Earth, the only known planet to support life, owes much of its habitability to water. Understanding when and how water arrived on Earth is crucial for piecing together the story of life’s origins. 



Scientists have long debated whether water was present from the planet’s formation or if it arrived later through external sources. 



A recent study led by a Rutgers-New Brunswick scientist challenges existing theories, suggesting that water arrived much later than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-cycles-through-plants-with-unexpected-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previously believed</a>.



The findings indicate that Earth received water toward the final stages of its formation. This discovery could reshape scientific understanding of the conditions necessary for life.



By examining isotopes in Earth’s rocks and comparing them with meteorites, researchers have provided new insights into the timing and process of water’s arrival on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-of-life-s-origins">Timing of life’s origins</h2>



Scientists seek to pinpoint when key <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comets-may-have-delivered-water-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ingredients for life</a> first appeared on Earth. Water, energy, and a mix of organic chemicals known as CHNOPS - carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur - are essential for life to emerge. 



Determining when these components arrived can offer clues about the timing of life’s formation.



Katherine Bermingham is an associate professor in the <a href="https://eps.rutgers.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a> at Rutgers and lead author of the study.



“When water was delivered to the planet is a major unanswered question in planetary science,” said Bermingham. “If we know the answer, we can better constrain when and how life developed.”



Her research suggests that water was not present during the early phases of Earth’s formation, as some theories propose. Instead, the planet acquired it much later through a process known as late accretion, when additional material from space continued to shape Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-the-building-blocks-of-planets">Examining the building blocks of planets</h2>



Bermingham specializes in cosmogeochemistry, a field that examines the chemical composition of planetary materials to understand their origins. 



By analyzing Earth rocks and extraterrestrial materials such as meteorites, she investigates how rocky planets, including Earth, formed and evolved.



In this study, Bermingham’s team used thermal ionization mass spectrometry, a precise method for measuring isotopic compositions. 



They developed a new analytical approach to examine isotopes of molybdenum, an element found in both Earth’s crust and meteorites.



Isotopes are variations of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, which gives them slightly different atomic masses while maintaining identical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical properties</a>.



“The molybdenum isotopic composition of Earth rocks provides us with a special window into events occurring around the time of Earth’s final core formation, when the last 10% to 20% of material was being assembled by the planet. This period is thought to coincide with the Moon’s formation,” explained Bermingham.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-meteorites-and-earth-rocks">Comparing meteorites and Earth rocks</h2>



To track Earth’s early chemical history, the team examined meteorite samples from the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution. Scientists classify meteorites into two main groups based on their place of origin in the solar system.



The first group, known as “CC” meteorites, likely formed in the outer solar system, where conditions were wetter. The second group, “NC” meteorites, originated in the inner solar system, where conditions were much drier. 



This study focused on meteorites from the NC group to compare their chemical composition with Earth rocks.



The researchers analyzed molybdenum isotopes in rocks from Greenland, South Africa, Canada, the United States, and Japan. 



These rocks date back to the time of the Moon’s formation and are believed to contain elements added to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-other-planets-collected-first-water-from-unexpected-source-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> during this period.



By comparing the isotopic signatures of meteorites and Earth rocks, the team sought to determine whether the Moon-forming event delivered a significant amount of water to Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-water-may-have-arrived-late">Earth’s water may have arrived late</h2>



“Once we gathered the different samples and measured their isotopic compositions, we compared the meteorites’ signatures with the rock signatures to see if there was a similarity or a difference,” Bermingham said. “And from there, we drew inferences.”



The analysis revealed that the molybdenum composition of Earth rocks closely matched that of NC meteorites, which originated in the drier inner solar system. 



This finding suggests that Earth’s building blocks primarily came from a region of the solar system where water was scarce.



This contradicts a popular theory that a significant amount of Earth’s water arrived during the Moon-forming event. 



Instead, the study indicates that water was delivered in smaller amounts long after the Moon formed, during the later stages of planetary development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-source-of-earth-s-water">Rethinking the source of Earth’s water</h2>



“We have to figure out from where in our solar system Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-discovery-earths-building-blocks-contained-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks</a> - the dust and the gas - came and around when that happened,” Bermingham said. “That’s the information needed to understand when the stage was set for life to begin.”



