventional healthcare facilities may be inaccessible or insufficient, making traditional plant-based remedies indispensable.&nbsp;



These natural remedies cater to the basic healthcare needs of as many as 80 percent of individuals in developing areas, emphasizing the vital role that biodiversity plays in human health and well-being.



The International Day for Biological Diversity is an important reminder of the connection between human society and the network of life that sustains us. Protecting this biodiversity is not just an ecological necessity, but also a critical step in safeguarding the future health and prosperity of humanity.



<h2 id="h-how-you-can-help-protect-biological-diversity">How you can help protect biological diversity&nbsp;</h2>



While government policies, business practices, and large-scale conservation efforts play significant roles in protecting biodiversity, individual actions can also contribute immensely. Here are some ways individuals can contribute to preserving biological diversity:



<h3 id="h-mindful-consumption">Mindful Consumption</h3>



Consuming responsibly is perhaps the most direct way we can lessen our impact on biodiversity. This includes opting for sustainably sourced products, reducing waste, and minimizing the use of plastic and other non-biodegradable materials.



<h3 id="h-support-local-produce">Support Local Produce</h3>



Buying locally sourced, organic food not only reduces your carbon footprint due to decreased transport distances, but it also encourages diverse local flora and fauna by promoting environmentally friendly farming practices.



<h3 id="h-plant-native-species">Plant Native Species</h3>



Planting native plants in your gardens or local community spaces can enhance local ecosystems by providing habitats and food sources for local wildlife.



<h3 id="h-reduce-energy-use">Reduce Energy Use</h3>



Lowering your consumption of energy reduces the demand for non-renewable resources and decreases greenhouse gas emissions, thereby mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity.



<h3 id="h-participate-in-citizen-science">Participate in Citizen Science</h3>



Participate in local biodiversity surveys or monitoring programs. This type of citizen science can help scientists and conservationists monitor local wildlife populations and identify emerging threats.



<h3 id="h-educate-others">Educate Others</h3>



Raise awareness about the importance of biodiversity among friends, family, and your community. The more people understand and appreciate the role of biodiversity, the more likely they are to take action to protect it.



<h3 id="h-support-conservation-organizations">Support Conservation Organizations</h3>



Contribute time, resources, or money to organizations committed to biodiversity conservation.



<h3 id="h-advocate-for-nature">Advocate for Nature</h3>



Engage in local, national, or international policy advocacy to protect natural habitats and demand sustainable practices.



Every action, no matter how small, can have a positive impact on the planet's biodiversity. It all begins with an understanding of the essential role that biodiversity plays in our lives and a commitment to preserving it for future generations.



—--



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International Day for Biological Diversity: From agreement to action

Biological diversity is an invaluable global asset that must be...

Picture this: you're thousands of kilometers above the Earth's surface, in the ionosphere - the uppermost layer of our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-is-expanding-due-to-climate-change/">atmosphere</a>. Here, atoms and molecules are consistently getting ionized due to constant exposure to solar radiation, giving birth to an abundance of positively charged ions.&nbsp;



This part of the atmosphere, known as the F-region, becomes a vital cog in the mechanism of long-distance radio communication, allowing the reflection and refraction of radio waves used by satellite and GPS tracking systems back to Earth's surface. But the F-region isn't static. Changes in this area can cause severe disruption in these vital communications.



The stability of the F-region is a delicate dance of intricate balance. As the Sun's ultraviolet radiation ionizes the ionosphere during the day, an electron density gradient forms, with the highest density found near the equator.&nbsp;



However, various disruptors such as the movement of plasma, electric fields, and neutral winds can distort this gradient. These disruptions can lead to the creation of a localized irregularity in plasma density, which, when amplified, forms a bubble-like structure termed an equatorial plasma bubble, or EPB.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-epbs-can-cause-huge-problems">EPBs can cause huge problems</h2>



The impact of an EPB on radio communication is nothing short of disastrous - it delays radio waves and significantly deteriorates GPS performance.



Atmospheric waves can meddle with these density gradients, sparking a longstanding hypothesis that these waves could be triggered by terrestrial events, like volcanic eruptions. Recently, this theory was put to the test by an international team of researchers led by Professor Atsuki Shinbori and Professor Yoshizumi Miyoshi from the Institute for Space–Earth Environmental Research (ISEE) at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a>.



The team collaborated with several renowned institutions, including NICT, The University of Electro-Communications, Tohoku University, Kanazawa University, Kyoto University, and ISAS. Their opportunity? The Tonga volcano eruption - the biggest submarine eruption in recorded history.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The team capitalized on this event, using the Arase satellite to detect EPB occurrences, the Himawari-8 satellite to track the initial arrival of air pressure waves, and ground-based ionospheric observations to trace the movement of the ionosphere.&nbsp;



Their observations unveiled an irregular structure in the electron density across the equator that came into existence following the arrival of pressure waves generated by the volcanic eruption.



