Researchers have uncovered a surprising behavior in boron-doped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diamonds-can-be-grown-in-a-lab-in-less-than-3-hours/">diamonds</a>, where electrons line up in collective waves that interact with light and electricity in ways that scientists did not think possible.



The discovery involves a special process in which boron atoms are introduced into the diamond structure, thus transforming an otherwise insulating crystal into a conductor while keeping much of its clarity intact.



This milestone could open fresh possibilities in the fields of quantum computing and advanced sensors. 



The research was coordinated by <a href="https://physics.case.edu/faculty/giuseppe-strangi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Giuseppe Strangi </a>from Case Western Reserve University, who oversaw the experiments that brought these unusual electronic waves into the spotlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-into-electronic-waves">Peeking into electronic waves</h2>



Scientists explain that doping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pink-diamonds-were-formed-when-supercontinent-nuna-broke-up/">diamond with boron</a> creates “electronic holes” where an electron is missing. This vacancy can freely move through the crystal and carry current, which is why boron-doped diamond can conduct electricity while still maintaining its transparent appearance.



“These holes can also respond collectively to incoming light. This discovery changes our approach to manipulating light and electricity in materials, bringing us closer to the full potential of quantum technologies,” explained Strangi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interval-plasmons-and-their-allure">Interval plasmons and their allure</h2>



Researchers refer to these special electron waves as interval <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/plasmon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasmons</a>. Conventional metals exhibit similar phenomena, but metals are not transparent and tend to reflect light.



Diamond stands apart because it remains optically clear, allowing these waves to form without blocking light. 



This aspect could be used in next-generation quantum devices that rely on manipulating and detecting faint signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-computing-inspiration">Quantum computing inspiration</h2>



Diamond has long been used in cutting-edge applications, especially for quantum technologies. Boron doping adds an extra layer of interest, with these newly observed interval plasmons potentially suggesting new ways to control and transfer quantum information.



<a href="https://www.si.edu/spotlight/hope-diamond/history" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hope Diamond</a> is famous for its blue color, which arises partly from traces of boron. That same impurity can now be harnessed for more advanced tasks, possibly including future developments in quantum chips and secure communication networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medical-and-sensing-benefits">Medical and sensing benefits</h2>



A boron-doped diamond can tolerate harsh environments because it is chemically inert. This stability means it can endure strong acids or high temperatures, making it suitable for medical imaging devices and sensitive detection tools.



“Understanding how doping alters the properties of semiconductors like diamond revolutionizes the way we design materials for advanced applications,” pointed out <a href="https://npre.illinois.edu/people/profile/rmohan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mohan Sankaran</a>, a nuclear and plasma engineering expert at the University of Illinois.



Researchers worked with sophisticated spectroscopy tools, which helped them identify the exact conditions that give rise to these plasmons. The interplay between electrical conductivity and optical clarity made the effort worthwhile.



These findings might influence other high-performance devices. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floating-solar-panels-could-power-entire-countries/">Solar cell technology </a>could benefit from the unique combination of transparency and electrical conduction, potentially improving the collection of light and its conversion into electricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-difficulties-in-measuring">Difficulties in measuring</h2>



Precise control of boron concentration remains a hurdle. Achieving the perfect ratio without reducing transparency or damaging the crystal structure of the diamond requires careful tuning on the microscopic level.



Measuring interval plasmons also demands specialized equipment, and the complexity adds another layer to the engineering challenge. Scientists believe these obstacles can be overcome with improvements in synthesis methods.



Boron-doped diamond research has strong links to miniaturized electronics, where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossible-quantum-effects-observed-atoms-positioned-closely-together/">quantum effects</a> become more relevant as devices shrink. 



Traditional materials often lose their appeal when size moves toward the nanoscale, but diamond may hold on to its advantages.



The conduction behavior, combined with optical clarity, is inspiring new designs in quantum circuits. These circuits are designed to run faster and more securely, ultimately helping data processing push beyond conventional limitations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-diamond-synthesis">Legacy of diamond synthesis</h2>



In the 1960s, researchers at Case Western Reserve laid important groundwork by synthesizing diamond under low pressure. 



Such developments set the stage for the present doping breakthroughs, which bridge old theories with modern practical applications.



This latest advance shows how small tweaks in the diamond lattice can yield big dividends. The interplay between electrons and light, that once was hidden, is finally in plain view.



Scientists view the new findings as an encouraging path for other, wide-bandgap semiconductors. If boron can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-diamond-dust-reverse-global-warming-and-cool-the-planet/">enhance diamond</a> in this way, related techniques may boost materials like silicon carbide or gallium nitride in similar fashion.



