There have been endless whispers about unidentified flying objects. Some people have tried to push these whispers aside, but the recent attention from public agencies, politicians, and scientists is getting harder to ignore.



The topic is no longer just the domain of enthusiasts lurking in chat rooms. Instead, it has tiptoed into the halls of Congress and the offices of well-respected aerospace experts. 



A few officials acknowledge confusion, while others say there is a need to be patient and practical.



After the second week of careful examination, the details stack up. There are official inquiries, old photos, radar data, and hushed hallway discussions. 



Unexplained shapes appear on military pilots’ screens, then vanish. Lawmakers hold hearings. Eyewitnesses keep coming forward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-program-new-curiosity">Old program, new curiosity</h2>



It was not long ago that reports surfaced about a quiet Pentagon endeavor. According to one source, there were funds tucked away in the Defense Department budget that supported something many never thought possible.



"In the $600 billion annual Defense Department budgets, the $22 million spent on the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/16/us/politics/pentagon-program-ufo-harry-reid.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program</a> was almost impossible to find.” (The New York Times, 12/16/2017).



The idea that a highly organized system might have funded efforts to investigate unusual aerial incidents stirred both amazement and a bit of suspicion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nasa-steps-in">NASA steps in</h2>



The world’s favorite space agency also took a careful look earlier last year claiming, "<a href="https://smd-cms.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/uap-independent-study-team-final-report.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The NASA independent study team did not find any evidence that UAP have an extraterrestrial origin.</a>" (NASA, 2023).



The search for answers does not mean jumping to wild conclusions. <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> has always tried to separate facts from fantasies.



Its experts run experiments, analyze data, and present findings plainly. One might say <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-receives-deep-space-laser-message-psyche-mission-140-million-miles-away/">NASA’s</a> presence in this debate encourages patience. 



At the same time, some inside these circles admit that data quality is uneven. "Some NASA employees have privately raised concerns about the reliability of available data." (Shellenberger, 2024).



This, from last month’s congressional hearing where Michael Shellenberger submitted over 200 heavily redacted pages to accompany his testimony at the "<a href="https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Written-Testimony-Shellenberger.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena: Exposing the Truth</a>" congressional hearing on November 13th. 



Shellenberger asserted: “The United States Department Of Defense and the intelligence community are withholding information about anomalous phenomena from Congress.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-military-voices-sound-off">Military voices sound off</h2>



Pilots have always been a special breed. They do not scare easily, nor do they tend to share tall tales. That is why first-hand accounts from military pilots ring with an unusual tone. 



"<a href="https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/David-Fravor-Statement-for-House-Oversight-Committee.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">I observed an object that accelerated like nothing I have ever seen.</a>" (Fravor, 2023). Such words come from a seasoned individual known for level-headed judgment.



Others point out that current technology is not fully equipped to handle this. "<a href="https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Ryan-HOC-Testimony.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pilot witnesses are credible and they deserve better data collection tools.</a>" (Ryan, 2023).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-need-for-open-minds">A need for open minds</h2>



Some see this as a moment to admit that science is never finished. "<a href="https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Updated-Testimony-Gallaudet.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">We must remain open to new data and evidence that challenges our assumptions.</a>" (Gallaudet, 2024).



Skeptics say that looking at odd lights in the sky is a fool’s errand, but others say it is wise to keep an open mind. Scientists know how often knowledge evolves.



Each decade brings tools that let us measure, record, and interpret more accurately than before. This steady change in methods may help settle questions that once seemed impossible to answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-capabilities">Strange capabilities</h2>



For those who have seen these objects, the standard rules of flight seem to shatter. "<a href="https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Written-Testimony-Elizondo.pdf">These objects demonstrate capabilities that defy our current understanding of aerodynamics.</a>" (Elizondo, 2024). 



Aeronautical experts scratch their heads when objects move without visible propulsion. Yet, no one wants to jump to any wild explanations. Cooler heads say that nature is tricky, people misunderstand what they see, and sensors can fail.



Others say it would be careless to shrug off these reports. "<a href="https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Written-Testimony-Gold.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Understanding UAP may require new thinking.</a>" (Gold, 2024).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifts-in-approach">Shifts in approach</h2>



No one agency or organization is expected to solve all of this. Different groups contribute what they can. 



Policymakers consider guidelines that might encourage transparent reporting. Scientists refine collection methods. Analysts look for patterns in the chaos.



Some voices say a nudge toward serious academic study could help. "<a href="https://oversight.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Dave_G_HOC_Speech_FINAL_For_Trans.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">We must encourage more rigorous scientific inquiry into UAP.</a>" (Dave G., 2023).



When researchers approach this with calm curiosity, the public may feel less tension. If more data is gathered with proper standards, maybe the mysteries will shrink, or at least be categorized in a sensible way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-topic-that-refuses-to-fade">A topic that refuses to fade</h2>



There are no perfect answers yet. Some find that frustrating. Others sense an opportunity to push knowledge a tiny step forward. 



Watching the slow, but steady spotlight on unidentified objects suggests that the truth is not known by any single person.



In time, it might become an ordinary subject instead of a hush-hush conversation. Officials and experts have started asking new questions. That alone is a small shift. One thing is certain: the subject is not going anywhere, anytime soon.



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NASA shows new interest in UFOs and hidden government files

There have been endless whispers about unidentified flying objects. Some people have tried to push these whispers aside, but the recent attention from public agencies, politicians, and scientists is getting harder to ignore. The topic is no longer just the domain of enthusiasts lurking in chat rooms. Instead, it has tiptoed into the halls of Congress and the offices of well-respected aerospace experts. A few officials acknowledge confusion, while others say there is a need to be patient and practical. After the second week of careful examination,...

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have pinpointed a specific group of neurons that appear to drive compulsive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ditch-the-diet-trends-for-a-healthier-relationship-with-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating</a> behaviors (binge eating), even in the absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/being-overweight-makes-it-harder-for-brain-to-resist-unhealthy-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunger</a>.



This finding could significantly advance our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunger-hormones-in-the-gut-can-change-our-eating-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating disorders</a> and offer new targets for treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-binge-eating">What is binge eating?</h2>



Binge eating, also known as compulsive eating, is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-disorders-can-be-contagious-among-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disorder</a> characterized by frequent episodes of consuming large amounts of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort. 



Unlike regular overeating, binge eating is driven by an overwhelming urge to eat, even when not hungry. People experiencing this disorder often feel a lack of control during these episodes and may eat in secret due to feelings of shame or guilt.



This behavior can lead to various physical health problems, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-now-affects-more-than-a-billion-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>, diabetes, and heart disease. It also significantly impacts mental health, often associated with stress, anxiety, and depression.



The exact cause of binge eating is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, biological, and environmental factors.



Treatment typically involves therapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and sometimes medication to address underlying psychological issues. Early intervention is crucial for better management and recovery outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-link-to-binge-eating">Neural link to binge eating</h2>



Located in the periaqueductal gray area of the midbrain - a region already associated with a variety of bodily functions such as mood regulation, sleep, and stress response - these neurons are identified as vesicular GABA transporter cells, or VGAT cells. They utilize the neurotransmitter GABA, which is pivotal in controlling neuronal activity.



Despite the known functions of VGAT cells in various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-region-that-influences-our-food-preferences-can-be-manipulated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain regions</a>, their relationship with feeding behaviors was previously unclear. This link was unveiled quite unexpectedly by researchers focusing on anxiety, not feeding.



"Our initial hypothesis centered on VGAT cells reducing fear and panic. Instead, activating them caused mice to frantically search for food," noted Brazilian neuroscientist Fernando Reis, first and corresponding author of the article, and a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-behaviors-in-lab-mice">Surprising behaviors in lab mice</h2>



Further experimentation revealed intriguing results related to binge eating: well-fed mice exhibited an intense foraging behavior upon activation of these cells, consuming more than usual.



Conversely, when the VGAT neurons were inhibited, even food-deprived mice showed reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-behavior-is-influenced-by-the-unconscious-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating behavior</a>.



The experiments also demonstrated that the mice enjoyed the stimulation, spending more time where their VGAT cells were activated, suggesting that the activation not only spurred eating but also triggered feelings of pleasure and reward. 



Remarkably, the mice were even willing to endure discomfort, such as mild electric shocks, to satisfy their induced cravings, indicating a strong drive to eat that overpowered other aversive sensations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-techniques-and-implications">Advanced techniques and implications</h2>



The research employed the cutting-edge technique of optogenetics, which enables precise control over specific neurons using light. 



This method was implemented by introducing a genetically modified virus that carries a light-sensitive protein derived from green algae into the mice. 



As a result, only the targeted VGAT cells within the periaqueductal gray were selectively activated or inhibited.



This precise neural manipulation not only affected the periaqueductal gray but also influenced deeper brain structures, such as the zona incerta. 