"The results of this study showed EPBs generated in the equatorial to low-latitude ionosphere in Asia in response to the arrival of pressure waves caused by undersea volcanic eruptions off Tonga," stated Shinbori.



The study led to another striking revelation. Contrary to the long-held model geosphere-atmosphere-cosmosphere coupling that suggests ionospheric disturbances only occur after the eruption, the team discovered that ionospheric fluctuations start a few minutes to a few hours before the arrival of atmospheric pressure waves that generate plasma bubbles.&nbsp;



This discovery nudges the scientific community to reconsider the existing model and could potentially reshape our understanding of the atmospheric-ionospheric relationship.



The findings have been meticulously compiled and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33603-3">Scientific Reports</a>. These discoveries could be monumental in predicting the effects of terrestrial events on our satellite-based communication systems.



<h2 id="h-more-surprising-results-from-the-study">More surprising results from the study</h2>



“Our new finding is that the ionospheric disturbances are observed several minutes to hours before the initial arrival of the shock waves triggered by the Tonga volcanic eruption,” Shinbori said.&nbsp;



“This suggests that the propagation of the fast atmospheric waves in the ionosphere triggered the ionospheric disturbances before the initial arrival of the shock waves. Therefore, the model needs to be revised to account for these fast atmospheric waves in the ionosphere.”&nbsp;



The research team also found that the EPB extended much further than standard models had predicted.&nbsp;



“Previous studies have shown that the formation of plasma bubbles at such high altitudes is a rare occurrence, making this a very unusual phenomenon,” Shinbori said.&nbsp;



“We found that the EPB formed by this eruption reached space even beyond the ionosphere, suggesting that we should pay attention to the connection between the ionosphere and the cosmosphere when extreme natural phenomenon, such as the Tonga event, occur.”&nbsp;



“The results of this research are significant not only from a scientific point of view but also from the point of view of space weather and disaster prevention."



"In the case of a large-scale event, such as the Tonga volcano eruption, observations have shown that a hole in the ionosphere can form even under conditions that are considered unlikely to occur under normal circumstances. Such cases have not been incorporated into space weather forecast models."



This study will contribute to the prevention of satellite broadcasting and communication failures associated with ionospheric disturbances caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other events.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-equatorial-plasma-bubbles">More about equatorial plasma bubbles</h2>



Equatorial plasma bubbles (EPBs), also known as equatorial ionospheric irregularities, are a phenomenon that primarily occurs in the F-region of the Earth's ionosphere, a layer in the upper atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation.&nbsp;



These structures, often described as "bubble-like," can play a significant role in disrupting communications systems that rely on ionospheric radio wave propagation, such as GPS tracking and satellite-based communication systems.



EPBs are typically observed in the post-sunset period and extend from the equatorial region towards higher latitudes. During the day, the ionosphere is bombarded by the sun's ultraviolet radiation, creating a density gradient of electrons, with the highest concentration near the equator. But this stable condition can change.



<h2 id="h-true-understanding-of-epbs-is-still-evolving">True understanding of EPBs is still evolving</h2>



Disruptions, such as moving plasma, electric fields, and neutral winds, can lead to the creation of localized irregularities in plasma density. Over time, these irregularities can grow and evolve into EPBs. They appear like tube-like structures extending along the Earth's magnetic field lines, with the 'empty' or 'bubble' part representing regions of depleted electron density.



The development of these bubbles can cause significant disruption in radio communications. They distort the path of the radio signals as they travel through the ionosphere, leading to scintillations or rapid variations in amplitude and phase of the signals. This effect can lead to significant issues for GPS receivers, causing errors in positioning or even loss of lock on the signal.



Research has suggested that atmospheric waves, possibly triggered by terrestrial events like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, can affect the electron density gradient in the ionosphere, leading to the formation of EPBs.&nbsp;



However, our understanding of the formation, evolution, and dynamics of EPBs is still evolving. Scientists use a variety of techniques, including satellite observations, ground-based radar, and advanced computational modeling, to study these complex phenomena and to better predict their occurrence and potential impacts on communication systems.



Image Credit: NOAA/ NASA



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Tonga eruption disrupted satellite communication halfway around the world

Picture this: you're thousands of kilometers above the Earth's surface,...

In the mountain ranges of Western North America, winters are not what they used to be. More rain is falling instead of snow, and the snow is melting earlier.&nbsp;The resulting leaner snowpack could pose significant problems for agriculture, wildfire risk, and municipal water supplies come summer, according to a study conducted by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a>.