Though commercial-scale applications may still be some distance down the road, researchers are optimistic.



They see new opportunities for biochips, imaging devices, and quantum technologies that rely on materials with long-term stability and precise control.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55353-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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'Doped' diamonds discovery may reshape quantum computing

Researchers have uncovered a surprising behavior in boron-doped diamonds, where electrons line up in collective waves that interact with light and electricity in ways that scientists did not think possible. The discovery involves a special process in which boron atoms are introduced into the diamond structure, thus transforming an otherwise insulating crystal into a conductor while keeping much of its clarity intact. This milestone could open fresh possibilities in the fields of quantum computing and advanced sensors. The research was coordinated by Dr. Giuseppe Strangi from Case...

In a study from the <a href="http://www.uhnllc.com/">Universal Health Network</a>, a team of researchers led by Dr. Catherine O'Brien has found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meat-and-dairy-consumption-linked-to-higher-risk-of-cancer/">cancer</a> cells can transition into a dormant state when they are threatened by chemotherapy. According to the investigation, all cancer cells, and not just a specific subset, have the ability to rest in this protective state until the threat of treatment is over.

The study is the first of its kind to reveal that cancer cells utilize an evolutionarily conserved strategy to persevere throughout intensive therapy. The researchers have also found that cancer regrowth can be prevented by using therapeutic strategies that target cancer cells in this slow-dividing state.

"The tumor is acting like a whole organism, able to go into a slow-dividing state, conserving energy to help it survive," said Dr. O'Brien. "There are examples of animals entering into a reversible and slow-dividing state to withstand harsh environments. It appears that cancer cells have craftily co-opted this same state for their survival benefit."

Dr. Aaron Schimmer is the director of the Research Institute and a senior scientist at the Princess Margaret Cancer Centre. He explained that the research shows that cancer cells hibernate like "bears in winter."

"We never actually knew that cancer cells were like hibernating bears. This study also tells us how to target these sleeping bears so they don't hibernate and wake up to come back later, unexpectedly," said Dr. Schimmer.

"I think this will turn out to be an important cause of drug resistance, and will explain something we did not have a good understanding of previously."

For their investigation, the researchers treated human colorectal cancer cells with chemotherapy in a petri dish in the laboratory. The treatment induced a slow-dividing state across all the cancer cells in which they stopped expanding and required little nutrition to survive. The cancer cells remained in this state as long as the chemotherapy remained in the dish.

The cancer cells have adopted a strategy that is used by many mammal species to keep their embryos safe inside their bodies in times of extreme environmental conditions, such as brutal temperatures. When the conditions improve, the embryo is able to continue normal development, with no adverse effects on the pregnancy.

Once the cancer cells have achieved a low-energy state of existence, there is minimal cell division, greatly reduced metabolism, and embryo development is put on hold. 

Dr. O'Brien, who is a surgeon specializing in gastrointestinal cancer, explained that cancer cells under attack by the harsh chemotherapy environment are able to adopt the embryonic survival strategy.

"The cancer cells are able to hijack this evolutionarily conserved survival strategy, even as it seems to be lost to humans," said Dr. O'Brien, adding that all of the cancer cells enter this state in a co-ordinated manner, in order to survive. She had a breakthrough when she remembered a talk three years ago on the cellular mechanisms which drive this survival strategy in mouse embryos.

"Something clicked for me when I heard that talk. Could the cancer cells be hijacking this survival mechanism to survive chemotherapy?"

In collaboration with Dr. Ramalho-Santos, a researcher at Toronto Mt. Sinai Hospital who had initially presented the concept, Dr. O'Brien found striking similarities between the gene expression profile of the cancer cells in the chemotherapy-induced state and the dormant mouse embryos.

Like the embryos, cancer cells in the slow-dividing state were found to activate the cellular process called autophagy. This is a process in which the cell "devours" or destroys its own proteins or other cellular components to survive in the absence of other nutrients.

When Dr. O'Brien tested a small molecule that inhibits autophagy, she discovered that the cancer cells did not survive. Without their protective mechanism, the cancer cells were killed by chemotherapy.

"This gives us a unique therapeutic opportunity," said Dr. O'Brien. "We need to target cancer cells while they are in this slow-cycling, vulnerable state before they acquire the genetic mutations that drive drug-resistance. It is a new way to think about resistance to chemotherapy and how to overcome it."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cancer cells hibernate like bears to survive chemotherapy

In a study from the Universal Health Network, a team...