If most of Earth’s original material came from the drier inner solar system, then the Moon-forming event was likely not a major contributor of water. Instead, water must have arrived in smaller portions later. 



This conclusion challenges the idea that a single event provided Earth with the majority of its water. 



The study supports the view that water accumulated gradually over time, arriving through a combination of asteroid impacts and other processes occurring well after the planet had taken shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-about-life-s-early-conditions">Questions about life’s early conditions</h2>



“Our results suggest that the Moon-forming event was not a major supplier of water, unlike what has been thought previously,” Bermingham said. “These findings, however, permit a small amount of water to be added after final core formation, during what is called late accretion.”



This discovery raises new questions about how long it took for Earth to become habitable. If water arrived later than previously thought, then life may have taken longer to emerge. 



This could also have implications for understanding other planets, particularly those that scientists consider candidates for life.



By refining the timeline of Earth’s water history, this study contributes to a broader effort to understand planetary evolution. If water arrived late on Earth, then other planets might have followed a similar pattern. 



This could mean that life-supporting conditions take longer to develop than scientists once assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-in-the-search-for-earth-s-water">What’s next in the search for Earth’s water?</h2>



The study represents a step forward in unraveling Earth’s past, but it also highlights the many unanswered questions about the origins of water and life. 



Future research will likely focus on refining models of planetary accretion, analyzing additional meteorite samples, and exploring other isotopic markers that could provide further insights.



Other Rutgers contributors to the study include Linda Godfrey, an assistant research professor, and Hope Tornebene, a laboratory researcher in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 



The research continues to push the boundaries of planetary science, bringing us closer to understanding how Earth became a world capable of supporting life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016703724005751?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</a>.



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Water arrived on Earth gradually over time, not in one big event

Earth, the only known planet to support life, owes much of its habitability to water. Understanding when and how water arrived on Earth is crucial for piecing together the story of life’s origins. Scientists have long debated whether water was present from the planet’s formation or if it arrived later through external sources. A recent study led by a Rutgers-New Brunswick scientist challenges existing theories, suggesting that water arrived much later than previously believed. The findings indicate that Earth received water toward the final stages of its...

The virtues of spiders’ silk have been extolled since ancient times when the Greeks and Romans apparently used bandages of spider <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-eating-spiders-live-on-every-continent-except-antarctica/">web</a> to help staunch bleeding and heal wounds, cuts and scrapes. 



In the past decade, many studies have investigated the antimicrobial properties of spiders’ silk in order to back up the myth with empirical findings. Some studies have confirmed antimicrobial activity, while others have rejected it. In short, the topic has become a bit of a tangled web.



“Spider silk has always been admired and almost has a mythical status,” said Trine Bilde, a professor of Biology at <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a> in Denmark. “It’s one of these myths that seems to have become ‘established’ by ‘belief’ and not by strong empirical support.”



In the light of this contradictory evidence, a team of researchers set out to assess the antimicrobial properties of different types of silk from seven species of spiders. They tested whether the silk would affect various types of bacteria, namely Gram-negative Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas putida, and Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, using direct contact or diffusion disc assays.&nbsp;



Having silk with antimicrobial properties could possibly benefit spiders in two ways. Firstly, it may protect the spiders and secondly, it may protect the silk itself. Spiders often hide in burrows that are lined with silk, and their eggs are always encased in silk structures.&nbsp;



In particular, social spiders that live in large groups may be protected from the spread of pathogens by antibiotic silk. These spiders have weakened immune systems from inbreeding, so they are especially vulnerable to infection. However, Professor Bilde and her team of researchers found no evidence of antimicrobial activity in the silk of social spiders.&nbsp;



“We were unable to detect antimicrobial activity of social spider silk, regardless of method or microbe, and this made us curious about why other studies were able to,” said Professor Bilde. “We then started scrutinizing the papers reporting antimicrobial activity in fine detail and became aware of methodological shortcomings.”