"We observed an increase in neural activity in this area when the mice were approaching food," said Juliane Ikebara, a co-author of the study. 



This observation underscores the broad impact of VGAT cell activation on the brain's neural circuits involved in feeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-compulsive-eating">Understanding compulsive eating</h2>



The study raises intriguing questions about the potential parallels in humans, given that humans also possess VGAT cells in similar brain regions. 



Although direct experimentation in humans is not currently feasible, the researchers are hopeful. 



"Our findings can't be directly tested in humans right now, but future studies may show whether activation of these cells in monkeys triggers a search for food, suggesting something similar might happen in humans," noted Avishek Adhikari, the team's senior researcher.



Moving forward, the team plans to investigate whether stimulating these neurons influences cravings for specific types of food like proteins or sugars, noting a distinct preference in mice for high-calorie foods over vegetables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-compulsive-eating-disorders">Treating compulsive eating disorders</h2>



This discovery opens up potential new avenues for understanding and treating conditions such as binge eating and anorexia. 



By identifying the neural circuits involved in compulsive eating, researchers can explore innovative strategies to modulate these behaviors, offering hope for those battling eating disorders.



The research not only highlights the complex interplay between brain regions and binge eating behaviors but also underscores the potential for targeted neural interventions in addressing compulsive eating.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46430-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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'Binge eating' linked to a specific group of neurons in the brain

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have pinpointed a specific group...

Rivers are not just pathways for water; they are dynamic forces that reshape the landscapes they traverse. Meandering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-look-to-mars-to-help-clarify-how-river-paths-change-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> carve intricate patterns into the Earth as they journey from mountainous regions to the sea, forming valleys, canyons, floodplains, and deltas. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a> have delved into the factors that influence how meandering rivers migrate across landscapes. The findings challenge some established theories and provide new insights into river behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Focus of the study</h2>



“Meandering rivers move gradually across the floodplains, and this river movement presents socioeconomic risks along river corridors and regulates terrestrial biogeochemical cycles. Experimental and field studies suggest that fluvial sediment supply can exert a primary control on lateral migration rates of rivers,” wrote the researchers.



“However, we lack an understanding of the relative importance of environmental boundary conditions, such as floodplain vegetation and sediment supply, in setting the pace of river meandering across different environmental settings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-forces-shaping-meandering-rivers">The forces shaping meandering rivers</h2>



The study was focused on two primary forces that affect the bends in meandering rivers: "bar push" and "bank pull."



Bar push occurs when sediment deposits inside a bend, pushing the river outward. Conversely, bank pull involves erosion on the opposite bank, which further exaggerates the bend. 



Interestingly, the research suggests that sediment load - the amount of debris and minerals carried by rivers - plays a more significant role in this outward push than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-trend-in-meandering-rivers">Global trend in meandering rivers </h2>



Evan Greenberg, the lead researcher and a doctoral geography student, along with his advisor Professor Vamsi Ganti, compiled a comprehensive dataset covering 139 <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/the-lena-river-delta-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meandering</a> rivers worldwide. The team analyzed satellite imagery to observe how the paths of these rivers have shifted over time. 



"We find a global-scale trend between the amount of sediment that rivers carry and how quickly they’re migrating, across all variables," explained Greenberg.



The analysis revealed that rivers laden with more sediment tend to migrate faster, a significant finding given that many of the world’s major waterways are meandering types. 



These river migration patterns are crucial for effective environmental management and urban planning, especially as these waterways affect millions of people living in nearby floodplains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vegetation-s-role-in-stabilizing-rivers">Vegetation's role in stabilizing rivers</h2>



Contrary to earlier studies that emphasized the stabilizing effects of vegetation, this new research shows that while vegetation does slow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-profiles-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> migration, its impact is less significant than previously estimated.



Unvegetated rivers with higher sediment loads were found to migrate up to four times faster than those with similar dimensions but more vegetation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dynamics-of-meandering-river-patterns">The dynamics of meandering river patterns</h2>



The interaction of bar push and bank pull creates the characteristic meandering pattern of these rivers. 



"You can’t have one dominate the other in a meandering river," said Professor Ganti. He further noted the importance of a balanced interaction between these forces to prevent the transformation of meandering rivers into braided rivers, which can happen if the sediment supply is insufficient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dams-and-river-migration-a-unique-case-study">Dams and river migration: A unique case study</h2>



The examination of rivers near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-caused-unprecedented-changes-to-rivers/">dams</a> provided an interesting case study within the research. Dams trap sediment but don't usually affect the vegetation, providing unique conditions to study how sediment load influences river migration. 



The observations showed that downstream from dams, where rivers are sediment-starved, migration rates decrease notably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-changes-and-managing-risks">Predicting changes and managing risks</h2>



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to extend their analysis to more rivers and varied river types. The goal is to develop a model that predicts river migration through different landscapes, from their sources to their mouths. 



This model could prove essential in predicting changes in river behavior due to environmental changes, such as sea-level rise, increased extreme weather events, and shifts in land use, which might lead to increased sediment loads.



In conclusion, understanding how meandering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-action-for-rivers-lifelines-of-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> move is more than an academic pursuit— it's crucial for managing the risks associated with riverbank migration. 



"More sediment means that rivers can do more stuff," said Professor Ganti, highlighting the dynamic and ever-changing nature of these fascinating systems. 



This ongoing research into river dynamics will aid in the development of strategies to cope with future changes in these mighty rivers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X24001079" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>.



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Study reveals new insights into the dynamics of meandering rivers

Rivers are not just pathways for water; they are dynamic...

Can you imagine going back in time to visit a lost loved one? This heartwrenching desire is what propelled astrophysicist Professor Ron Mallett on a lifelong quest to build a time machine. After years of research, Professor Mallett claims to have finally developed the revolutionary equation for time travel. 



The idea of bending time to our will – revisiting the past, altering history, or glimpsing into the future – has been a staple of science fiction for over a century. But could it move from fantasy to reality?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-inspiration-a-father-s-love-and-a-classic-novel">The inspiration: A father's love and a classic novel</h2>



Professor Mallett's obsession with time travel and its equation has its roots in a shattering childhood experience. When he was just ten years old, his father, a television repairman who fostered his son's love of science, tragically passed away from a heart attack. 



Devastated, the young Mallett sought solace in books. It was H.G. Wells' The Time Machine that sparked a lifelong fascination. 



Wells' opening lines became his mantra: "Scientific people know very well that Time is only a kind of Space. And why cannot we move in Time as we move about in the other dimensions of Space?"



This profound question ignited Mallett's scientific journey. He dedicated himself to understanding the nature of time, determined to find a way to revisit the past and see his beloved father once more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-travel-equation-in-the-hospital">Time travel equation in the hospital</h2>



Decades of research into black holes and Einstein's theories of relativity led to the time travel equation. 



While hospitalized for a heart condition, Mallett had a revelation. "It turns out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-binary-black-holes-secrets-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained. 



Imagine the fabric of spacetime as a river. While time usually flows in one direction, Mallett theorizes that the immense gravity of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-black-hole-is-spinning-in-the-nearby-galaxy-m87-study-confurms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spinning black hole</a> can create whirlpools, where time twists back on itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-time-machine-blueprint">The time machine blueprint</h2>



Mallett's vision for a time machine centers on what he calls "an intense and continuous rotating beam of light" to manipulate gravity. His device would use a ring of lasers to mimic the spacetime-distorting effects of a black hole. 



"Let's say you have a cup of coffee in front of you. Start stirring the coffee with the spoon. It started to spin, right? That's what a spinning black hole does," explained Mallett.



"In Einstein's theory, space and time are related to each other. That's why it's called space-time. So when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-created-and-contained-in-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> spins, it will actually cause time to shift."



"Eventually, a rotating beam of laser lights can be used as a kind of time machine and cause a time warp that will allow us to go back to the past," said Mallett. Perhaps, what began as a son's wish to see his father one last time might one day transform our understanding of time itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-limitations">Challenges and limitations</h2>



The obstacles on the path from time travel equation to machine are immense. Mallett acknowledges the "galactic amounts of energy" needed to power such a device – energy levels far beyond our current capabilities. 



The sheer size of a theoretical time machine is also unknown. While Mallett optimistically states, "I figured out how to do it. In theory, it is possible," the reality is that he may not live to see the machine built.



Furthermore, Mallett's theory comes with a significant constraint. "You can send information back, but you can only send it back to the point where you started operating the device." 



In this sense, the time machine is like a one-way message service to the past. You can't travel to a point before the machine existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mallet-s-lifetime-of-dedication-to-time-travel">Mallet's lifetime of dedication to time travel</h2>



Despite the daunting challenges, Mallett's remarkable journey is a testament to the human spirit. Alongside his time travel research, he's led a distinguished academic career, teaching physics at the <a href="https://uconn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Connecticut</a>. 