Noncognitive skills contribute to personal success just as much as cognitive skills, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>. An international team of researchers has investigated how cognitive skills influence educational attainment as well as life outcomes. 

Noncognitive skills, or "soft skills," are associated with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-traits-change-over-time-but-not-at-the-same-pace/">personality</a> and temperament. These skills are related to inherent traits such as integrity, motivation, and perseverance.  

"There has been much debate about what noncognitive skills are and how best to measure them. Motivation, persistence, grit, curiosity, self-control, growth mindset - these are just a few of the things that people have suggested are important noncognitive skills," said Professor Paige Harden.

The research supports the idea that inherited genes that affect things other than cognitive ability make an important difference in life outcomes, including educational attainment.

"Genetic studies of educational attainment were initiated with the goal of identifying genes that influenced cognitive abilities. They've had some success in doing that. But it turns out they've also identified genetics that influence a range of other skills and characteristics.," said Dr. Daniel Belsky. 

"What was most surprising to me about our results was that these noncognitive skills contributed just as much to the heritability of educational attainment as cognitive ability." 

Of the total genetic influence on educational attainment, cognitive abilities accounted for 43 percent and noncognitive skills accounted for 57 percent.

The genetics of noncognitive skills were linked to achievements beyond school, including more prestigious jobs, higher incomes, and longer lifespan. Furthermore, genes associated with noncognitive skills had relationships with these life outcomes that were as strong or stronger than the relationships seen with cognitive genetics. 

"These results were important proof of concept," said Dr. Belsky. "They showed us that noncognitive skills genetics have implications for economics and public health similar to the genetics of cognitive abilities."

Noncognitive skills are behaviors and abilities that are not measured by traditional IQ tests but are believed to promote personal success throughout life. The researchers measured these skills using a method called a genome-wide association study (GWAS). The team also applied a new statistical technique to examine the significance of noncognitive skills versus cognitive ability.

"Borrowing a strategy from economists who studied people with the same cognitive ability but different years of education enabled us to associate the variations in how far people go in school above and beyond their association with cognitive test performance. We were able to conduct this type of analysis using a new method we developed called Genomic Structural Equation Modeling, which is a way of combining data from multiple GWASs at the same time," said Professor Michel Nivard.

"This approach allows us to leverage the power of giant genetic databases like UK Biobank to study the genetics of traits and behaviors that were not directly measured in the research participants." 

The researchers used the novel technique to conduct a GWAS of noncognitive skills in data from hundreds of thousands of individuals.

"Our GWAS identified 157 different locations in the human genome that related to noncognitive skills," said study co-lead author Perline Demange. "Our GWAS identified signals from genes that are disproportionately active in brain tissues, similar to what has been found for the genetics of cognitive abilities."

Overall, the genetics of noncognitive skills were associated with a higher tolerance of risks, greater willingness to forego immediate gratification, less unhealthy behavior, and delayed fertility. Noncognitive skill genetics were also linked with personality traits associated with success in relationships and at work, such as being eager to learn, emotionally stable, and more industrious and orderly.

"Genetic influence must always be understood through the lens of history and social structures," said Professor Harden. "These results tell us about what is, not what could be. Nothing about our study should discourage investments in ensuring that all children reach their maximum potential."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ng">Nature Genetics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noncognitive skills contribute as much to success as cognitive ability

Noncognitive skills contribute to personal success just as much as...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a>, experts have discovered that groundwater has a much greater impact on ocean chemistry than what was expected. Even though groundwater flows into <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-icebergs-affect-seawater-and-ocean-currents-far-from-the-continent/">seawater</a> along coastlines all over the world, its contribution to the chemical properties of the ocean has been largely overlooked. 

The findings have implications for global models of biogeochemical cycles and for the interpretation of isotope records of Earth's climate history.

"It's really hard to characterize groundwater discharge, so it has been a source of uncertainty in the modeling of global cycles," said study first author Kimberley Mayfield. "It took a large effort by researchers around the world who came together to make this happen."

The investigation was focused on five key elements including lithium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. The researchers measured the concentrations and isotope ratios in coastal groundwater at 20 sites around the world, and used previously published data from additional sites.

"Those elements are important because they come from the weathering of rocks, and weathering of silicate rocks accounts for a huge uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere over long time scales," explained Mayfield.

According to study co-author Adina Paytan, a research professor in UCSC's Institute of Marine Sciences, groundwater is an important source of inputs to the oceans, but has been easy to ignore because it is unseen and hard to measure.