Two main methodological issues were identified. Some of the past studies had not adequately controlled for contamination of silk samples by bacteria, while other studies had not controlled for the effects of the solvent used to extract the spiders’ silk. The studies may have been compromised for either of these reasons.



Using improved experimental procedures, the researchers found no evidence of antimicrobial activity in the samples of silk that they tested. Since they only tested silk from seven spider species, they cannot rule out silk with antimicrobial properties from other, untested species. However, their results do cast doubt on previous investigations.&nbsp;



“Rather than assuming that spider silk is antimicrobial, we should now assume that it isn’t,” said Professor Bilde. “We can still test the idea in new species and with new organisms, but with a more cautious starting point.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antimicrobial property of spiders’ silk is a myth

The virtues of spiders’ silk have been extolled since ancient...

The effects of climate change are resulting in increasingly frequent wildfires in the Western U.S that are detrimental to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-transmit-signals-to-defend-against-environmental-threats/">environment</a>. While the effect of wildfires on tree cover is clear, many are unaware of an increasing number of smoke-related deaths.



New research from <a href="https://www.gwu.edu/">George Washington University</a> has concluded that smoke exposure from Western U.S. wildfires is contributing to health problems across North America, with almost three-quarters of smoke-related deaths and hospital visits occurring east of the Rocky Mountains.



The researchers have hypothesized that increasing levels of smoke are contributing to over one percent of annual ER visits in Western U.S. Despite lower smoke concentrations in the East, smoke-related issues still contribute to up to 0.6 percent of hospital visits. The study estimates that long-term smoke exposure results in an additional 6,300 annual excess deaths, with just 1,700 of these occurring in the West.



This increase in deaths is the result of the enormous quantities of toxic gases and soot resulting from wildfires, including microscopic smoke particles named PM2.5. Short-term effects of exposure to PM2.5 include respiratory health problems, with long-term exposure being linked to heart disease and lung cancer.



"Large wildfires are projected to increase in frequency in the Western U.S. Because of that, fires are expected to become the dominant source of PM2.5 in the U.S. by the end of the century," explained atmospheric scientist and study lead-author Katelyn O'Dell. "We wanted to study the impacts of wildfire smoke specifically on health so we can better prepare for that future, when we expect to have more smoke in our lives."



The research team used existing data on respiratory-related hospital visits and daily PM2.5 estimates to provide the new predictions on wildfire-related deaths. The study also analyzed 18 hazardous air pollutants (HAPS) such as benzene and formaldehyde, determining that these are less damaging than PM2.5.



While it may be too late to stop increasing rates of Western U.S. wildfires, the researchers emphasize that harm can be reduced by increasing efforts to forecast smoke and by advising citizens to take precautions, such as limiting time outside and wearing filtration masks.



Tarik Benmarhnia, a climate change epidemiologist at the University of California, noted that while smoke plumes impact entire regions, they don't affect all residents of different ages and ethnicities equally. By investigating these disparities through further research, he believes that further harm can be reduced&nbsp;&nbsp;



"The conclusion of the study is important," said Benmarhnia. "We systematically underestimate the real public health impact of wildfires, which is related to smoke. And smoke can travel very, very far away."



The results of the study have been published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/24711403">GeoHealth</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfires in the West linked to smoke-related deaths in the East

The effects of climate change are resulting in increasingly frequent...

A species of hawkmoth from Madagascar, whose existence was predicted by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the 19th century, has recently been recognized as a new species. Known as Wallace’s sphinx moth, the unique creature is considered to have the longest tongue of any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-can-smell-dangerous-insects/">insect</a>, measuring up to 30 centimeters. The moth is the only insect that can reach the bottom of the nectar tubes of Madagascar’s star orchid.



In 1862, when Charles Darwin first saw the Madagascan orchid, he speculated that it would take a moth with an extremely long tongue to reach the nectar from the orchid’s tubes. Five years later, Alfred Lord Wallace predicted that this creature would be similar to an already known African hawkmoth with a long proboscis.&nbsp;



Both Darwin and Wallace were proven right when the moth that pollinated these orchids was finally discovered in 1902. Scientists initially categorized it as a subspecies of Morgan’s sphinx moth from the genus Xanthopan (the same one the African hawkmoth also belongs to).