Now in his seventies, his work has been propelled by an unwavering belief in the possibility of the seemingly impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-equation-vs-reality-of-time-travel">Equation vs. reality of time travel</h2>



Whether Mallett's time machine will ever transcend the realm of theory is uncertain. Skeptics point to the vast technological hurdles and potential paradoxes raised by tampering with time. 



Yet, the mere possibility that science might one day unlock the secrets of temporal travel is enough to ignite the imagination. Could we rewrite our regrets, learn from past mistakes, or witness historical events firsthand?



Perhaps Professor Mallett's greatest legacy won't be a time travel equation itself, but the inspiration he provides – a reminder that audacious dreams and unrelenting curiosity have the power to push the boundaries of what we believe is possible.



Read more about Professor Mallett's work <a href="https://www.phys.uconn.edu/~mallett/main/main.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-space-time">More about space-time</h2>



As discussed above, space-time, a concept that feels as vast and complex as the universe itself, forms the backbone of our cosmic understanding. 



At its core, it blends the dimensions of space and time into a single four-dimensional continuum, challenging our perceptions of reality. This intertwined nature of space and time underpins everything from the motion of planets to the flow of time itself.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-einstein-s-groundbreaking-contribution">Einstein's groundbreaking contribution</h3>



Albert Einstein, with his theory of relativity, revolutionized our understanding of space-time. He posited that space and time are not separate entities but are connected in a dynamic relationship affected by mass and energy. 



This relationship implies that the presence of a massive object, like a planet or a star, can warp the fabric of space-time around it. It's a concept that turns the notion of a flat, unchanging universe on its head, suggesting that the very structure of the cosmos is malleable.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-warp-and-weft-of-the-cosmos">The warp and weft of the cosmos</h3>



Imagine space-time as a vast sheet of fabric. When a heavy object sits on this fabric, it creates a dip or curve. This curvature is what we perceive as gravity. 



Planets orbit stars not because they are being "pulled" in a straight line towards them, but because they are following the curved space-time geometry that these massive objects create. 



This curvature of space-time is not just a theoretical concept; it's observable and measurable, especially in the presence of extremely massive and dense objects, like black holes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravitational-waves-echoes-of-cosmic-events">Gravitational waves: Echoes of cosmic events</h3>



One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the theory of relativity and the dynamic nature of space-time comes from the detection of gravitational waves. 



These waves are ripples in the fabric of space-time, generated by some of the most violent and energetic processes in the universe, such as colliding black holes. 



Their discovery not only confirmed Einstein's predictions but also opened a new window into observing cosmic events that were previously invisible to us.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-impact-of-space-time">Practical impact of space-time</h3>



While these concepts might seem distant from daily life, they have real-world applications, particularly in technology. The Global Positioning System (GPS), a technology integral to modern navigation, relies on an understanding of space-time. 



Satellites orbiting Earth need to account for the effects of gravitational time dilation -- a consequence of the curvature of space-time -- to provide accurate location data to users on the ground.



In summary, space-time is a framework that shapes our understanding of the universe. From guiding the planets in their orbits to enabling precise navigation on Earth, its effects are both profoundly cosmic and surprisingly practical. 



As we continue to explore and understand the intricacies of space-time, we edge closer to unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos, one gravitational wave at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-black-holes-are-linked-to-time-travel">How black holes are linked to time travel</h2>



Playing a major role in Dr. Mallett's time machine, black holes exert a gravitational pull so immense that not even light can escape their grasp. This intense gravity fundamentally alters the fabric of space-time around the black hole. 



The stronger the gravity, the more pronounced these effects become, leading to what scientists call gravitational time dilation -- a phenomenon where time itself warps, slowing down relative to an observer far from the gravitational pull.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Time dilation explained</h3>



At the heart of this phenomenon lies Albert Einstein's theory of General Relativity, which posits that gravity is the result of masses warping the space-time around them. 



In the vicinity of a black hole, this warping becomes so extreme that it significantly affects the flow of time. 



An observer standing at a safe distance would perceive time to pass much slower for someone closer to the black hole. 



This effect intensifies as one approaches the event horizon, the point of no return beyond which the gravitational pull becomes inescapable.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Boundary between time zones</h3>



The event horizon of a black hole marks a stark boundary in the universe, where time as we understand it undergoes a dramatic transformation. 



To an external observer, objects approaching the event horizon appear to slow down and almost freeze in time, never quite crossing the threshold. 



This illusion results from the light from those objects taking longer and longer to reach the observer as the objects move closer to the event horizon, due to the extreme gravitational pull affecting the light's path.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Theoretical implications and observations</h3>



This warping of time around black holes is not just a theoretical curiosity. As Dr. Mallett explained previously in this article, it has practical implications for our understanding of the universe. For instance, it plays a crucial role in the behavior of binary systems where one star orbits a black hole. 



Moreover, advancements in technology, such as precise atomic clocks and observations from space telescopes, have allowed scientists to measure these effects, further confirming the predictions of General Relativity.



In summary, black holes serve as natural laboratories for testing the limits of our understanding of physics, offering insights into the complex interplay between gravity and the fabric of space-time. 



The phenomenon of time dilation near these cosmic behemoths challenges our notions of time and space, inviting us to explore beyond the boundaries of our current knowledge. 



As we continue to observe and study these fascinating objects, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of the universe.



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Astrophysicist says he has cracked the code for time travel

Can you imagine going back in time to visit a...

Astronaut,In,Outer,Space,Against,The,Backdrop,Of,The,Planet

Have you ever wondered if astronauts get headaches in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-lettuce-and-salads-in-space-is-a-bad-idea-according-to-a-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a>? It may seem trivial but a recent study from the <a href="https://www.aan.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Academy of Neurology</a> reveals that even seasoned astronauts experience space headaches.



Moreover, astronauts without any history of headaches can experience both migraines and tension-type headaches while on long missions in space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-headaches-in-astronauts">Space headaches in astronauts</h2>



The study followed 24 astronauts who spent up to 26 weeks on the International Space Station. Before their missions, only a handful of them had occasional headaches. 



Shockingly, 92% of these astronauts experienced headaches during their flights. This is a significant increase from the 38% who reported headaches before heading for the stars. The majority were tension-type headaches, but around 10% were migraines.



The first week in space seemed to be the worst, with headaches hitting harder and more frequently. After returning to Earth, the astronauts' headaches completely disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vestibular-system">The vestibular system</h2>



"Changes in gravity caused by space flight affect the function of many parts of the body, including the brain," explained Dr. W. P. J. van Oosterhout, the study's author. 



Our vestibular system, which is key for balance and posture, becomes confused in space. It's used to the pull of Earth's gravity, and the absence of that force leads to disorientation. This is one of the major causes of space motion sickness, and as it turns out, might also trigger headaches.



Dr. van Oosterhout believes that space headaches could be linked to increased pressure inside the skull. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-weather-poses-significant-risks-to-railway-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zero gravity</a>, fluids in the body tend to shift upwards. This could lead to more pressure on the brain, potentially causing headaches.



"Further research is needed to unravel the underlying causes of space headache and explore how such discoveries may provide insights into headaches occurring on Earth," noted Dr. van Oosterhout. "Also, more effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/special-lettuce-could-protect-astronauts-from-bone-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies</a> need to be developed to combat space headaches, as for many astronauts, this is a major problem during space flights."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-headaches-insights">Space headaches insights</h2>



While space headaches seem like a niche concern, the insights gained could shed light on chronic headache disorders we experience on Earth. For example, researchers might discover shared triggers relating to pressure changes or fluid shifts within the skull. This could lead to new treatment options or ways to identify those at risk of such conditions.



Mountain climbers and pilots sometimes experience headaches or dizziness at high altitudes. Moreover, studying the mechanisms behind space headaches could translate into better prevention and management methods for those who operate in such environments.



The technologies used to monitor the physiological changes in astronauts might find applications on Earth. Perhaps we'll see the development of non-invasive devices for detecting cranial pressure changes, helpful for diagnosing various medical conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



As ambitious space travel projects become more realistic, understanding and developing treatment for space headaches will be crucial. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-takes-a-greater-toll-on-astronauts-brains-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronauts</a> on extended missions won't have the luxury of easily returning to Earth, making managing these unexpected health issues essential. 



It's another reminder that while space exploration is extraordinary, it comes with a host of unique challenges for the extraordinary humans doing the exploring.



The study was supported by the <a href="https://www.nwo.nl/en">Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research.</a>



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Astronauts report space headaches during long missions

Have you ever wondered if astronauts get headaches in space?...

It's not magic, it's science. Recent research led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Francisco (UCSF)</a> reveals that individuals who contract COVID-19 but remain symptom-free - dubbed as 'super dodgers' - may owe their resilience to a specific genetic mutation known as HLA. 