"This is the first global assessment of groundwater discharge for most of these elements," said Professor Paytan. "This information is useful for our understanding of how weathering of rock is related to climate, not only in the present but also in the past."

The researchers estimated that up to 16 percent of these elements are entering the sea through groundwater. The results also showed that the isotopic composition of groundwater discharge can be different from that of rivers.

"The composition of groundwater discharge is very dependent on coastal geology, whereas river water is more influenced by the interiors of continents," said Mayfield. "It's important to recognize that groundwater makes a difference globally, and now that we have this large data set, people can keep improving it with more sampling and develop better models of global groundwater discharge."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Groundwater has a larger impact on ocean chemistry than expected

In a new study from UC Santa Cruz, experts have...

While it is known that sleep is critical for healthy <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/research-confirms-that-covid-19-enters-the-brain/">brain</a> function, it is not known when animals started to require sleep. A surprising new study from <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/">Kyushu University</a> suggests that animals needed sleep before they even had brains. 

The investigation was focused on hydras - tiny freshwater organisms that lack a central nervous system. The researchers discovered that not only do hydras show signs of a sleep-like state despite having no brain, but also respond to molecules associated with sleep in more evolved animals.

"We now have strong evidence that animals must have acquired the need to sleep before acquiring a brain," said study lead author Professor Taichi Q. Itoh.

Three years ago, scientists at Caltech were the first to document sleeping behavior in a brainless animal, the Cassiopea jellyfish, a relative of hydras that is also known as the upside-down jellyfish.

In collaboration with experts at the Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology in Korea, the Kyushu team found that several chemicals which cause drowsiness even in humans had similar effects on the species Hydra vulgaris.

"Based on our findings and previous reports regarding jellyfish, we can say that sleep evolution is independent of brain evolution," said Professor Itoh.

"Many questions still remain regarding how sleep emerged in animals, but hydras provide an easy-to-handle creature for further investigating the detailed mechanisms producing sleep in brainless animals to help possibly one day answer these questions."

To monitor resting behavior among hydras, the researchers used a video system to track their movement and determine when hydras they were in a sleep-like state. 

The hydras displayed four-hour cycles of active and sleep-like states. The researchers uncovered many aspects of sleep regulation that were similar to that of animals who do possess a brain on a molecular and genetic level.

Melatonin moderately increased the amount and frequency of sleep among hydras, while the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA greatly increased sleeping activity.

When the hydras were exposed to dopamine, they also slept more. In humans and other animals, dopamine typically causes arousal. "While some sleep mechanisms appear to have been conserved, others may have switched function during evolution of the brain," explained Professor Itoh.

The researchers used vibrations and temperature changes to disturb the hydras' sleep and induce signs of sleep deprivation. This caused the hydras to sleep longer during the following day and even suppressed cell proliferation.

Upon further analysis, the experts found that sleep deprivation led to changes in the expression of 212 genes. One of these genes in particular is related to PRKG, a protein involved in sleep regulation in a wide range of animals.

"Taken all together, these experiments provide strong evidence that animals acquired sleep-related mechanisms before the evolutional development of the central nervous system and that many of these mechanisms were conserved as brains evolved," said Professor Itoh.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals needed sleep before they even had brains

While it is known that sleep is critical for healthy...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> are working to understand how gill development limits fish growth. The temperature of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-oceans-absorb-much-more-carbon-than-previously-thought/">oceans</a> and fresh waters, as well as the concentration of dissolved oxygen, have much more influence on the growth and reproduction of fish than the distribution of their prey.

Daniel Pauly is the principal investigator of the Sea Around Us initiative at UBC's Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries. He argues that scientists need to avoid attaching human attributes to fish and start looking at their unique biology and constraints in a different way. 

Pauly has proposed the Gill Oxygen Limitation Theory (GOLT), which explains kthat as fish grow, the surface area of their gills cannot keep up with the oxygen requirement of their bodies.

The theory emphasizes that gills, which are the respiratory organs of fish, are surfaces through which water must flow. Gill surface area grows in two dimensions, length and width, but struggles to keep up with bodies that grow in three dimensions, length, width, and depth. Therefore, as fish get bigger, they have less gill surface area and their gills provide less oxygen per unit volume or weight.

"The problem is that many colleagues fail to understand the basic geometry of gills, and argue that, as fish grow bigger and, thus, require more oxygen, they can just grow larger gills," said Pauly. "But they can't pack their heads full of gills because, if that were to happen, water wouldn't be able to flow through."