The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00751-3">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>, chronicles over six decades of change in snowpack water storage across this region.&nbsp;



From 1950 to 2013, there has been a significant reduction in snowpack water storage in more than 25 percent of the Mountain West. This is partly due to snow melting earlier in the winter and spring seasons, effectively wearing down this seasonal boundary.



<h2 id="h-timing-is-everything-when-it-comes-to-snowpack-melting">Timing is everything when it comes to snowpack melting</h2>



"On average and in every mountainous region that we looked at, snow melt is occurring closer in time to when it fell," explained study lead author Kate Hale.



This shift in the timing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-water-is-the-key-to-a-long-and-healthy-life/">water</a> availability is moving toward earlier in the springtime, with less snow melt and water availability later in the summertime, implying an impending water scarcity later in the year.



Western U.S. and Canada heavily depend on snow for most of their water needs. For a long time, the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevadas, and other mountain ranges have been the region's "water towers," storing snow throughout the winter which then melts and provides water in the spring and summer when demand is highest.



Every April 1st, state and regional water managers use a metric known as the snow water equivalent (SWE) to predict and plan for water resources that year. But this measurement is merely a snapshot and does not reveal how the snow accumulated or if it is already melting, says Hale, who is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Vermont.



"From a hydrologic perspective, the only thing that's unique about snow is that it delays the timing of water input to watersheds. And just looking at a snapshot of snow water equivalent doesn't give you a sense as to how long that snow water equivalent has been on the ground," said Noah Molotch, an associate professor in the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) at CU Boulder.



<h2 id="h-the-challenge-of-managing-water-resources">The challenge of managing water resources</h2>



To gain more clarity, Hale developed a new measurement known as Snow Storage Index (SSI), which takes into account the timing and quantity of snowfall and snowmelt, both before and after April 1st. Unlike SWE, the SSI provides a more comprehensive understanding, encapsulating into a single number the time elapsed from when rain or snow falls in winter to when it becomes available as surface water.



The SSI gives a broader perspective on snow water storage. "The snow storage index allows us to look at snow water storage, not just in the context of how much is there at any given time, but the duration of that storage on the ground,” explained Molotch.



By using this tool, the researchers were able to study the performance of each mountainous region of the West as a water tower over the past 60 years, revealing a declining trend across the board.



High SSI values, close to 1.0, were found in places with a highly seasonal snowfall pattern. In the Cascades, for example, snow piles up during the fall and winter seasons and stays on the ground up to six months before it gradually melts in the spring and summer.&nbsp;



By Contrast, in Colorado's Rocky Mountains, the SSI is lower - between 0 and 0.5—indicating snow both accumulates and melts during the colder half of the year.



<h2 id="h-some-areas-adapt-easier-to-changes-in-snowpack">Some areas adapt easier to changes in snowpack</h2>



Interestingly, areas like the Rockies and the Front Range, which are accustomed to this fluctuating pattern of snowfall and snowmelt, may find it easier to adapt to the declining snowpack water storage patterns linked with global warming.&nbsp;



However, the mountain regions near the West Coast, which heavily rely on snowpack meltwater during spring and summer, might face significant challenges when that water melts earlier and is not available during the late summer.



The researchers hope that this new SSI measurement will prove valuable for scientists and water resource managers, enabling them to make more accurate predictions and plan more effectively for the possibility of less water availability.



Half a century ago, the era of dam building enabled the Western United States to prosper with a reliable access to water for cities and agriculture, said Molotch. However, as these natural "water towers" of snow melt away, the reservoirs they filled may also deplete.



"The snowpack is eroding and disappearing before our eyes. That's going to present challenges in terms of managing the infrastructure that's allowed the Western United States to flourish over the last 100 years," said Molotch.



Thus, as the snowpack continues to dwindle, managing water resources in the Western North America could become a complex puzzle, demanding innovation, forward thinking, and sustainable solutions.



<h2 id="h-more-about-snowpack-and-water-resources">More about snowpack and water resources</h2>



Snowpack plays a critical role in both human and environmental water resources, especially in regions where a significant portion of annual precipitation falls as snow.



At its most basic level, snowpack refers to the accumulated snow that covers the ground in mountainous or high-altitude areas. During the colder months, the snowpack builds up, acting as a frozen reservoir.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise in the spring and summer, this snow melts, releasing water gradually into rivers, lakes, and the ground. This slow release of water over time is incredibly important for several reasons.



<h3 id="h-water-supply">Water Supply</h3>



In many regions, especially in the western United States and Canada, snowpack is the primary source of water supply. As the snowpack melts in spring and summer, it replenishes reservoirs that provide drinking water to cities and towns. Without a healthy snowpack, there would be less water available during the driest parts of the year.



<h3 id="h-agriculture">Agriculture</h3>



Many farming areas rely on the melting of snowpack to irrigate crops. The water that comes from melting snow travels down mountains into rivers and streams, which farmers then divert for irrigation. Without this reliable water source, agriculture in these areas would face significant challenges.