According to the study, carriers of this gene variant are more than twice as likely to be asymptomatic. This, compared to those who experience symptoms after contracting the virus.



This study, published in Nature on July 19, 2023, represents a significant step in understanding the genetic influence on our body's response to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-associated-with-lower-covid-19-vaccine-responses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a>. The research provides a possible explanation for why some people contract the virus but never fall ill.



<h2 id="h-human-leukocyte-antigen-hla">Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)</h2>



The researchers centered their attention on the human leukocyte antigen (HLA), protein markers that are the immune system's smoke signal. A genetic mutation in one of the genes encoding the HLA allows virus-killing T cells to recognize SARS-CoV-2 rapidly, akin to triggering a lightning-fast attack. 



It's as if these T cells, even when encountering the virus for the first time, can recognize it due to its similarity to the common cold viruses they've already combated. This important discovery could open up new paths for drug and vaccine development.



Jill Hollenbach, PhD, MPH, the study's lead researcher, explained it this way: "If you have an army that's able to recognize the enemy early, that's a huge advantage. It's like having soldiers that are prepared for battle and already know what to look for, and that these are the bad guys."



The genetic mutation, known as HLA-B*15:01, is relatively common, being present in about 10% of the study's participants. Carriers of this mutation don't avoid the virus itself, but they do sidestep the symptoms - from a runny nose to a slightly sore throat.



Hollenbach's team discovered that 20% of participants who remained symptom-free after contracting the virus carried at least one copy of the HLA-B*15:01 variant. 



In comparison, only 9% of symptomatic individuals were carriers. Interestingly, the likelihood of remaining symptom-free increased more than eightfold for participants carrying two copies of the variant.



<h2>Studying the COVID-19 genetic mutation</h2>



The researchers believed from the outset that the HLA might play a critical role in this context. They found the necessary data in an existing national registry. 



The <a href="https://bethematch.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Marrow Donor Program/Be The Match</a>, which matches donors with bone marrow transplant recipients. However, they needed further information on how these donors fared against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-reveals-how-to-prevent-covid-19-from-ever-returning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a>.



To gather this information, they turned to the <a href="https://medicine.ucsf.edu/news/newly-launched-covid-19-citizen-science-study" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 Citizen Science Study</a>, a mobile app developed at UCSF. 



They tracked nearly 30,000 people in the bone marrow archive through the first year of the pandemic, a period when vaccines were still unavailable and routine COVID-19 testing was prevalent.



"We did not set out to study genetics, but we were thrilled to see this result come from our multidisciplinary collaboration with Dr. Hollenbach and the National Marrow Donor Program," stated Mark Pletcher, MD, MPH, a professor of epidemiology and biostatistics at UCSF.



<h2>What the researchers learned about HLA</h2>



Researchers identified 1,428 unvaccinated donors who tested positive between February 2020 and April 2021. Of these, 136 individuals showed no symptoms for at least two weeks before and after testing positive. Only the HLA-B*15:01 genetic mutation showed a robust association with asymptomatic COVID-19 infection.



Notably, the common risk factors for severe COVID-19, such as older age, obesity, or chronic conditions like diabetes, didn't seem to influence who remained asymptomatic.



Martin Maiers, vice president of research at the National Marrow Donor Program/Be The Match, said, "We are proud to partner on research that has the potential to leverage a long-term public investment in building the national archive to help cure diseases and improve our ability to avoid future pandemics."



To understand how the HLA-B15:01 variant works, Hollenbach's team collaborated with La Trobe University scientists in Australia. They focused on the concept of T-cell memory, the immune system's way of "remembering" past infections. 



The team found that T cells from individuals carrying the HLA-B15:01 variant, even those never exposed to SARS-CoV-2, still responded to a part of the novel coronavirus named NQK-Q8 peptide. 



This suggests that exposure to seasonal coronaviruses, carrying a very similar peptide, NQK-A8, enabled these T cells to quickly recognize and mount an effective response against SARS-CoV-2.



"By studying their immune response, this might enable us to identify new ways of promoting immune protection against SARS-CoV-2 that could be used in future development of vaccines or drugs," noted Stephanie Gras, a professor and laboratory head at La Trobe University. 



This study, hence, unveils the genetic chess game at play in the fight against COVID-19, providing a pathway for future research and potential therapeutic developments.



<h2>More about COVID-19 and genetic mutations</h2>



The novel coronavirus, known as SARS-CoV-2, causes the infectious disease COVID-19. It was first identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, and since then, it has led to a global pandemic. 



The virus has infected millions of people worldwide and caused millions of deaths. Here is a more in-depth explanation of what is known about COVID-19:



<h3>Symptoms</h3>



COVID-19 symptoms vary, but the most common include fever, cough, shortness of breath, loss of taste or smell, muscle or body aches, headache, sore throat, fatigue, and sometimes gastrointestinal problems like diarrhea. 



While some people may remain asymptomatic, others can become seriously ill and develop complications like pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, or other organ problems.



<h3>Transmission</h3>



COVID-19 primarily spreads through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, or breathes. 



It can also spread by touching a surface contaminated by the virus and then touching the face, although this is less common. Individuals who are symptomatic, asymptomatic, or pre-symptomatic can transmit the virus.



<h3>Prevention</h3>



Preventive measures include wearing masks, maintaining physical distance from others, avoiding large gatherings, washing hands frequently, and getting vaccinated. 



Vaccines developed by companies such as Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, Johnson &amp; Johnson, and AstraZeneca have received emergency use authorization in various countries around the world.



Also, as we learned above, COVID-19 patients show show no symptoms often have a genetic mutation called HLA.



<h3>Treatment</h3>



Treatments include antiviral drugs like Remdesivir, the steroid dexamethasone for severe cases, monoclonal antibodies, and supportive care to help relieve symptoms. 



Additionally, the anticoagulant heparin is often used due to the increased risk of blood clots in severe cases. Research and trials are ongoing to develop more effective treatments.



<h3>Impact</h3>



Beyond its health impacts, COVID-19 has also led to significant economic, social, and psychological disruption worldwide, including job losses, increased mental health issues, and interruptions to education.



<h3>Variants</h3>



Several variants of SARS-CoV-2 have emerged since the start of the pandemic, some of which are more transmissible or potentially more virulent. 



These include the Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants. Ongoing surveillance of these variants is crucial to public health efforts to control the spread of the virus.



<h3>Long COVID</h3>



Some people experience prolonged symptoms or long-term effects after their acute infection has resolved, a condition sometimes referred to as "long COVID" or "Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection" (PASC). 



Symptoms can include fatigue, brain fog, breathlessness, and a host of other problems. Research is ongoing to understand why this occurs and how to treat it.



For the most accurate and up-to-date information, please refer to reputable health organizations such as the <a href="https://www.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization (WHO)</a> or the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</a>.

"Super-dodgers" who don’t get sick from COVID-19 may have special HLA genetic mutation

It's not magic, it's science. Recent research led by the...

Welcome to the innovative world of robotics, where one innovative creation is making waves...under the sand. This unique robot, created by a team of scientists at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a>, can "swim" under the sand's surface and dig itself back out when needed, similar to a sea turtle hatchling.



This new robot can swim under sand thanks to a pair of front limbs modeled after the oversized flippers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-sea-turtles-have-returned-to-the-same-place-to-eat-for-3000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtle</a> hatchlings. In an awe-inspiring feat of engineering, this robot is the first of its kind able to navigate sand at a depth of five inches.



While it may seem slow, traversing at a speed of 1.2 millimeters per second or around 13 feet per hour, it's worth noting that this is on par with the speed of other subterranean creatures such as worms and clams.



Apart from its turtle-inspired limbs, <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/swimming-turtle-robot_credit-David-Baillot_2medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the robot</a> is furnished with force sensors at the ends of these flippers, empowering it to detect obstacles while moving. Furthermore, you can operate it without physical constraints and control it remotely via WiFi.



<h2 id="h-sand-robots-have-significant-hurdles">Sand robots have significant hurdles</h2>



Robots designed to swim under sand encounter numerous hurdles. The forces they face are much greater than those met by robots navigating air or water, and they can sustain damage more readily.



Nonetheless, overcoming these challenges could offer significant advantages such as inspecting grain silos, taking soil contaminant measurements, engaging in seafloor digging, assisting in extraterrestrial exploration, and aiding in search and rescue operations.



Devising this sand-swimming robot involved a series of meticulous experiments aimed at better understanding the complex nature of sand and how to enable robotic locomotion through it.



Sand presents a particular challenge due to the large forces caused by the friction between grains, difficulty in sensing obstacles, and its variable behavior. Sand can act like a liquid or a solid depending on the situation.