However, a research team led by Joël Minet, a professor of Entomology at <a href="https://isyeb.mnhn.fr/en">Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité</a> (ISYEB), has recently found, through examining its physical and genetic differences, that the Madagascan moth is in fact not a subspecies of Morgan’s sphinx moth, but rather a species on its own, which they named Xanthopan praedicta (in the honor of the fact that Darwin and Wallace predicted its existence).&nbsp;



“The taxonomic change we now propose finally gives long-deserved recognition, at the species level, to one of the most celebrated of all Malagasy endemics,” said study co-author Dr. David Lees, a curator of moths at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a>.



The research team discovered 25 morphological differences between the Madagascan moth and Morgan’s moths, including differences in the shape of male and female genitalia, wing shape, and color patterns. Moreover, significant genetic differences have also been found between the two species.&nbsp;Most strikingly though, the Madagascan moth appeared to have a proboscis 6.6 centimeters longer than any of the studied Morgan’s moths.



“Imagine my excitement as I unrolled and measured the proboscis of a male&nbsp;Xanthopan&nbsp;in the Madagascan rainforest, realizing that it was probably the global record holder,” said Dr. Lees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/antenor/oclc/44695951">Antenor</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Moth with the longest tongue of any insect is a new species

A species of hawkmoth from Madagascar, whose existence was predicted...

Although they are slow, poor swimmers that sometimes even die of exhaustion, seahorses have some surprisingly speedy qualities too. A new study published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/224/17/jeb236430/272030/Elastic-energy-storage-in-seahorses-leads-to-a">Journal of Experimental Biology</a> has found that seahorses are fierce ambush predators which can spring their heads up in 0.002 seconds to snag and devour their unsuspecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-lions-have-mastered-the-timing-to-prey-on-chinook-salmon/">prey</a>.



Seahorses spend most of their time anchoring themselves by their tails to seaweed or corals while keeping their heads down, close to their bodies. When they sense prey passing by, they are able to lift their heads at an extraordinary speed to catch it. This movement, faster than any muscle contraction known to exist in the animal kingdom, is possible due to an elastic tendon which they stretch using their back muscles. The mechanism allows them to achieve a head speed rotation 50 times faster than that of other types of fish.



The amazing discovery was made by a team of researchers from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> who used high-speed cameras and laser-scan technology to record the hunting behavior of seahorses. This method also helped in elucidating how their incredibly fast head motions allow the seahorses to eat. The researchers found that the movements were accompanied by a powerful suction flow (eight times faster than those of similar-sized fish) that enabled the seahorses to suck their prey directly into their mouths.&nbsp;



The scientists have also investigated how different seahorse species proceed in capturing their prey by using their specific anatomical traits. “Our study shows that the speed of head movement and suction currents are determined by the length of a seahorse's nose,” said study lead author Roi Holzman, a professor of Zoology at Tel Aviv University.



“From the evolutionary aspect, seahorses must choose between a short nose for strong suction and moderate head raising, or a long nose for rapid head raising and weaker suction currents. This choice corresponds to the available diet - long-nosed species catch smaller, quicker animals, whereas short-nosed species catch heavier, more ponderous ones,” he explained.



Seahorses are not the only aquatic species to exhibit this fascinating spring mechanism. Other so-called “misfit fish,” including alligator piperfish, cornetfish, and shrimpfish are known to have similar abilities.



“The big question applies to the evolution of the spring mechanism, how it was formed and when it developed. I hope our recent study will lead to further studies designed to help solve the riddle of spring fish,” concluded Professor Holzman.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seahorses may be slow, but they are fierce ambush predators

Although they are slow, poor swimmers that sometimes even die...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL094888">Geophysical Research Letters</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-will-force-millions-to-migrate/">warming</a> ocean waters related to climate change have caused a significant drop in Earth's brightness. 