The research indicates that the gill issue is a constraint that fish can evolve past. Once the gills reach a threshold where they cannot support a bigger body, the fish stop growing.

"This is particularly important in the context of climate change because warm waters contain less oxygen. This means that gills have less oxygen to supply to bodies that require more oxygen at higher temperatures," said Pauly. "This double whammy occurs because fish cannot maintain their body temperature constant, and higher water temperatures accelerate their metabolisms."

In rising water temperatures, with less oxygen available, fish are forced to stop growing at a smaller size. This has important implications for fisheries and aquaculture.

Pauly acknowledges that one of the limitations of the Gill Oxygen Limitation Theory is that it is mainly qualitative and makes few quantitative predictions. He would like to address this, as well as the fact that the theory does not deal with bioenergetics and the role food plays in the life of fish.

"Food is necessary for life and the GOLT is structured around the notion that there is enough food but what if there isn't enough food? The relationships between food and oxygen will have to be studied, too."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gill development and water temperatures limit fish growth

Scientists at the University of British Columbia are working to...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/">International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis</a>, human activities are transforming grasslands from a natural carbon sink into a source of greenhouse gas emissions. The researchers describe how grasslands used by humans have changed our <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forests-in-oman-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change/">climate</a> over the last centuries.

Grasslands absorb and release carbon dioxide (CO2), and emit methane (CH4) from grazing livestock. They also emit nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils, and these emissions increase when manure or mineral fertilizers are introduced. 

Despite their significance, however, little is known about how the fluxes of these three greenhouse gases have contributed to climate change in the past. The researchers also wanted to compare the gas cycling and climate effects of managed pastures to that of natural grasslands.

To investigate, the experts quantified the changes in carbon storage and greenhouse gas fluxes in natural and managed grasslands between 1750 and 2012. 

The findings illustrate the important climate cooling service provided by sparsely grazed areas, as well as the growing contribution to climate warming from continuously grazed areas. These intensively exploited grasslands are associated with more CH4 and N2O emissions.

"We built and applied a new spatially explicit global grassland model that includes mechanisms of soil organic matter and plant productivity changes driven by historical shifts in livestock and the reduction of wild grazers in each region," said study lead author Jinfeng Chang. "This model is one of the first to simulate the regional details of land use change and degradation from livestock overload."

"We also looked at the effect of fires, and soil carbon losses by water erosion; CH4 emissions from animals; N2O emissions from animal excrement, manure, and mineral fertilizer applications; and atmospheric nitrogen deposition."

The study revealed that CH4 and N2O emissions from grasslands increased by a factor of 2.5 since 1750. This is due to higher emissions from livestock that have more than compensated for reduced emissions from the shrinking number of wild grazers. 

The ability of grasslands to absorb carbon has grown over the last century over sparsely grazed and natural grasslands, but these gains are outweighed by emissions from managed pastures. Over the last decade, grasslands intensively managed by humans have become a net source of greenhouse gas emissions.

"Our results show that the different human activities that have affected grasslands have shifted the balance of greenhouse gas removals and emissions more towards warming in intensively exploited pastures, and more towards cooling in natural and semi-natural systems," explained study co-author Thomas Gasser. "Coincidently, until recently the two types of grasslands have almost been canceling each other out."

"However, the recent trends we see towards the expansion of pasture land and higher livestock numbers lead us to expect that global grasslands will accelerate climate warming if better policies are not put in place to favor soil carbon increases, stop deforestation for ranching, and develop climate-smart livestock production systems."

"In the context of low-warming climate targets, the mitigating or amplifying role of grasslands will depend on a number of aspects," concluded study co-author Philippe Ciais. "This includes future changes in grass-fed livestock numbers; the stability of accumulated soil carbon in grasslands; and whether carbon storage can be further increased over time or if it will saturate, as observed in long-term experiments."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Grasslands are turning into a source of harmful emissions

According to a new study led by the International Institute...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">CU Boulder</a> have discovered that cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, may have a lot in common with organisms that fundamentally transformed the planet billions of years ago. 

Cyanobacteria are single-celled, photosynthetic organisms that can be found in almost any large body of water today. More than two billion years ago, these microscopic organisms played a major role in the history of life on Earth during a period known as the Great Oxidation Event. At this time, cyanobacteria generated a major surge in oxygen throughout the shallow ocean.

"We see this total shift in the chemistry of the oceans and the atmosphere, which changed the evolution of life, as well," said study lead author Sarah Hurley. "Today, all higher animals need oxygen to survive."