<h2>Biomimicry -- copying sea turtle hatchlings</h2>



The team found inspiration in nature, studying the movement of various animals to develop their sand-swimming robot. They found their solution in the sea turtle hatchlings, whose large front fins enable them to surface after hatching. 



Replicating these flippers in the robot not only generates large propulsive forces but also enables the robot to steer and potentially detect obstacles.



Yet, the mystery of how robots equipped with flipper-like appendages move in sand persists. "We needed to build a robot that is both strong and streamlined," said Shivam Chopra, the lead author of the paper describing the robot, published in the journal Advanced Intelligent Systems.



Extensive simulations and testing by the UC San Diego team resulted in the adoption of a tapered body design and a shovel-shaped nose.



By monitoring torque changes caused by its flipper movement, the robot can identify obstacles above it as it swims under sand. However, it cannot yet detect obstacles below or directly in front of it.



To counterbalance this, the robot features a unique design addition: two foil-like surfaces, dubbed "terrafoils," mounted on the sides of the bot's nose, enabling it to maintain a consistent depth in the sand and avoid always heading upwards.



Researchers tested this revolutionary robot in a lab setting and at La Jolla Shores, a beach close to the UC San Diego campus. The trials showed that the robot's speed reduced in wet sand due to the greater resistance it offered.



Future advancements will focus on increasing the robot's speed and enhancing its burrowing capabilities, allowing it to dig into the sand as well as dig itself out. This study marks an exciting step forward in robotic locomotion through challenging terrains.



<h2>More about sea turtle hatchlings</h2>



Sea turtle hatchlings are young sea turtles that have recently emerged from their eggs. They represent an important life stage of all seven existing species of sea turtles: the Loggerhead, Green, Hawksbill, Flatback, Olive Ridley, Kemp's Ridley, and Leatherback.



Here's an overview of their life, their challenges, and their role in the larger ecosystem.



<h3>Life cycle</h3>



The mother turtle typically lays sea turtle eggs in clutches on sandy beaches.She will come ashore during the night, dig a hole with her flippers, lay her eggs, cover the hole with sand, and then return to the sea. The number of eggs in a clutch varies by species, but it can be anywhere from 50 to 200 eggs.



After being laid, the eggs incubate in the warmth of the sand for about 60 days, though this can vary depending on the species and the temperature. Warmer sands tend to speed up the incubation process, and interestingly, they also influence the sex of the hatchlings. Warmer conditions generally produce more female hatchlings, while cooler conditions result in more males, a phenomenon known as temperature-dependent sex determination.



<h3>Emergence and journey to the sea</h3>



When the hatchlings finally emerge from their eggs, they dig their way up through the sand in a group effort, usually at night when the temperatures are cooler and predators are less active. This emergence is known as a "boil." Once they reach the surface, they use visual cues to find the sea, often navigating by the natural light on the ocean horizon.



This journey from the nest to the sea is fraught with danger. Predators such as birds, crabs, and other animals are a major threat. Human-made obstacles and artificial lights can also confuse or misdirect hatchlings, leading them away from the sea.



<h3>The lost years</h3>



Once they reach the ocean, the hatchlings begin what is often referred to as the "lost years" — a period ranging from a few years to a decade where they live in the open ocean.



During this time, their whereabouts and habits are largely unknown to scientists due to tracking difficulties. They drift with the currents and forage for food, growing until they reach a certain size and maturity.



<h3>Sea turtle hatchling survival</h3>



Survival rates for sea turtle hatchlings are tragically low. It's estimated that only about one in 1,000 to 10,000 hatchlings survive to adulthood. Natural predators, human activities, marine pollution, habitat loss, and climate change all contribute to the high mortality rate.



<h3>Significance in the ecosystem</h3>



Despite their small size and vulnerable status, sea turtle hatchlings play a crucial role in marine ecosystems. They are a part of the food web, serving as a food source for various predators. They contribute to the nutrient cycle, both on land and in the sea.



For example, unhatched eggs and hatchlings that don't make it to the sea provide nutrients that enrich coastal vegetation.



Furthermore, their journey from nest to sea helps aerate the sand. This can benefit beach ecosystems.



By adulthood, depending on the species, sea turtles also play roles in controlling jellyfish populations, grazing on sea grass and keeping it healthy, and even helping to shape the physical environment in the case of species that use sponges or corals as food.



Protection and conservation efforts worldwide are continuously working towards ensuring the survival and health of sea turtle hatchlings, and thus, the continuance of these vital marine creatures.

Scientists invent robot that can swim under sand like sea turtle hatchlings

Welcome to the innovative world of robotics, where one innovative...

The Sh2-284 nebula, imaged by the VLT Survey Telescope

A spectacular, high-detailed picture of the Sh2-284 nebula – known as the “smiling cat nebula” – has recently been captured by the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/surveytelescopes/vst/">VLT Survey Telescope</a>, hosted by the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/">European Southern Observatory</a> (ESO). 



This nebula, resembling the face of a cat smiling down from the sky, is teeming with young stars, as gas and dust within it gathers together to form new suns.



The Sh2-284 nebula is a vast region consisting of gas and dust located about 15,000 light years away from Earth in the constellation Monoceros. Its brightest part, which is visible in the newly captured image, measures approximately 150 light years, or 1,400 trillion kilometers, across.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-special-features-of-the-nebula">Special features of the nebula</h2>



Located in the center of this part – under the “cat’s nose” – is a cluster of young stars called Dolidze 25 that produces massive amounts of strong winds and radiation. 



According to the experts, this radiation is powerful enough to ionize the hydrogen from the cloud and produce its bright red and orange colors.



By pushing away the gas and dust in the nebula, the strong winds from the central cluster of stars hollow out its center.&nbsp;



Moreover, as they encounter denser pockets of material which offer more resistance, these winds erode away the areas around them first, creating several pillars which can be observed along the edges of the nebula.&nbsp;



Although these pillars look relatively small in the image, they are actually several light years wide and contain vast amounts of dust and gas from which new stars emerge.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-image">More about the image</h2>



The scientists succeeded in creating this extraordinary image using data from the VLT Survey Telescope (VST), which is hosted at ESO’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/">Paranal Observatory</a>&nbsp;in Chile and is owned by the <a href="http://www.inaf.it/en">National Institute for Astrophysics</a> (INAF) in Italy. 



VST is a crucial tool for mapping the southern sky in visible light by employing a 256-million-pixel camera specifically designed to take wide-field images.&nbsp;



The new image is part of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.vphasplus.org/">VST Photometric Hα Survey of the Southern Galactic Plane and Bulge</a>&nbsp;(VPHAS+), which has already examined over 500 million astronomical objects in our galaxy, increasing our understanding of the birth, life, and eventual death of stars from the Milky Way.



<h2 id="h-what-is-a-nebula">What is a nebula?</h2>



A nebula (plural: nebulae or nebulas) is a vast cloud of gas and dust in outer space, visible in the night sky either as an indistinct bright patch or as a dark silhouette against other luminous matter. Nebulae are often the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-carina-nebula-like-weve-never-seen-it-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birthplaces of stars</a>, formed from the gravitational collapse of gas within the nebula.



Nebulae can be categorized into different types based on their characteristics:



<h3 id="h-emission-nebulae">Emission nebulae</h3>



These are often called H II regions as they are largely composed of ionized hydrogen. They are typically glowing, hot clouds of gas energized by the ultraviolet light from hot, young stars within them. The most famous example of an emission nebula is the Orion Nebula.



<h3 id="h-reflection-nebulae">Reflection nebulae</h3>



These nebulae do not emit light themselves, but are near enough to stars that they reflect the light from those stars. They often appear blue because blue light is scattered more than other colors.



<h3 id="h-dark-nebulae">Dark nebulae</h3>



These are dense clouds of gas and dust that block the light from stars and other celestial objects behind them. They are visible because they create voids in the star field.



<h3 id="h-planetary-nebulae">Planetary nebulae</h3>



This is a somewhat misleading name, as these have nothing to do with planets. These are shells of gas thrown off by stars late in their life cycle, typically red giants undergoing the transition to white dwarfs.



<h3 id="h-supernova-remnants">Supernova remnants</h3>



These are complex, often filamentary, clouds of gas and dust formed from the material ejected during a supernova explosion, a stellar death event.



Each type of nebula has different processes at work and tells astronomers different things about the life cycles of stars and the composition of the universe.



Image Credit: ESO/VPHAS+ team. Acknowledgement: CASU



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

The "Smiling cat nebula" captured in a new, spectacular image

A spectacular, high-detailed picture of the Sh2-284 nebula – known...

Diving deep into the past, a research team has discovered an ancient mosasaur fossil. Further analysis revealed it to be a new species, Sarabosaurus dahli. They found it in the rugged gray shale badlands of the National Park Service Glen Canyon National Recreation Area.