According to observations gathered by the <a href="https://www.bbso.njit.edu/">Big Bear Solar Observatory</a> in Southern California, the Earth is now reflecting approximately half a watt less light per square meter compared to two decades ago, with most of the decrease occurring in the past three years.



By using decades of measurements of earthshine (the light reflected from the Earth which illuminates the Moon’s surface), together with satellite measurements, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.njit.edu/">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a> recently discovered a significant drop in Earth’s reflectance, or “albedo,” over the past two decades.&nbsp;



This 0.5 percent decrease in Earth’s brightness was quite unexpected, especially since it has mostly transpired in the past three years. “The albedo drop was such a surprise to us when we analyzed the last three years of data after 17 years of nearly flat albedo," said study lead author Philip Goode, a researcher at the New Jersey Institute of Technology.



The net sunlight reaching our planet is affected by the Sun’s brightness and the Earth’s reflectivity. According to the scientists, since the recent changes in the Earth’s albedo did not correlate with changes in the Sun’s brightness, they must have been caused by something on the Earth.&nbsp;



Using satellite measurements made as part of NASA's <a href="https://ceres.larc.nasa.gov/">Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System</a> (CERES) project, Professor Goode and his colleagues have identified a significant reduction of bright, reflective low-lying clouds over the eastern Pacific Ocean. This phenomenon appeared to be caused by increases in the ocean’s surface temperatures related to climate change.



In recent years, scientists have hoped that a warmer Earth might lead to more clouds and thus higher albedo, which would subsequently help moderating the warming and balancing the climate. However, the new findings show that the opposite might actually be true. The Earth’s dimming could in fact cause additional solar energy to be captured in the planet’s atmosphere and oceans, and may thus increase global warming and exacerbate climate change.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists find an unexpected drop in Earth’s brightness

A new study published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters...

While sleeping, we react to two different types of stimuli. Quantitative information, such as loud noises, require no special <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mind-diet-slows-cognitive-decline/">cognitive</a> processing to wake us up. However, qualitative or salient information, like subtle smells or auditory cues, requires additional subconscious processing.&nbsp;



By studying sleep patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-isolation-causes-flies-to-eat-too-much-and-sleep-too-little/">fruit flies</a>, researchers from the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> (ICL) have managed for the first time to determine which parts of the brain are involved in salient subconscious processing. While tracking such processing in humans is more difficult due to the complexity of our brains, for fruit flies their entire “connectome” (their neuronal maps) has been defined, making it easier to study their neuronal patterns during sleep.&nbsp;



“Sleep puts you in a vulnerable position, such as being at risk of predation. Therefore, animals, including humans, need to be able to respond to potential threats so that they wake up and act. If it’s a sound, like a loud bang, the processing our brains need to do is relatively simple,” explained lead study author Dr. Alice French, a researcher in the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/life-sciences">Department of Life Sciences</a> at ICL.



“However, to actively decode the sounds and smells around us that may or may not be relevant to us, different parts of the brain must remain alert. Now, in fruit flies, who share more in common with us than you might think, we have discovered one region of the sleeping brain stays awake to process smells.”



The research team tested the response to dozens of odors in well-fed and rested fruit flies, by placing them in tubes and monitoring them with an automatic system able to release odors when detecting that the flies were asleep. They discovered that aversive odors woke the flies up more often than attractive ones. By tracking the neurons involved with fluorescent markers, the scientists managed to map the brain regions responsible for salient processing during sleep.



Moreover, they also tested whether the flies’ response to salient information was fixed or “plastic,” that is, whether it would be different under different circumstances. They found that sleep-deprived or drunk flies were less responsive to odors, while starved flies where more responsive to odors specifically related to foods.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to lead researcher Dr. Giorgio Gilestro, a senior lecturer at ICL, although fruit flies have relatively simple brains, even in their case different species have different patterns of sleep and wakefulness. “Investigating how different animals balance their needs can help us determine the ultimate function of sleep,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03954-w">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts identify brain areas that remain alert during sleep

While sleeping, we react to two different types of stimuli....