It remains a mystery to scientists what cyanobacteria looked like, where they lived, or what triggered them to suddenly and dramatically oxygenate the ocean. 

But now, Hurley and her colleagues have begun to unravel this mystery. After analyzing studies of naturally-occurring and genetically-engineered cyanobacteria, the researchers propose that these ancient microbes may have floated freely in an open ocean and resembled a modern form of life called beta-cyanobacteria.

According to the researchers, studying these ancient microorganisms offers a window into a time when single-celled organisms ruled the Earth.

"This research gave us the unique opportunity to form and test hypotheses of what the ancient Earth might have looked like, and what these ancient organisms could have been," said study co-author Professor Jeffrey Cameron.

Hurley noted that cyanobacteria currently produce about a quarter of the oxygen that comes from the world's oceans.

"We think that cyanobacteria were around billions of years ago," said Hurley. "Now, we can get at what they were doing and where they were living at that time because we have a record of their metabolism."

The team studied two different types of cyanobacteria, including beta-cyanobacteria, which are common in the oceans today. The researchers also attempted to bring an ancient cyanobacterium back from the dead. 

"We had the ability to do what was essentially a physiological resurrection in the lab," said study co-author Professor Boswell Wing.

When the researchers studied the metabolism of their cultures, they found something surprising. The zombie cyanobacterium did not seem to produce a chemical signature that aligned with the carbon isotope signatures that scientists had previously seen in the rock record. It turned out that the best fit for those ancient signatures were the beta-cyanobacteria the are still alive today. 

In other words, the team may have just stumbled on a living fossil that was hiding in plain sight. 

"That modern organisms could resemble these ancient cyanobacteria - that was really counterintuitive," said Professor Wing.

According to the researchers, the study now provides scientists with a much better idea of what ancient cyanobacteria looked like and where they lived. This means they can begin running experiments to dig deeper into what life was like in the two billion-year-old ocean.

"Here is hard evidence from the geological record and a model organism that can shed new light on life on ancient Earth," said Professor Cameron.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cyanobacteria may shed new light on the history of life on Earth

Scientists at CU Boulder have discovered that cyanobacteria, also known...

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide have been nearly wiped out by a mysterious ailment known as sea star wasting disease. Some starfish species may have suffered irreversible losses, and are now threatened with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">extinction</a>.

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, researchers have found evidence to suggest that the victims of sea star wasting disease (SSWD) may actually be in respiratory distress. The experts report that afflicted starfish appear to be literally "drowning" in their own environment due to a heat-related increase in microbial activity that deprives the creatures of their ability to breathe.

"As humans, we breathe, we ventilate, we bring air into our lungs and we exhale," said study co-author Professor Ian Hewson. "Sea stars diffuse oxygen over their outer surface through little structures called papulae, or skin gills. If there is not enough oxygen surrounding the papulae, the starfish can't breathe."

According to Professor Hewson, warmer ocean conditions lead to the production of unusual amounts of organic material, which he said prompts bacteria to thrive. The bacteria deplete oxygen in the water as they consume the organic matter. This creates a low-oxygen environment that causes the starfish "wasting" characterized by deflation, discoloration, puffiness, and limb twisting.

"It's a cascade of problems that starts with changes in the environment," said Professor Hewson, noting that most of the organic matter comes from microscopic algae discharge, zooplankton excretion, and from decaying animal carcasses. He explained that this stimulates a group of bacteria called copiotrophs, which survive on carbon and rapidly consume organic matter.

The copiotrophs respire, so while absorbing the organic matter, they deplete oxygen in the sea star's watery space, explained Professor Hewson.

"It's organic matter concentrations in the water. If you have a dead and rotting starfish next to starfish that are healthy, all of that dead one's organic matter drifts and fuels the bacteria, creating a hypoxic environment. It looks like disease is being transmitted."

"This reframes the discussion about marine disease ecology, which has focused on pathogenic disease. We should now include microorganisms that don't directly cause the pathology, since they may hold a key to affecting sea star health."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea stars are drowning in their own environment

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide...

Children with self-control are more likely to grow up to be healthier <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/many-young-adults-do-not-know-common-stroke-symptoms/">adults</a> with younger brains and bodies, according to a new study from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>. The researchers tracked 1,000 individuals from birth to age 45 and found that people who had higher levels of self-control as children were aging more slowly than their peers. 

Self-control is the ability to control one's own emotions and behaviors, even when faced with difficult situations. Interviews with the study participants indicated that those in the higher self-control group were better equipped to handle health, financial, and social challenges later in life. 