This recent archaeological breakthrough in southern Utah has brought a 94-million-year-old secret to the surface. Dr. Barry Albright is a faculty member at the <a href="https://www.unf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Florida</a>. He made this fascinating discovery, along with a research team from the <a href="https://www.blm.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bureau of Land Management (BLM)</a>.



<h2 id="h-mosasaurs-were-originally-land-dwelling-creatures">Mosasaurs were originally land dwelling creatures</h2>



Mosasaurs were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/terrifying-mosasaur-dominated-the-ocean-66-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique creatures</a>. They were reptiles adapted entirely for marine life. Mosasaurs roamed the oceans while their dinosaur cousins reigned on land.



The genesis of this discovery traces back about 11 years. Scott Richardson, a dedicated volunteer trained under Dr. Albright.



He tirelessly scoured the land for remnants of organisms that once inhabited the vast seaway spanning across the heart of North America. This was during the Late Cretaceous Period, approximately 84 to 95 million years ago.



In March 2012, Richardson stumbled upon a treasure trove of ancient history. Small skull fragments and vertebrae, the vestiges of an early mosasaur, lay scattered across a large shale slope.



As Dr. Albright elucidates, "During the time the Tropic Shale was being deposited, about 94 million years ago, mosasaurs were still very small, primitive, and in the early evolutionary stages of becoming fully marine adapted. For these reasons, their fossils are extremely rare and difficult to find."



<h2>How Sarabosaurus dahli was discovered</h2>



Over the next two field seasons, a joint team from the BLM and the National Park Service painstakingly recovered nearly half of the specimen. This amount proved sufficient to identify the ancient creature.



The research team, captained by BLM Paria River District paleontologist Dr. Alan Titus, consisted of BLM staff and volunteers. Among them was volunteer Steve Dahl. 



His dedication to the project led to his being immortalized in the species name, Sarabosaurus dahli. This name translates to "Dahl’s reptile of the mirage".



The name encapsulates both the bygone seaway this creature swam through, and the desert mirages associated with the region's intense summer heat.



<h2>New mosasaur, Sarabosaurus dahli, is a monumental discovery</h2>



"Mosasaurs from younger rocks are relatively abundant, but mosasaurs are extremely rare in rocks older than about 90 million years," explained Dr. Titus. "Finding one that preserves so much informative data, especially one of this age, is truly a significant discovery."



These oldest mosasaurs were diminutive, just about 3 feet long. Yet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-mosasaur-species-discovered-with-strange-screwdriver-like-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">they evolved into massive, lizard-like marine predators</a>. Mosasaurs ruled the oceans during the later stages of the dinosaur era.



Originally, their land-bound ancestors resembled the present-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/all-about-the-mysterious-komodo-dragon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo Dragon</a>. However, over time, their sea-faring descendants developed sleek bodies, fin-like limbs, and tails designed for swift navigation through water.



In contrast to its primitive predecessors, Sarabosaurus boasted a significant evolutionary advancement. It had developed a new system to pump blood into its brain.



According to Dr. Michael J. Polcyn of the University of Utrecht, Netherlands, and Southern Methodist University, Dallas, "Sarabosaurus sheds light on long-standing questions regarding the relationship of some early branching mosasaurid species, but also provides new insights into the evolution and antiquity of a novel cranial blood supply seen in a particular group of mosasaurs."



This pivotal discovery propels our understanding of the mysterious past. It also sheds light on the intriguing world of these ancient marine reptiles. This is truly a giant leap forward for science.



The results of this transformative research have been freshly published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667123001490">Cretaceous Research</a>. Image credit: ANDREY ATUCHIN



<h2>More about mosasaurs</h2>



Mosasaurs were large, carnivorous marine reptiles that lived during the Late Cretaceous period. This period spanned from around 92 to 66 million years ago.



These fascinating creatures are known for their adaptation to marine life. They evolved from land-dwelling, lizard-like ancestors. Here's what we know about them:



<h3>Size and Appearance</h3>



The size of mosasaurs varied, with the smallest species measuring about 3 feet long and the largest, such as Mosasaurus hoffmannii, reaching lengths of up to 50 feet or more.



Mosasaurs had elongated, streamlined bodies with powerful, paddle-like limbs and a long, strong tail that helped them navigate and accelerate in the water. They also had large, robust skulls equipped with strong jaws and sharp teeth, perfect for their predatory lifestyle.



<h3>Adaptations</h3>



Mosasaurs exhibited a number of fascinating adaptations for life in the sea. They had a double-hinged jaw and a flexible skull (similar to snakes), which allowed them to swallow their prey whole. Some mosasaurs also had a second set of teeth on the roofs of their mouths.



&nbsp;These creatures evolved from land-dwelling lizards and, over time, their limbs transformed into flippers, their tails became more like those of sharks, and they developed the ability to give live birth in the water.



<h3>Diet and Hunting</h3>



Mosasaurs were apex predators in their oceanic ecosystems, preying on a variety of marine life, including fish, squid, and other marine reptiles. Some larger species may have also fed on smaller species of mosasaurs.



Their hunting techniques are believed to have been similar to those of modern-day killer whales, isolating a member of a school of fish or a pod of squids and attacking with speed and power.



<h3>Distribution and Habitat</h3>



Mosasaurs were a global species, with fossils found on every continent, indicating that they inhabited a wide range of marine environments, from shallow nearshore waters to the open ocean.



<h3>Discovery and Extinction</h3>



The first mosasaur fossils were discovered in the Netherlands in the late 18th century, and they have since been found worldwide.



Mosasaurs went extinct during the K-T event (the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event) about 66 million years ago, which is also well-known for causing the demise of the dinosaurs.



<h3>Relation to Modern Animals</h3>



Mosasaurs are not dinosaurs but are more closely related to modern-day monitor lizards and snakes. Their closest living relatives are thought to be the Komodo dragon and the closely-related Gila monster.



Overall, mosasaurs were fascinating, well-adapted creatures that dominated the oceans of the Late Cretaceous period. Their fossils continue to provide valuable insights into life on Earth millions of years ago.

Sarabosaurus dahli: A newly discovered mosasaur species provides incredible evolutionary insights

Diving deep into the past, a research team has discovered...

Researchers have discovered that even mild cases of COVID-19 can affect a man's semen quality months after infection. This revelation was part of a study presented at the 39th annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.eshre.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology</a> (ESHRE) on Monday.



The study found that men who had mild COVID-19 infections had fewer and less active sperm cells. This continued over three months after their recovery. These findings were surprising since sperm cells should regenerate within this period.



Professor Rocio Núñez-Calonge, a scientific advisor at UR International Group at the <a href="https://www.comunidad.madrid/en/hospital/lapaz/profesionales/hospital-materno-infantil/unidad-reproducion-asistida" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reproduction Unit in Madrid</a>, led the research team.



She expressed her team's surprise over these findings. She stated, "We assumed that semen quality would improve once new sperm were being generated, but this was not the case. We do not know how long it might take for semen quality to be restored and it may be the case that COVID has caused permanent damage, even in men who suffered only a mild infection."



<h2 id="h-how-the-team-studied-semen-quality-after-covid-19">How the team studied semen quality after COVID-19</h2>



Núñez-Calonge and her team started the study after noticing that some men who attended reproductive clinics in Spain had worse semen quality after recovering from mild COVID-19 infections.



Given that it takes about 78 days to produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-sperm-production/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new sperm</a>, the team found it appropriate to evaluate semen quality at least three months after recovery.



For their research, they recruited 45 men from six reproductive clinics in Spain between February 2020 and October 2022. All participants had recovered from mild COVID-19 infections. The team had access to the men's semen samples taken before and after their infections.



The scientists made alarming discoveries when they analyzed the samples. They discovered that every aspect of semen quality was impacted, even after an average of 100 days post-infection.



Semen volume was down by 20%, sperm concentration had fallen by 26.5%, total sperm count had reduced by 37.5%, and total motility was down 9.1%. The number of live sperm had also decreased by 5%.



<h2>The connection between COVID-19 and semen quality</h2>



The researchers' findings suggest that mild COVID-19 infections could cause permanent damage to semen quality. This is a concern that Núñez-Calonge wants clinicians to take seriously.



She noted, "It is particularly interesting that this decrease in semen quality occurs in patients with mild COVID infection, which means that the virus can affect male fertility without the men showing any clinical symptoms of the disease.”



Núñez-Calonge and her team are not yet sure why COVID-19 affects sperm cells in this way. However, they suspect that inflammation and damage to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-lingering-immune-system-effects-of-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune system</a> could be factors. 



These are often seen in patients with long COVID. They plan to continue studying the participants to track semen quality and hormonal status over time.