<h3 id="h-hydropower-generation">Hydropower Generation</h3>



The flow of water from melting snowpack is also critical for hydropower, which generates electricity by using flowing or falling water to turn a turbine. In areas like the Pacific Northwest, hydropower accounts for a large percentage of electricity generation.



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-health">Ecosystem Health</h3>



Snowpack is essential to maintaining healthy ecosystems. Many species of fish, for example, rely on the cold, clean water from snowmelt for spawning. Additionally, the slow melt of snowpack into the ground helps replenish groundwater, which many plants and animals rely on.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-indicator">Climate Change Indicator</h3>



Changes in snowpack can serve as a useful indicator of climate change. Decreases in snowpack and earlier melt seasons can be linked to global warming. These changes can lead to water shortages, increased wildfire risks, and impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.



The reduction in snowpack and changes in snowmelt timing due to climate change pose significant risks to water resources. If less snow is falling and it's melting earlier in the year, there may not be enough water available during the dry summer months when demand is highest. This could have serious implications for drinking water supplies, agriculture, energy production, and the health of our ecosystems.



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Despite record snowpack in the West, early melting could lead to water scarcity

In the mountain ranges of Western North America, winters are...

The ever-increasing expansion of the common ragweed plant, known scientifically as Ambrosia artemisiifolia, is leaving allergy sufferers worldwide in prolonged discomfort as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-be-used-to-monitor-grass-pollen/">pollen</a> season intensifies.&nbsp;



Notoriously invasive, common ragweed has now managed to venture as far north as Norway, demonstrating its extraordinary adaptability. However, it's currently meeting resistance due to Norway's challenging climate.



"Common ragweed can be found in Norway, but for now it has no stable populations,” said Vanessa Carina Bieker, a postdoctoral researcher at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology's (<a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">NTNU</a>) University Museum Department of Natural History.&nbsp;



Bieker stumbled upon this alien species in Oslo during the fall of last year. As of now, Norway’s environmental conditions seem to be stalling the plant's progress, though an increase in temperature might facilitate its survival, given its track record of rapid global expansion.



Scientists attribute the unrelenting proliferation of the ragweed plant to the role of "supergenes," large blocks of genes that enable the plant to readily adapt to new conditions.&nbsp;



Supergenes are inherited as a single unit by the subsequent generation, significantly impacting the plant's characteristics, such as size and flowering time. These changes, in turn, increase the plant's chances of survival and reproduction under diverse climatic conditions.



“These supergenes affect the plants' characteristics, such as their size or when they flower, and are in turn important for the plants to be able to survive and reproduce under new climate conditions," explained Professor Michael D. Martin.



The researchers collaborated with scientists from various other&nbsp; institutions, including Dr. Kathryn Hodgins of Monash University, to study these supergenes and their role in the ragweed's invasiveness. The groundbreaking research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37303-4">Nature Communications</a>.



Native to North America, common ragweed made its way to Europe in the 19th century, most likely through imported seeds and horse feed. However, the plant's story of expansion isn't unique; it is part of a larger global issue of invasive species disrupting local ecosystems.



Invasive species pose a serious environmental threat. They disrupt existing biodiversity, often leading to destructive consequences for local wildlife.&nbsp;



Professor Martin emphasizes the need for further understanding of invasive species: “We have to learn how invasive species evolve and spread before we can learn to control them. Then we can counteract the damage they do and limit their effect on species diversity, the economy, and our health.”



In the global battle against invasive species, studying the genetic material of plants is a crucial strategy to help understand their rapid spread and adaptability.&nbsp;



“When we identify the changes in DNA that enable such invasive species to spread so quickly, we gain a new weapon in our arsenal when we have to fight them,” explained Bieker.&nbsp;



The research team sequenced the complete genetic code of over 600 plant specimens, including those of common ragweed.&nbsp;



The genetic detective work carried out by the team led them to diverse museum collections and herbariums across North America and Europe, where they found specimens dating back as far as 190 years.&nbsp;



By comparing the genetic material of these historical samples with living plants, the researchers could identify alterations that have transpired over the years.



“When you compare these old specimens with the living plants you find outside today, you can also identify the changes in the genetic material that have taken place over the years. And this helps pinpoint which genes have contributed to common ragweed spreading so quickly,” said Bieker.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that there are gene variants which thrive under certain climate conditions, and genetic segments that undergo modifications over time.



One of the team's significant findings is the genetic divergence between ragweed populations in North America, its native continent, and Europe. This difference underpins fundamental principles of genetics and evolutionary theory.&nbsp;



As the environmental conditions around a plant shift, for instance, when they land on a new continent, certain genes might give individual plants advantages over others. These genetic variants boost reproduction rates, enabling the advantageous genes to be more frequently inherited by the next generation.