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animals</a>. They’re small, common rodents that live in underground burrows made of sandy soils. In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www3.nd.edu/~ammidnat/">The American Midland Naturalist</a>, researchers have made a surprising discovery about pocket gophers - they glow under ultraviolet light.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research was inspired by flying squirrels and opossums, which were already known to glow under ultraviolet light. 



"A bunch of people, myself included, were curious about other animals," said study lead author PhD candidate J.T. Pynne. "We tested it on the flying squirrels we had, and sure enough, it worked. So, I said, 'Well, what else do we have?'"&nbsp;



While a student at <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">UGA</a> Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, Pynne focused his research on pocket gophers, so it was natural for him to test their biofluorescence too.



"And it turned out, pocket gophers, flying squirrels and opossums were the only animal specimens that fluoresced. And I'm thinking, of course my strange little animals do this," said Pynne.



Other known animals that glow under UV light are the platypus, spiders, some birds and more. "We have known for a long time that arthropods fluoresced. Any time I catch a scorpion or a spider or a millipede and I have my black light, they're bright blue," said Pynne.



Finding all of these glowing animals naturally leads to the question - why do they glow? Unfortunately, there is no clear answer from scientists yet. For some like Pynne, it’s simply an interesting way to explore the natural world - go out on a dark night with a UV flashlight and see what glows out there. 



"Although unknown, the adaptive significance of biofluorescence in pocket gophers is likely similar to that documented in terrestrial and arboreal species previously, including communication or predator evasion," wrote the study authors.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pocket gophers glow under UV light

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic animals. They’re small, common rodents that...

In a fascinating study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>, researchers have discovered that baby birds can learn sounds from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/screen-time-is-a-top-concern-among-parents-during-pandemic/">parents</a> before they have even hatched. The birds were found to exhibit physical responses (fluctuating heartbeats) to their parents' calls from inside of the egg.



The experts used non-invasive techniques to study prenatal auditory learning in the embryos of three vocal learning species, including the superb fairy-wren, the red-winged fairy-wren and Darwin's small ground finch.&nbsp;The researchers also analyzed the embryos of two vocal non-learning species - the little penguin and Japanese quail.



"Vocal production learning is only believed to occur in seven lineages of birds and mammals, including humans," said study co-author Sonia Kleindorfer. "This research will hopefully inspire more study into the remarkable capacity of animals to learn sound."&nbsp;



"By moving the time window for sound learning to the prenatal stage, this research direction opens pathways to measure neurobiological downstream effects of early auditory experience on behavior and information processing."



The researchers used fluctuations in heart rate to measure the vocal learning concepts in embryo behavior and response to sound within the egg. This embryonic stage occurs well before baby birds hatch and start making complex calls or songs - which normally takes several months or even years after birth to accomplish.  



"By studying the capacity for sound learning in embryos, we are paving the way to new inroads into evolutionary and developmental timescales," explained study first author Diane Colombelli-Négrel.



"Long before actual vocalization, we found that these tiny songbirds were also discriminating towards non-specific sounds and capable of 'non-associative' - not from parents - sounds, building on the complexity of vocal learning in songbirds." 



According to Kleindorfer, there are many forms of vocal learning but vocal production learning by far stands out as a hallmark achievement in seven orders - primates, songbirds, parrots, hummingbirds, cetaceans, pinnipeds and bats. Among primates, however, only humans can do it.



"As a result of the rarity of vocal production learning, animals have been grouped into so-called 'vocal learners' - those that learn to imitate a vocalization from a vocal tutor - and 'vocal non-learners' - animals that produce vocalizations without imitating a vocal tutor," said Kleindorfer.



Patrick Abbot is a program director in the Division of Integrative Organismal Systems at the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, which funded the research.