Commenting on the study, the chair of ESHRE, Professor Carlos Calhaz-Jorge, not involved in the research, said, "This is interesting research by Prof. Núñez-Calonge and her colleagues and shows the importance of long-term follow-up of fertility patients after a COVID infection, even if it’s a mild infection. However, it’s important to note that the semen quality in these patients after a COVID infection is still within the World Health Organization’s criteria for ‘normal’ semen and sperm. So, it is unclear whether these reductions in semen quality after a COVID infection translate into impaired fertility and this should be the subject of further research.”



The findings of this study have opened up a new area of COVID-19 research. It could impact our understanding of the virus's long-term effects on human fertility. 



It underlines the importance of further studies to determine whether these changes in semen quality after a COVID-19 infection could indeed lead to impaired fertility.



<h2>Tell me more about long-term COVID-19 symptoms</h2>



There are many long-term symptoms of COVID-19, often referred to as "long COVID." These can affect patients weeks or even months after they recover from the acute phase of the illness.



Researchers are continuing to study long COVID, but they have already identified several common symptoms.



<h3>Fatigue</h3>



Many individuals with long COVID report prolonged fatigue that doesn't improve with rest. This isn't just a general tiredness but a debilitating exhaustion that can impact daily activities.



<h3>Shortness of breath</h3>



Some individuals experience continued difficulty with breathing or shortness of breath long after their initial recovery.



<h3>Cognitive difficulties</h3>



Often referred to as "brain fog," these symptoms can include difficulties with concentration and memory, confusion, and problems with sleep.



<h3>Mental health problems</h3>



Anxiety, depression, and other mental health disorders can develop or worsen in people with long COVID.



<h3>Heart issues</h3>



Some individuals may experience symptoms such as palpitations or fast-beating heart, and in some severe cases, inflammation of the heart muscle.



<h3>Pain</h3>



This can be in the form of headaches, joint pain, or muscle aches that persist for extended periods.



<h3>Long-term loss of taste and smell</h3>



While loss of taste and smell is a well-known symptom of acute COVID-19, some individuals find these senses do not return to normal for weeks or months.



<h3>Gastrointestinal issues</h3>



People have reported persistent symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and nausea.



<h3>Other symptoms</h3>



These can include fever, cough, and skin rashes.



Factors such as the severity of the initial infection, the patient's age, and pre-existing health conditions can influence who is likely to experience long COVID.



However, even people with mild cases of COVID-19 can experience these long-term symptoms. Also worth noting is that we need more research to fully understand the virus's long-term impact, so this list of potential long-term symptoms isn't exhaustive.



Please consult with a healthcare professional if you or someone you know is experiencing any long-term symptoms following a COVID-19 infection. They can provide the most up-to-date and relevant advice and treatments.

Men infected with even mild COVID cases experience long-term decline in semen quality

Researchers have discovered that even mild cases of COVID-19 can...

As with everything else in the universe, stars die. Usually in spectacular fashion. 



When we look up at the night sky, we marvel at the beauty of the countless stars visible to the naked eye. However, there's much more to these twinkling lights than meets the eye.



Every star has its own life story, from birth to death. Usually, this journey unfolds in very predictable ways.



Take our sun, for instance. It's a relatively small star. As it ages, it gradually sheds its outer layers, dims, and eventually turns into a white dwarf star.



But bigger stars live a different kind of life. They burn brighter and die younger, ending their lives in spectacular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosions</a>. These supernovas create extremely dense remnants, like neutron stars and black holes.



Sometimes, two of these remnants get together and can even collide. But recent research suggests there's a fourth scenario for how stars can die and end their lives. This method has long been hypothesized, but never seen until now.



<h2 id="h-observing-a-star-die-in-a-previously-unknown-way">Observing a star die in a previously unknown way</h2>



Scientists have been investigating a strange gamma-ray burst (GRB). These events are a sudden and intense flash of gamma rays.



Using the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/gemini-observatory/gemini-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gemini South telescope</a> in Chile, along with other telescopes, astronomers found evidence of what seems like a massive cosmic car crash involving stars or their remnants. But here's the twist – this collision took place near a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-known-cosmic-explosion-has-been-visible-for-three-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a> in an ancient galaxy.



“Stars can die in some of the densest regions of the Universe where they can be driven to collide,” explains Andrew Levan. He is a Dutch astronomer from <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radboud University</a> and the leading author of this groundbreaking study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



“This is exciting for understanding how stars die and for answering other questions, such as what unexpected sources might create gravitational waves that we could detect on Earth.”



<h2>Importance of ancient galaxies for learning how stars die</h2>



Now, you may wonder, why are ancient galaxies important? Ancient galaxies are past their prime in star-making. They may not have many giant stars left, which are usually responsible for long GRBs. But they do have a busy center. These centers are filled with stars and ultra-dense remnants like white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes.



Scientists have thought for a long time that given the chaotic nature of a black hole's neighborhood, a collision leading to a GRB was just a matter of time. But finding solid evidence of this has been challenging.



Then, on October 19, 2019, NASA's Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory spotted a bright flash of gamma rays that lasted over a minute. This was the first hint of such an event.



Astronomers consider any GRB that lasts more than two seconds to be "long". These usually occur when massive stars, at least ten times the size of our sun, die. But not always.



<h2>The study involved studying a GRB</h2>



To investigate further, scientists used Gemini South for long-term observations of the fading glow after the GRB. This allowed them to pinpoint the GRB's location to within 100 light-years of an ancient galaxy's nucleus. The location was very close to its supermassive black hole. There were no signs of a supernova either, which would typically be expected.



“Rather than being a massive star collapsing, the burst was most likely caused by the merger of two compact objects," said Levan. “Pinpointing its location to the center of a previously identified ancient galaxy, we had the first tantalizing evidence of a new pathway for stars to meet their demise.”



The core of an ancient galaxy is packed with stars and their remnants. It's so densely populated that a collision is not as unlikely as it would be in more normal galactic environments. Especially near a supermassive black hole with its intense gravitational pull. These collisions can lead to massive explosions visible even from great cosmic distances.



These kinds of events may be happening all over the Universe in similarly crowded areas. We just haven't noticed them yet. This is partly because the galactic centers are full of dust and gas, which can obscure the GRBs and their afterglow. But this particular GRB, identified as GRB 191019A, was an exception.



<h2>Astronomers are now searching for more of these events</h2>



Scientists are eager to find more such events. The ultimate goal is to link a GRB detection with a gravitational wave detection. An observation of this kind would reveal more about these events and confirm their origins, even in murky environments. The Vera C. Rubin Observatory, set to launch in 2025, will be key to this research.



“Studying gamma-ray bursts like these is a great example of how the field is really advanced by many facilities working together," said Levan. “These observations add to Gemini’s rich heritage developing our understanding of stellar evolution,” adds Martin Still. He is the program director for the International Gemini Observatory.



These celestial events are a stark reminder that the cosmos is a dynamic, ever-evolving place. Each star has its own unique journey, and sometimes, these journeys can take unexpected, spectacular turns.



<h2>More about star death</h2>



Stars, much like living organisms, have a life cycle — they're born, live for a while, and eventually die. But unlike living organisms, the lifetime of a star can stretch billions of years. The way a star dies depends largely on its mass. Let's take a look at the life cycle of stars and their eventual demise.



<h3>Low-Mass and Medium-Mass Stars (like our Sun)</h3>



<h4>Main Sequence</h4>



Stars spend the majority of their life in a stage called the main sequence, where they're burning hydrogen to produce helium in their cores. This is a process called nuclear fusion, and it releases an incredible amount of energy in the form of light and heat, which is why stars shine.



<h4>Red Giant Phase</h4>



As a star like our Sun consumes all of its hydrogen fuel, the balance between gravity pulling inward and pressure from fusion pushing outward is lost. The core contracts under gravity and heats up. This causes the outer layers of the star to expand and cool, turning the star into a red giant.



<h4>Helium Fusion and Planetary Nebula</h4>



In the core of the red giant, helium atoms fuse together to form carbon. When the helium fuel runs out, the core contracts again, and the outer layers are ejected. The ejection of the outer gaseous layers forms a planetary nebula, and what's left of the star is the hot, dense core.



<h4>White Dwarf</h4>



This core cools and contracts over billions of years, creating a white dwarf. When it stops emitting significant heat or light, it becomes a black dwarf. However, the universe is not old enough for any black dwarfs to exist yet.



<h3>High-Mass Stars</h3>



<h4>Main Sequence</h4>



Like smaller stars, high-mass stars spend most of their life in the main sequence. However, they burn through their hydrogen fuel much faster due to higher pressure and temperature in their cores.



<h4>Supergiant Phase</h4>



When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, high-mass stars also become red giants. But due to their larger mass, they continue to contract and heat up, enabling fusion of heavier elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron. This causes the star to expand even more, becoming a supergiant.