“The supergenes in the European plants enabled them to evolve rapidly during the invasion,” explained Professor Martin. These supergenes have facilitated ragweed's colonization of vast regions of Europe, modifying vital plant characteristics like size and lifecycle timing.



“These are properties that have had a major impact on ragweed’s success and therefore the plants’ production of highly allergenic pollen,” said Martin, emphasizing the repercussions of ragweed's spread on global health, particularly for allergy sufferers.



What is remarkable about this study is not only its findings, but also the techniques that were used for the analysis. The rapid advancements in genetics over recent years have enabled research methods previously thought impossible. This investigation, in particular, demonstrates how innovative genetic methodologies can breathe new life into old scientific collections, extracting fresh and enlightening insights.



“This research shows the power in studying old specimens in herbariums and other museum collections. They can inform us about the recent spread, and sometimes very rapid evolution, of invasive species that have been strongly influenced by human activity,” said Martin.



In the future, these findings might serve as the basis for effective strategies to curb the spread of common ragweed. While the prospect is a long-term one, it certainly offers a glimmer of hope to those who suffer from seasonal allergies.



<h2 id="h-more-about-invasive-species">More about invasive species</h2>



Invasive species are plants, animals, or pathogens that are non-native (or alien) to an ecosystem and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause harm. They can affect the environment, the economy, or even human health.



<h3 id="h-environmental-impacts">Environmental Impacts</h3>



Invasive species can disrupt biodiversity by outcompeting native species for resources such as food, water, and habitat. Some invasive species are predators or pathogens that directly kill native species. Others alter habitats in ways that native species cannot tolerate or to which they cannot adapt. In the worst cases, invasive species can cause local extinctions of native species and drastically alter ecosystem functions.



<h3 id="h-economic-impacts">Economic Impacts</h3>



Invasive species can cause extensive economic damage. They can harm agricultural productivity through crop damage and loss of livestock. In forests, invasive insects and diseases can kill large numbers of trees, affecting timber production. Invasive aquatic plants and animals can disrupt commercial and recreational fishing, boating, and other water-related industries. Furthermore, managing invasive species is costly.



<h3 id="h-human-health-impacts">Human Health Impacts</h3>



Some invasive species can harm human health. For instance, some invasive plants produce allergens. Alien insects like mosquitoes can transmit diseases. And some invasive animals, such as rodents, are carriers of various diseases.



<h3 id="h-examples-of-invasive-species">Examples of invasive species</h3>



The zebra mussel in the Great Lakes of North America, the brown tree snake in Guam, the cane toad in Australia, and the lionfish in the Caribbean and the Southeast U.S. waters are all examples of invasive species.



Managing and controlling alien species is a significant conservation challenge. It involves preventing their introduction, detecting and eradicating newly established invaders, and controlling and mitigating the impacts of established invasive species.&nbsp;



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Supergenes drove the rapid spread of common ragweed

The ever-increasing expansion of the common ragweed plant, known scientifically...

A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg1213">Science Advances</a> suggests that the catastrophic Australian bushfires in 2019-2020 precipitated a chain of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/">climate</a> interactions leading to a chilling effect on the Tropical Pacific. This cooling, thousands of miles away from the burning Australian shores, eventually triggered the formation of a multi-year La Niña event, a phenomenon that has only recently dissipated.



La Niña events, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific, have historically exerted substantial influence on North America's winter climate.&nbsp;



These weather oscillations typically induce drier and warmer conditions in the southwest U.S., foster increased precipitation in the Pacific Northwest, and bring about colder temperatures in Canada and northern parts of the U.S. Due to the potential for their emergence to be anticipated months in advance, La Niña events play a crucial role in seasonal climate forecasting.



However, the recent wave of La Niña events, observed over three consecutive winters starting from 2020-21, signifies a rare climate phenomenon. The pattern is only the third streak of its kind in the historical record, dating back to 1950. Moreover, unlike previous instances, this La Niña chain did not succeed a potent El Niño event, which characteristically manifests as a warming of the Tropical Pacific.



"Many people quickly forgot about the Australian fires, especially as the COVID pandemic exploded, but the Earth system has a long memory, and the impacts of the fires lingered for years," said study lead author John Fasullo, a scientist at the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR).



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers set out to investigate the potential climate impacts of the Australian fires, which charred an estimated 46 million acres. With large-scale events like these or major volcanic eruptions known to shift the odds towards a La Niña event, the team leveraged an advanced computer model, the Community Earth System Model version 2, to carry out two sets of simulations.



Both simulation sets started from the same point, August 2019, prior to the escalation of the Australian fires. One incorporated the observed wildfire emissions from the catastrophic blazes, while the other simulated average wildfire emissions typically used in long-term climate model simulations.