"By showing that pre-hatch auditory learning may be common in birds, this project adds to our growing recognition of the importance of the sound environment and paves the way for new avenues of research on the neuroethology, development and evolution of vocal perception learning in vertebrates," said Abbot.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Baby birds can learn sounds before they've even hatched

In a fascinating study led by Flinders University, researchers have...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> have recently discovered that the melting of polar ice from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-in-the-north-pacific-linked-to-unusual-ozone-hole/">Arctic</a>, Antarctica, and Greenland is not only causing sea levels to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-at-an-alarming-rate/">rise</a>, but is also warping the Earth’s crust. According to the scientists, the effects of this phenomenon can be felt thousands of miles away.&nbsp;



When ice sheets build up, their weight is causing the crust beneath the ice to sink in order to compensate. As the ice melts, and this weight is removed, the crust rises up again in a process called “isostatic rebound.” The vertical shifting of the crust as the weight of the ice is removed can also further accelerate ice loss through a positive feedback effect.&nbsp;



“Think of a wooden board floating on top of a tub of water. When you push the board down, you would have the water beneath moving down. If you pick it up, you’ll see the water moving vertically to fill that space,” explained lead study author Sophie Coulson, a researcher in the <a href="https://www.lanl.gov/org/ddste/aldsc/theoretical/fluid-dynamics-solid-mechanics/index.php">Fluid Dynamics and Solid Mechanics Group</a> at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.



While this phenomenon of vertical rebound has long been understood by scientists, Dr. Coulson and her research team have recently found that the crust might also shift sideways due to ice melting caused by climate change.



By analyzing satellite data on polar ice loss from 2003 to 2018, the researchers have discovered that melting Arctic and Greenland glaciers caused the ground to shift horizontally in most of the Northern hemisphere. Moreover, in certain places, even far away from the melting ice, the crust was moving more horizontally than it was rebounding vertically.



According to Glenn Antony Milne, an Earth scientist from the <a href="https://www2.uottawa.ca/en">University of Ottawa</a>, this work&nbsp;“is important because it is the first to show that recent mass loss of ice sheets and glaciers causes 3D motion of the Earth’s surface that is greater in magnitude and spatial extent than previously identified.”



Understanding the factors that cause movements of the Earth’s crust is important for solving a wide range of science problems. “For example, to accurately observe tectonic motions and earthquake activity, we need to be able to separate out this motion generated by modern ice-mass loss,” explained Dr. Coulson.



The study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095477">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Melting polar ice is warping Earth’s crust

Researchers at Harvard University have recently discovered that the melting...

Ahead of <a href="https://ukcop26.org/">COP 26</a>, the UN <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-following-a-pattern-similar-to-earths-largest-mass-extinction/">climate</a> change conference, a collaborative group of Indigenous leaders, activists and scientists is calling upon world leaders to commit to saving the Amazon. In a <a href="https://www.globallandscapesforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Protect_Amazonia_EN.pdf">statement</a> the group urged great change in global economic systems.



“We, Indigenous peoples and local communities, have a deep spiritual connection to, and knowledge of, our territories and their management. Our knowledge is a treasure offered to enrich a new paradigm of human–nature interaction: Rethinking the economics of our societies, with their overconsumption that is destroying the ability of our generous planet to sustain life. Economic change is essential for preserving the socio-cultural and biological diversity of Amazonia and the future of life on Earth.”



The Amazon, they say, is a place like no other, a place containing not only an incredible diversity of different life forms but also sustaining a diversity of human cultures. Not only indigenous peoples, but also unique Afro-cultures descended from escaped slaves that found a way to live harmoniously in the forest.&nbsp;



The group points to these cultures as sustainable ways to preserve not only the Amazon itself but also to protect against global climate change and as lessons to the world on sustainability.&nbsp;



“Research leaves no doubt that Indigenous and local knowledge systems are strongly linked to reduced deforestation, sustainable management of natural resources and flexible adaptation to climate change," said Solange Bandiaky-Badji, Coordinator of the Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI).



"Global leaders must use this momentum around climate to amplify their support to secure rights for Indigenous Peoples, Afro-descendant Peoples and local communities - particularly their networks of women - as an essential pathway to preventing climate change as well as supporting local livelihoods.”