<h4>Supernova Explosion</h4>



The fusion process stops at iron since iron doesn't release energy when fused. With no outward pressure from fusion to counteract gravity, the iron core collapses under its own gravity, which causes a massive explosion known as a supernova.



<h4>Neutron Star or Black Hole</h4>



The remnant of this explosion can form a neutron star, which is an incredibly dense object made mostly of neutrons. If the original star was large enough (typically more than about 20 times the mass of the Sun), the core's gravity would be so strong that it would form a black hole. These are objects with gravity so intense that not even light can escape it.



This is a broad overview of how stars die. Keep in mind that there's a lot of variation in the specifics depending on many factors. These include the star's exact size, its chemical composition, and its distance from other stars. Also, our understanding of stellar evolution is constantly being refined as we make new observations and develop more sophisticated models.

Astronomers discover a new way that stars die

As with everything else in the universe, stars die. Usually...

With tens of thousands of new songs emerging daily, streaming services and radio stations face a colossal challenge. They must decide which tunes are destined for the hit charts.



They've employed a variety of tactics to make these predictions. However, the results have remained elusive.



Whether by enlisting human reviewers or by deploying artificial intelligence, they can only average a 50% hit rate on new songs. However, a revolutionary technique could change that.



<h2 id="h-research-team-developed-a-technique-called-neuroforecasting">Research team developed a technique called neuroforecasting</h2>



A team of US researchers has utilized an advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-reveals-how-to-prevent-covid-19-from-ever-returning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> technique, coupled with brain responses, to identify potential hit songs with an astonishing 97% accuracy.



This breakthrough approach to forecasting music trends uses 'neuroforecasting.' This is a methodology that uses brain activity data to anticipate widespread trends.



"By applying machine learning to neurophysiologic data, we could almost perfectly identify hit songs," shared Paul Zak, a professor at <a href="https://www.cgu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Claremont Graduate University</a> and senior author of the study, which was published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frai.2023.1154663/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>.



He continued, “That the neural activity of 33 people can predict if millions of others listened to new songs is quite amazing. Nothing close to this accuracy has ever been shown before.”



<h2>How the neuroforecasting study was used on new songs</h2>



The study entailed outfitting participants with off-the-shelf sensors and having them listen to a set of 24 new songs. Researchers gathered data points on their preferences. 



They also used demographic information. Most importantly, the team registered the participants’ neurophysiological responses to the music.



"The brain signals we've collected reflect activity of a brain network associated with mood and energy levels," Zak explained.



This insight was pivotal in predicting how successful a song might be in the market. It even allowed researchers to estimate the number of streams a song might accumulate.



Once the data collection phase was complete, the team applied different statistical methods to evaluate the predictive accuracy of the neurophysiological variables. This facilitated a direct comparison of the models.



To enhance predictive accuracy, a machine learning model was trained to test various algorithms, aiming for the highest prediction outcomes over which new songs would become hits.



<h2>What they learned about new songs from neuroforecasting</h2>



The findings were compelling. A linear statistical model pinpointed hit songs with a 69% success rate. But when machine learning was applied to the same data, the success rate soared to 97%. When used on just the first minute of a new song's neural responses, the success rate remained high at 82%.



“This means that streaming services can readily identify new songs that are likely to be hits for people’s playlists more efficiently, making the streaming services’ jobs easier and delighting listeners,” Zak said.



<h2>What the future holds for neuroforecasting</h2>



In envisioning the future, Zak suggested that emerging wearable neuroscience technologies could streamline entertainment options for audiences. It will be able to tailor new songs and other offerings to individual neurophysiology.



This approach could potentially reduce the overwhelming abundance of choices to a manageable two or three. By doing so, it would enable quicker and more satisfying choices for listeners.



While these results are promising, the researchers caution that there were limitations to the study. For instance, the small number of new songs analyzed and a lack of diversity in study participants' ethnicity and age groups could skew results.



Despite these limitations, Zak and his team remain optimistic about the potential applications of this technique.



"Our key contribution is the methodology. It is likely that this approach can be used to predict hits for many other kinds of entertainment too, including movies and TV shows," Zak concluded.



In essence, this groundbreaking 'neuroforecasting' technique could redefine the entertainment industry's approach to identifying the next big hit.



<h2>More about machine learning</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-used-to-locate-sources-of-heavy-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Machine learning</a> is a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) that focuses on giving machines the ability to learn from and make decisions or predictions based on data. It allows computers to improve their performance over time without being explicitly programmed to do so.



There are three main types of machine learning:



<h3>Supervised Learning</h3>



In this approach, a machine is taught to learn the relationship between given inputs (features) and outputs (labels or targets). For instance, a simple supervised learning task could be predicting the price of a house given features like the number of rooms, the location, and the age of the house. During the training phase, the model learns from a labeled dataset, which is a dataset that has both input data and the corresponding correct output.



<h3>Unsupervised Learning</h3>



Unlike supervised learning, unsupervised learning algorithms operate on datasets without labels or targets. The model learns the underlying patterns or structures in the data without any prior knowledge of what these might look like. Common tasks for unsupervised learning include clustering (grouping similar data points together) and dimensionality reduction (reducing the number of variables in a dataset while maintaining its structure).



<h3>Reinforcement Learning</h3>



In this type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientific-discoveries-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a>, an agent learns how to behave in an environment by performing certain actions and receiving rewards or penalties in return. The agent's goal is to learn a policy, which is a strategy for choosing actions that maximize its total future reward.



Apart from these, there are other types of machine learning methods like semi-supervised learning (a combination of supervised and unsupervised learning) and active learning (where the model can request labels for certain instances to improve its performance).



Machine learning has a wide range of applications including, but not limited to, image and speech recognition, medical diagnosis, stock market trading, natural language processing, and self-driving cars.



<h3>Key Concepts in Machine Learning:</h3>



<h4>Feature</h4>



A feature is an individual measurable property or characteristic of a phenomenon being observed.



<h4>Algorithm</h4>



A machine learning algorithm is a set of rules and statistical techniques used to learn patterns from data and draw significant information from it.



<h4>Model</h4>



A model is the output of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-role-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> algorithm trained on a dataset. It represents what was learned by a machine learning algorithm.



<h4>Training</h4>



The process of adjusting a model’s parameters to improve its predictions, by minimizing the difference between the predicted and the actual output (this difference is called the error or the loss).



<h4>Overfitting and Underfitting</h4>



Overfitting happens when a model learns the detail and noise in the training data to the extent that it negatively impacts the performance of the model on new data. Underfitting occurs when a model is too simple to learn the underlying structure of the data.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-can-more-accurately-predict-ocean-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Machine learning</a> is an exciting and rapidly evolving field. However, it does come with challenges and considerations, particularly in the areas of data privacy, security, and ethics. For instance, bias in training data can lead to unfair or discriminatory predictions.

AI is able to predict if a new song will be a hit with 97% accuracy

With tens of thousands of new songs emerging daily, streaming...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St Andrews</a> in Scotland has found that humans retain an understanding of gestures made by other great apes, such as chimpanzees, bonobos, or orangutans, even though we no longer use them ourselves. The identification of over 80 gestural signals that are shared across a variety of non-human apes provides the first evidence of intentional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-lack-the-skills-for-referential-communication/">communication</a> outside human language.



The scientists tested humans’ understanding of the ten most common gestures employed by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) using an online game in which over 5,500 participants were asked to watch 20 short videos of ape gestures and select the meaning of each gesture from four possible answers.&nbsp;



The results revealed that participants performed significantly better than expected by chance, correctly identifying the meaning of the gestures more than 50 percent of the time. Moreover, providing contextual information about what the apes were doing only marginally increased participants’ success rates in interpreting the meaning of the gestures.



While video playback experiments have traditionally been used to test human language comprehension in non-human primates, this experiment reversed the paradigm in order to assess humans’ ability to understand the gestures of our closest evolutionary relatives. While the results clearly show that we have a strong capacity of understanding these gestures, it is still unclear whether this ability is genetically inherited, or whether humans and other primates share an ability to understand meaningful signals due to their general intelligence, similar social types of interactions and goals, and physical resemblance.



“All great apes use gestures, but humans are so gestural – using gestures while we speak and sign, learning new gestures, pantomiming etc. – that it’s really hard to pick out shared great ape gestures just by observing people. By showing participants videos of common great ape gestures instead, we found that people can understand these gestures, suggesting that they may form part of an evolutionarily ancient, shared gesture vocabulary across all great ape species including us,” concluded lead author Kirsty Graham, a research fellow in Psychology and Neuroscience at St Andrews.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001939">PLOS Biology</a>. In addition, people can take a quiz version of the experiment <a href="https://research.sc/participant/login/dynamic/505CF355-CEF5-44ED-B2F1-2CBA484BD2FA">here</a>.&nbsp;



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Humans can understand the gestures of other great apes

A recent study led by the University of St Andrews...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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