Contrary to the direct sunlight-reflecting action of high-altitude volcanic emissions, wildfire emissions have a different modus operandi. These fire-originated aerosols, enveloping the Southern Hemisphere, intensified the brightness of cloud decks, particularly off the coast of Peru.&nbsp;



The amplified brightness led to a cooling and drying of the air, consequently shifting the junction of the northern and southern trade winds. This overall climatic shift incited a sustained cooling of the Tropical Pacific ocean, a critical component in the formation of La Niña events.



Discussing the complexity of the climate interactions, Fasullo said, "It’s a Rube Goldberg of climate interactions that we were only able to identify because our model now represents specific details in the evolution of smoke and cloud-aerosol interactions, a recent improvement to its capabilities.”



<h2 id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The research, primarily funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NCAR's sponsor), NASA, and the U.S. Department of Energy, has far-reaching implications for future climate forecasts. It throws light on the failure of several forecasts to predict the onset of the three-year La Niña, which had been indicating "neutral" conditions as late as June 2020.&nbsp;



The research emphasizes the significance of utilizing coupled Earth system models, which consider both atmospheric and oceanic components, as essential forecasting tools. Furthermore, it points to the need for accurate representation of wildfire emissions in both seasonal and long-range climate projections.



“As the climate changes, the emissions from wildfires will also change,” said Fasullo. “But we don’t have that feedback in the model. It is the goal of our current work to incorporate these effects as realistically as possible.”



This material is based upon work supported by the National Center for Atmospheric Research, a major facility sponsored by the National Science Foundation and managed by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.



<h2 id="h-global-impacts-of-la-nina">Global impacts of La Niña</h2>



La Niña can have wide-reaching effects that influence weather patterns and climate conditions worldwide. Here's a broad overview of some of the impacts typically associated with La Niña:



North America



La Niña tends to bring colder and snowier winters to the northern tier of the United States and drier, warmer conditions to the southwestern states. The Pacific Northwest may experience wetter weather, while the Southeast could be warmer and drier. Canada often sees colder temperatures during a La Niña event.



<h3>South America</h3>



La Niña can result in excessive rainfall over Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru, increasing the risk of flooding. In contrast, it can cause drier conditions in southeastern South America, including parts of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, leading to drought.



<h3>Asia and Australia</h3>



Southeast Asia, especially Indonesia, the Philippines, and Australia, often see more rainfall during a La Niña event. This increased rainfall can sometimes result in flooding. Conversely, India may experience a weaker monsoon season.



<h3>Africa</h3>



East Africa, including Kenya, Somalia, and Tanzania, may receive above-average rainfall during the short rains of October to December, which can lead to flooding. Meanwhile, southern Africa can experience drier than normal conditions, increasing the risk of drought.



<h3>Atlantic hurricanes</h3>



La Niña can contribute to an intensification of the Atlantic hurricane season because it decreases the vertical wind shear over the Caribbean Sea and tropical Atlantic Basin, which makes conditions more favorable for tropical storm development.



These are general tendencies and can be influenced by other climatological factors. It is also important to note that while La Niña events can often be predicted months in advance, there is still a level of uncertainty associated with predicting specific weather outcomes during these events. Climate scientists are continually working to improve our understanding and prediction of these global effects.



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Australian bushfires triggered rare multi-year La Niña

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Science Advances suggests...

In recent decades, eelgrass meadows have significantly declined in the southern Bohus county in Sweden, and in many areas have disappeared completely.&nbsp;



Since eelgrass serves as a habitat or nursery for a variety of aquatic organisms, such as young cod, crabs, and shrimp, they are highly important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a>, and their decline could thus have disastrous consequences for many coastal ecosystems. 



Moreover, since eelgrass roots also bind the sediment, they prevent erosion and limit resuspension of sediment in the water.



For over a decade, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a> has been working on the restoration of eelgrass meadows. Their most recent assessment of this initiative is highly positive, showing that fauna returned rapidly once the eelgrass started to grow again.&nbsp;



In fact, already in the second summer, the biodiversity in the planted meadows was almost the same as in the old established meadows. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/rec.13887">Restoration Ecology</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



During the summer of 2019, the scientists planted eelgrass shoots in four test plots of different sizes on the seabed, with different spacing between the shoots. 



By autumn 2020, new populations of invertebrates that live or burrow in bottom sediments were already thriving in the young meadows.



“The recolonization has been very rapid. After the first three-month growing season, up to 80 percent of the invertebrates had returned to the newly planted eelgrass,” said study senior author Eduardo Infantes, a marine biologist at Gothenburg.



Observations have also revealed that size did not play a major role in the recovery of biodiversity in the meadows. Even if eelgrass did not have time to grow to the same density as in an established meadow, after only two growing seasons, the level of biodiversity was just as high as in old meadows.