The call comes at a time when Brazil, which contains the majority of the Amazon ecosystem, is under the presidential leadership of Jair Bolsonaro - a president so dangerous that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/14/amazon-rainforest-will-collapse-if-bolsonaro-remains-president">some claim</a> the Amazon itself will collapse if he remains in power. This makes international pressure to protect the forest and its people all the more important.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Indigenous leaders call on the world to save the Amazon

Ahead of COP 26, the UN climate change conference, a...

A study from <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a> is shedding new light on the mystery of the timing of human migration into the Americas. While analyzing exposed outcrops of an ancient lake in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, the researchers discovered multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-mutation-may-explain-how-humans-lost-their-tails/">human</a> footprints that are 23,000 to 21,000 years old.&nbsp;



"Archaeologists and researchers in allied fields have long sought to understand human colonization of North America," wrote the researchers. "Questions remain about when and how people migrated, where they originated, and how their arrival affected the established fauna and landscape."



According to the study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, the footprints indicate that humans inhabited North America for approximately two millennia during the Last Glacial Maximum.&nbsp;



"These findings confirm the presence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum, adding evidence to the antiquity of human colonization of the Americas and providing a temporal range extension for the coexistence of early inhabitants and Pleistocene megafauna," explained the study authors.



The results of previous studies have suggested that humans arrived in the Americas around 13,000 years ago at the end of the last Ice Age. Other archaeological research placed humans on the continent several thousand years earlier - between 16,000 and 17,000 years ago.



“We’d been suspicious of the age for a while, and so now (that) we finally have that it’s really exciting,” study co-author David Bustos, the chief of natural and cultural resources at White Sands, told NBC News. “One of the neat things is that you can see mammoth prints in the layers a meter or so above the human footprints, so that just helps to confirm the whole story.”



For the investigation, the researchers used radiocarbon dating to analyze the age of hundreds of dried ditchgrass seeds found in layers above and below the footprints.



Study co-author Sally Reynolds is a paleontologist at Bournemouth University. She said the new findings suggest that humans co-existed with animals such as mammoths and giant sloths for longer than expected.&nbsp;



“It may well be that the humans were harvesting these megafauna as part of their killing and their hunting more sustainably in the earlier years, and potentially through time, as the populations grew, the balance of power shifted and the humans started perhaps overharvesting these megafauna," Reynolds explained in a <a href="https://youtu.be/5PxqOMKvibE">video</a>.&nbsp;



Study lead author Matthew R. Bennett and colleagues said that their analysis of the tracks indicates that most were made by teenagers and children.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans were in North America during Last Glacial Maximum

A study from AAAS is shedding new light on the...

Building on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-reading-technology-recreates-bird-song-from-brain-waves/">previous research</a> which used the bodies and brains of zebra finches as a proxy for humans, scientists say they can now predict a bird’s song by reading its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-support-can-protect-your-brain-health/">brain</a> signals. Silicone chips are implanted into the brains of small male zebra finches, common pet store birds. Using data from the chips, the scientists can predict bird calls.



“Our work sets the stage for this larger goal," explained study lead author and PhD candidate Daril Brown. "We’re studying birdsong in a way that will help us get one step closer to engineering a brain machine interface for vocalization and communication.”



“Our motivation for exploring local field potentials was that most of the complementary human work for speech prostheses development has focused on these types of signals," said Vikash Gilja, who led the collaborative research.



"In this paper, we show that there are many similarities in this type of signaling between the zebra finch and humans, as well as other primates. With these signals we can start to decode the brain’s intent to generate speech."



"These forms of variation are important for us to test hypothetical speech prostheses, because a human doesn’t just repeat one sentence over and over again."



"It’s exciting that we found parallels in the brain signals that are being recorded and documented in human physiology studies to our study in songbirds.”



As of now, the technology reveals the vocalization that a bird will make before it sings. According to researcher Timothy Gentner, this is a stepping stone to a bigger breakthrough.



"In the longer term, we want to use the detailed knowledge we are gaining from the songbird brain to develop a communication prosthesis that can improve the quality of life for humans suffering a variety of illnesses and disorders,”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/">PLos Computational Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists can predict bird calls based on brain signals

Building on previous research which used the bodies and brains...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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