Furthermore, individuals who had more self control in childhood expressed more positive views of aging and felt more satisfied with life in middle age.

"Our population is growing older, and living longer with age-related diseases," said study first author Professor Leah Richmond-Rakerd. "It's important to identify ways to help individuals prepare successfully for later-life challenges, and live more years free of disability. We found that self-control in early life may help set people up for healthy aging."

The researchers emphasized that childhood is not destiny, and that some study participants had shifted their self-control levels as adults and had better health outcomes than their childhood assessments would have predicted.

Self-control can be taught, and the experts propose that a societal investment in such training could improve life span and quality of life, not only in childhood, but also perhaps in midlife. A growing collection of evidence suggests that changing behaviors in midlife, such as quitting smoking or taking up exercise, can lead to improved outcomes.

"Everyone fears an old age that's sickly, poor, and lonely, so aging well requires us to get prepared, physically, financially, and socially," said study co-author Professor Terrie Moffitt. "We found people who have used self-control since childhood are far more prepared for aging than their same-age peers."

The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study, based in New Zealand, has tracked the individuals since they were born in 1972 and 1973. The participants were assessed using a variety of psychological and health assessments at regular intervals, most recently at age 45.

Childhood self-control was assessed by teachers, parents, and the children themselves from the ages of three to 11. The experts measured factors such as impulsive aggression, over-activity, perseverance, and inattention.

From ages 26 to 45, the participants were measured for physiological signs of aging in several organ systems, including the brain. Across all of these measures, higher self-control in childhood was associated with slower aging. In addition, the people with the highest self-control were found to walk faster and have younger-looking faces at age 45.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Self-control in childhood linked to slower aging

Children with self-control are more likely to grow up to...

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/toxic-algal-blooms-will-become-more-frequent-off-the-u-s-west-coast/">coast</a> of Oman mysteriously vanished. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/the-university">University of Bonn</a> suggests that the collapse of these coastal ecosystems was caused by climatic changes.

The experts report that the mangroves went extinct at an extremely fast rate, and most of the forests were lost within a few decades. The researchers found no evidence that falling sea levels or human disturbances contributed to the extinctions. 

Mangrove forests grow in coastal areas that are under water at high tide, yet dry at low tide. They depend on a warm climate, and most species need sea surface temperatures of at least 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Mangroves are also sensitive to water salinity, and their tolerance limit varies among species. 

"This is why we find them nowadays mostly in regions where enough rain falls to reduce salinization of the soil," explained study lead author Valeska Decker, an expert at the Institute for Geosciences at Bonn.

Fossil remains show that there were once many mangrove lagoons on the coast of Oman that mostly disappeared. Over the past few years, Decker has compiled numerous geochemical, sedimentological, and archaeological findings into an overall picture. "From our point of view, everything suggests that the collapse of these ecosystems has climatic reasons."

Just over 6,000 years ago, a low-pressure trough known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone moved to the south, but it is not entirely clear why and how fast the zone shifted. 

"That this was the case has been well documented for several years," explained Decker. "Our results now indicate that this climate change had two effects: On the one hand, it caused salinization of the soil, which put the mangroves under extreme stress. On the other hand, the vegetation cover in the affected areas decreased in general due to the greater drought." 

As erosion increased, the wind carried large amounts of barren soil into the lagoons that dried up the mangrove forests. According to Decker, the ecosystems probably disappeared within a few decades.

Previous studies suggest that the environmental changes were gradual, and the mangrove forests struggled up until a certain threshold was reached and then collapsed very quickly. Today, mangroves are only found in a few places in Oman.

"Archaeological findings also speak against a man-made ecological catastrophe. It is true that there were humans living in the coastal regions who used the mangroves as firewood. However, they were nomads who did not build permanent settlements. This meant that their need for wood was relatively low - low enough to rule out overuse as a cause."

Decker and her colleagues plan to investigate further, and their findings could be particularly relevant today as the climate is changing in many regions of the world at a very rapid pace. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research">Quaternary Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mangrove forests in Oman were wiped out by climate change

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on...

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone. The reawakening of the world's tallest active geyser is not a forewarning of explosive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/why-australias-east-coast-is-a-hotbed-of-volcanic-activity/">volcanic</a> activity in Yellowstone National Park, according to a study from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a>. In 2018, the Steamboat Geyser entered into a prolonged period of frequent activity after three and a half years of dormancy.

Yellowstone National Park has over 10,000 hot springs and geysers. Some of the geysers erupt as frequently as 300 times a year, while others remain dormant for decades at a time. 