“This is good news for future restorations and new plantings of eelgrass meadows. We can plant new smaller plots with fewer shoots and this saves money because it is an expensive method for restoring biodiversity on the seabed,” Infantes concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-eelgrass">More about eelgrass&nbsp;</h2>



Eelgrass, which belongs to the genus Zostera, is a group of species of submerged aquatic plants that live in marine environments along coastlines. Here are some key facts about it:



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Eelgrass is found in temperate and cold waters in the Northern Hemisphere. It thrives in shallow coastal areas, lagoons, and estuaries where sunlight can reach the seafloor.



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



As the name suggests, eelgrass has long, ribbon-like leaves which often form dense underwater meadows. These grass-like leaves are usually bright green, and the plant can produce small flowers and fruits.



<h3 id="h-role-in-the-ecosystem">Role in the ecosystem&nbsp;</h3>



Eelgrass beds are very important ecologically. They provide valuable habitats and nurseries for many species of fish and invertebrates. They also help to improve water quality by absorbing nutrients, and their root systems stabilize the seafloor, preventing erosion.



<h3 id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and conservation</h3>



Eelgrass populations have declined in many places due to factors such as pollution, coastal development, dredging, and disease. 



Climate change is also a potential threat, as changes in sea level or water temperature could negatively affect eelgrass. Various conservation efforts are underway to protect and restore eelgrass habitats.



<h3 id="h-scientific-research">Scientific research&nbsp;</h3>



Eelgrass is the subject of much scientific research. For example, it has been found to sequester carbon dioxide at a much higher rate than terrestrial forests, making it an important potential tool in the fight against climate change.



<h2 id="h-eelgrass-and-climate-change">Eelgrass and climate change&nbsp;</h2>



Eelgrass, like other types of seagrass, plays a significant role in climate change mitigation. Here's how:



<h3 id="h-carbon-sequestration">Carbon sequestration</h3>



Eelgrass meadows are exceptional at sequestering carbon, trapping it in the sediment below. They can absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at rates over ten times faster than forests on land. 



This process, known as "blue carbon" sequestration, helps to mitigate the impacts of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, which is a primary driver of global climate change.



<h3 id="h-coastal-protection">Coastal protection</h3>



Eelgrass also acts as a buffer against coastal erosion, which can be exacerbated by climate change. Rising sea levels and increased storm surges can lead to significant erosion, and eelgrass beds help protect coastlines by stabilizing sediment and dampening wave action.



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-and-resilience">Biodiversity and resilience</h3>



Eelgrass beds are biodiversity hotspots, providing food and shelter for a wide range of marine life. Biodiversity often equates to ecosystem resilience, and maintaining healthy, diverse ecosystems is key in the face of climate change.



However, eelgrass is also vulnerable to climate change. Rising sea temperatures can lead to increased prevalence of diseases that affect eelgrass. 



Changes in salinity and nutrient levels, ocean acidification, and increased storm intensity can also negatively impact eelgrass meadows.



In the face of climate change, conserving and restoring eelgrass meadows are crucial actions. Despite their importance, these ecosystems are often overlooked in climate policy. Increasing awareness about the value of "blue carbon" ecosystems can help drive conservation efforts and support sustainable management of these critical habitats.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Eelgrass meadows are underestimated biodiversity hotspots

In recent decades, eelgrass meadows have significantly declined in the...

Bumble,Bees,In,The,Meadow,Of,Flowers

In an increasingly challenging global environment, the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-without-bees-food-shortages/">bees</a> and other pollinators, such as butterflies, bats, and hummingbirds, cannot be overstated. These diligent workers play an invaluable role in thriving ecosystems. However, recent trends suggest that pollinators are under grave threat due to human activities.



Pollination, the largely invisible act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma, is a crucial process that supports the health of our ecosystems.&nbsp;



It is estimated that nearly 90 percent of the world’s wild flowering plant species depend on animal pollination, either entirely or to some degree. This biological interaction further impacts the human world, affecting more than 75 percent of the world's food crops and 35 percent of global agricultural land.



Pollinators are not only vital for our food security, but also contribute to preserving biodiversity. The diversity they promote throughout ecosystems is not just beautiful, but also essential to the natural balance of our planet.&nbsp;



Recognizing the need to increase awareness of pollinators' roles, the United Nations has designated May 20th as <a href="https://www.un.org/en/observances/bee-day">World Bee Day</a>.



The initiative strives to secure measures to safeguard bees and their fellow pollinators. This effort has enormous potential to address critical issues concerning global food supply and the eradication of hunger in developing nations. In essence, our survival is intricately linked with theirs.&nbsp;



The theme for World Bee Day 2023, “Bee engaged in pollinator-friendly agricultural production," underlines the pressing need for universal action.&nbsp;



Bees and other pollinators are threatened by intensive monoculture production and improper pesticide use. These factors diminish their food and nesting sites, expose them to dangerous chemicals, and undermine their immune systems.



The call to action extends to implementing and supporting pollinator-friendly agricultural production. The global ceremony for World Bee Day, hosted at the <a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) headquarters on May 19th, will serve as a platform to emphasize the significance of adopting such strategies, contributing to the resilience, sustainability, and efficiency of agri-food systems.



However, the gravity of the situation demands immediate action. Bees, among other pollinators, are vanishing at a disturbing pace.&nbsp;



The current rates of species extinction are reported to be 100 to 1,000 times higher than usual, primarily due to human impact. Close to 35 percent of invertebrate pollinators, notably bees and butterflies, and around 17 percent of vertebrate pollinators, such as bats, are on the brink of extinction.



If this alarming trend persists, our diets could soon be deficient in nutritious crops, like fruits, nuts, and vegetables. These would gradually be replaced by staple crops, including rice, corn, and potatoes, leading to an imbalanced diet.&nbsp;



Factors such as intensive farming practices, land-use changes, mono-cropping, pesticides, and the increasing temperatures linked with climate change all compound the issues faced by bee populations, indirectly impacting the quality of the food we cultivate.



In response to this crisis, the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> has prioritized the conservation and sustainable utilization of pollinators. Since the turn of the millennium, the International Pollinator Initiative (IPI) has been active, with a goal of promoting the sustainable use of pollinators in agriculture and related ecosystems.&nbsp;



The IPI monitors the decline of pollinators, works to fill gaps in taxonomic information, and assesses the economic impact of the decline of pollination services.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pollinator-decline">More about pollinator decline</h2>



Pollinators are vanishing globally, which is a cause of great concern. The decline is not confined to any one specific geographic area; it's a widespread phenomenon.



In North America and Europe, honeybee populations have notably declined. For instance, Colony Collapse Disorder has caused significant losses in honeybee populations in the United States.&nbsp;



In Europe, changes in land use, agricultural practices, and climate have resulted in declining pollinator populations, with some species disappearing from certain areas entirely.



Similarly, in Asia, Africa, and South America, factors such as deforestation, intensive monoculture farming, and the excessive use of pesticides have led to habitat loss and a decrease in the populations of various pollinator species. The spread of diseases and parasites, along with climate change, further exacerbates the issue.



<h2 id="h-how-you-can-help-protect-pollinators">How you can help protect pollinators&nbsp;</h2>



There are several ways that individuals, communities, and governments can help protect and encourage the health of pollinators:



<h3 id="h-plant-a-pollinator-garden">Plant a pollinator garden</h3>



Grow native plants that provide nectar and pollen sources. Bees are particularly attracted to blue, purple, violet, white, and yellow flowers. Try to have blooms throughout the year to provide a consistent food source for pollinators.



<h3 id="h-limit-or-avoid-pesticide-use">Limit or avoid pesticide use</h3>



Pesticides can be harmful or deadly to pollinators. If you must use them, try to apply them at night when bees and other pollinators are less active.



<h3 id="h-create-habitat-for-pollinators">Create habitat for pollinators</h3>



Many bees are solitary creatures that need a safe place to build their nests. You can help by leaving a patch of your garden wild, providing a habitat for native bees. Other pollinators, like butterflies, need specific plants or environments to breed. For example, monarch butterflies need milkweed plants to lay their eggs.



<h3 id="h-provide-water-for-pollinators">Provide water for pollinators</h3>



Just like all creatures, pollinators need water to survive. Consider adding a birdbath or shallow dish of water with rocks for them to land on.



<h3 id="h-support-local-beekeepers-and-farmers">Support local beekeepers and farmers</h3>



Buying local honey and produce helps support agriculture that is friendly to bees and other pollinators.



<h3 id="h-advocate-for-pollinators">Advocate for pollinators</h3>



Use your voice to push for governmental policies that protect pollinators. This could be in the form of supporting policies that limit pesticide use, preserve natural habitats, or fund scientific research on pollinators.



<h3 id="h-educate-others">Educate others</h3>



Raise awareness about the importance of pollinators and what others can do to help. This can be as simple as talking to friends and family, or it could involve organizing educational events in your community.



Remember, every little bit helps. By taking small steps to protect pollinators, we can collectively make a big difference.



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World Bee Day highlights urgent need to protect pollinators

In an increasingly challenging global environment, the role of bees...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

[sendtonews key="sFFhiK9OOn-1720418-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

[sendtonews key="yPSXGZek1I-2312529-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

[sendtonews key="u0TYxxqfF7-2186404-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA’s...