"Hydrothermal explosions - basically hot water exploding because it comes into contact with hot rock - are one of the biggest hazards in Yellowstone," said study senior author Professor Michael Manga. "The reason that they are problematic is that they are very hard to predict; it is not clear if there are any precursors that would allow you to provide warning."

The researchers established that the ground around the Steamboat Geyser has risen, and that seismic activity increased somewhat before the geyser reawakened. In addition, the area is currently radiating more heat into the atmosphere. However, no other dormant geysers in the basin have restarted, and the temperature of the groundwater propelling Steamboat's eruptions has not increased. 

"We don't find any evidence that there is a big eruption coming. I think that is an important takeaway," said Professor Manga, who has studied geysers around the world and created some in his own laboratory.

The experts set out to answer three questions about Steamboat Geyser, including why it reawakened and why its activity is so variable. The team also wanted to know how the geyser has the potential for such powerful explosions. While minor eruptions of 10 to 15 feet are much more frequent, major eruptions have thrown water more than 375 feet into the air. 

The researchers managed to answer two out of three questions. First, by comparing geysers in the United States, Russia, Iceland, and Chile, the team determined that the deeper the reservoir, the higher the eruption jet. Steamboat Geyser, with a reservoir about 82 feet below ground, has the highest column of up to 377 feet. Meanwhile, two of the other geysers that were measured in Chile had eruptions of only about three feet high from up to 16-foot-deep reservoirs.

"What you are really doing is you are filling a container, it reaches a critical point, you empty it and then you run out of fluid that can erupt until it refills again," said Professor Manga. "The deeper you go, the higher the pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling temperature. And the hotter the water is, the more energy it has and the higher the geyser."

The researchers also analyzed historical records that included weather data and seismometer and readings to predict which factors cause the variability of Steamboat's eruptions, which ranges from three to 17 days. 

The study authors concluded that variations in rainfall and snowmelt were likely responsible for most of this variability. For example, melting snow and rainfall in the warmer months will fill the reservoir up faster, providing geysers with enough water to erupt more frequently.

Professor Manga and his team were unable to determine why Steamboat Geyser reawakened on March 15, 2018, after three years and 193 days of inactivity. They found no definitive evidence that it was triggered by new magma rising below the geyser.

According to Professor Manga, studies of water eruptions from geysers could give insight into the eruptions of hot rock from volcanoes.

"What we asked are very simple questions and it is a little bit embarrassing that we can't answer them, because it means there are fundamental processes on Earth that we don't quite understand."

"One of the reasons we argue we need to study geysers is that if we can't understand and explain how a geyser erupts, our hope for doing the same thing for magma is much lower."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone. The...

Researchers at <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> have found scientific evidence that people who travel frequently are significantly happier than those who do not. The study also revealed that individuals who are constantly thinking about and discussing their travel plans are more likely to go on regular vacations. 

"This research shows the more people talk about and plan vacations the more likely they are to take them," said study lead author Chun-Chu Chen. "If you are like me and chomping at the bit to get out of dodge and see someplace new, this research will hopefully be some additional good motivation to start planning your next vacation."

The researchers set out to examine whether frequent travelers have higher levels of life satisfaction, and why these individuals travel more frequently than others. 

A survey of 500 respondents showed that individuals who personally value tourism are more likely to gather travel-relevant information, which leads to more frequent traveling. 

The team also found that frequent travelers are, in fact, more satisfied with their life. The findings indicate that travel and tourism can be an important life domain affecting how people evaluate their overall quality of life.

Survey participants who reported regularly traveling at least 75 miles away from home also reported being substantially happier when asked about their overall well-being.  

Previous studies that examined the health and wellness benefits of tourism experiences, including stress relief, were primarily focused on the effect of a single trip or vacation. The current investigation looked at the sustained benefits of travel over the course of a year.

"While things like work, family life and friends play a bigger role in overall reports of well-being, the accumulation of travel experiences does appear to have a small yet noticeable effect on self-reported life satisfaction," said Chen. "It really illustrates the importance of being able to get out of your routine and experience new things."

When travel restrictions due to COVID-19 begin to relax, the research could have important implications for both tourists and the tourism industry. Chen said that based on the results of the study, travel companies, resorts, and even airlines could launch social media campaigns to spark people's interest in discussing their opinions about travel.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://cognizantcommunication.com/publication/tourism-analysis-an-interdisciplinary-tourism-hospitality-journal/">Tourism Analysis</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People who travel frequently are happier

Researchers at Washington State University have found scientific evidence that...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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