Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



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How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp; In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp; Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata)...

The Hell Creek Formation, a rock unit stretching across Montana, the Dakotas, and Wyoming, holds some of prehistory’s most enduring icons. Triceratops, duck billed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-already-in-trouble-before-extinction/">dinosaurs</a>, and Tyrannosaurus rex all roamed this region 66 million years ago. Now arid and dry, it was once a lush subtropical swampland, where some of the last dinosaurs lived out their days before the group’s extinction at the end of the Cretaceous.&nbsp;



Uncovering the diversity and ecology of Hell Creek attracts researchers near and far. This year, the <a href="https://www.burkemuseum.org/">UW Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture</a> has unearthed four dinosaur specimens, concluding a successful field season.&nbsp;



The four animals include an unidentified ostrich-like dinosaur, the shovel-billed Edmontosaurus, the three-horned Triceratops, and a possibly-new species of oviraptorid - a critter that would have somewhat resembled a modern cassowary, except with giant hand claws. While none of the specimens are complete, their discovery helps build a more complete picture of the Hell Creek ecosystem. To a paleontologist, every fossil holds potential research value.&nbsp;



The Triceratops earned the nickname “Flyby Trike,” as its bones were discovered by a nearby rancher who was flying his plane at the time. Though only thirty percent of the skull has been recovered, Flyby Trike can help researchers understand the life history of this charismatic fossil species. Dubbed a “grandparent trike” by lab manager Kelsi Abrams, it shows how this animal matured and entered senescence.&nbsp;



“The triangular bones along the frill, called ‘epi occipitals,’ are completely fused and almost unrecognizable on the specimen, as compared to the sharp, noticeable triangular shape seen in younger individuals," said Abrams. "In addition, the brow horn curves downwards as opposed to upwards, and this feature has been reported to be seen in older animals as well.”&nbsp;



Plant remains found among these larger vertebrates are also useful to scientists. “Plant fossil remains from this time period are crucial for our understanding of the wider ecosystem. Not only can plant material tell us what these dinosaurs were perhaps eating, but plants can more broadly tell us what their environment looked like,” said Paige Wilson, a UW graduate student.&nbsp;



“Each fossil that we collect helps us sharpen our views of the last dinosaur-dominated ecosystems and the first mammal-dominated ecosystems," said Gregory Wilson Mantilla, a Burke Museum curator.



The Hell Creek lies right below the K/Pg boundary, the demarcation between the extinction that heralded the end of the age of dinosaurs and the beginning of the age of mammals.



For now, these new finds are undergoing the laborious process of fossil preparation at the Burke Museum. As each scrap of dirt and rock falls off the bone, new data is waiting for paleontologists, both present and future, to examine.



---



By <a href="mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Four new dinosaur specimens found at the Hell Creek Formation

The Hell Creek Formation, a rock unit stretching across Montana,...

The addition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">plant</a> extracts to traditionally cured processed meats has recently been shown to reduce the levels of N-nitroso compounds (NOCs) in egested fecal matter in humans. This may mean that plant extracts, such as those from Japanese knotweed, could be used to replace the questionable chemical compounds traditionally used in the curing and processing of meats.



Red meat stimulates the production of NOCs in the colon, and this has been linked to increased risk of developing colorectal cancer. In addition, nitrites used in the curing or processing of meat are also a source of NOCs. Nitrites are commonly added to meat during processing to prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria, to avert rancidity, and to create the characteristic pink color of cured meats such as bacon and ham.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The safety of eating processed meat has been debated for years, with several reports from the World Cancer Research Fund stating that there is convincing evidence that its consumption is associated with cancer risk. The International Agency on Research on Cancer has classified processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1 carcinogen), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.



In a recent study, researchers from the PHYTOME project developed processed red meat products that included added natural substitutes of plant origin in order to limit the use of nitrite while still retaining microbial safety. The range of sausages and hams had a mixture of plant and fruit extracts added to them, including rosemary, green tea, and resveratrol extracted from Japanese knotweed.



“The ongoing worries about highly processed red meat have often focused on the role of nitrite, and its links with cancer. The PHYTOME project tackled the issue by creating processed red meat products that replace additives with plant-based alternatives," said Gunter Kuhnle, Professor of Nutrition and Food Science at the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>.



The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of consumption of processed red meat products with reduced levels of nitrite and with normal levels, but with the addition of phytochemicals in both cases. Apparent total nitroso compounds (ATNCs) were measured and the results were compared with the levels of ATNCs in the feces of people who ate minimally processed white meat.&nbsp;



The results, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.202001214">Molecular Nutrition and Food Research</a>, found that the ATNCs in participants’ feces were significantly lower after consumption of both the normal nitrate and reduced nitrate meats that had been treated with phytochemicals. In both cases, levels of nitroso compounds were similar to those found in people who had eaten the white meat.



“Our latest findings show that using natural additives in processed red meat reduces the creation of compounds in the body that are linked to cancer,” explained Professor Kuhnle.&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, the natural additives seemed to have some protective effects even when the red meat still contained nitrite. This suggests that natural additives could be used to reduce some of the potentially harmful effects of nitrite, even in foods where it is not possible to take out nitrite preservatives altogether.”



These results potentially cast a new perspective on the Japanese knotweed, a perennial plant that is commonly seen as an invasive species and a pest in North America and Europe. It contains a form of resveratrol most useful to the human body and is rapidly becoming the preferred source of this phytochemical.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Japanese knotweed could lower cancer risk of processed meat

The addition of plant extracts to traditionally cured processed meats...

It is a well known fact that climate change will heat up the Earth, but new research from the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has focused on exactly how fast global warming will affect the Northeast coast of the United States from Maine to Delaware.&nbsp;



The researchers concluded that the Northeast is heating faster than the majority of North America as a result of drastic changes in the atmosphere above the North Atlantic.&nbsp;



While investigating what global warming means for the Northeast, in particular, study lead author Ambarish Karmalka found evidence of the rapid rates of coastal warming in the Northeast and Atlantic in comparison to other regions.



“The key findings here are that the observed warming in coastal Northeast is exceptional,” explained Karmalkar. “Some of the biggest populations centers in the U.S. are suffering the greatest degree of warming, and that this warming is being driven both by equally rapid trends in the Atlantic Ocean and by changes in atmospheric circulation patterns.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Further problems are being caused by the decreasing speed of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). This is a belt of water that transports warm, salty water to the north from the tropics, which then sinks and cools. Deep water currents will form, transporting the cooled water back south, but this process is slowing due to global warming.&nbsp;



&nbsp;“One consequence of this conveyor belt slowdown is more heating of the ocean off the Northeastern coast, which helps to explain the spike in ocean temperatures in the Mid-Atlantic regions,” said Karmalkar.



An additional sign of rising temperatures in the Northeast is the link between the AMOC and the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). This is a weather phenomenon that governs the wind's strength and position when blowing from the US, over the Atlantic, and on to Europe.&nbsp;



The NAO influences storm tracks, the jet stream and seasonal temperatures in the Northeast, and is naturally variable in behaviour.



However, Karmalkar and study co-author Radley Horton from Columbia University show that the varying behavior of the NAO has recently settled into a pattern which has increased the influence of ocean air on the eastern seaboard climate.



As a result, warmer ocean air is being blown over the coastal Northeast and heating up land temperatures.&nbsp;



In addition to this discovery, the research is significant as it highlights the importance of high resolution climate models for understanding global warming.



“Our research implies that without improved high-resolution data, regional climate assessments, which inform our ability to plan for the future, may underemphasize warming in this populous region," said Karmalkar.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why is the Northeast coast a global warming hotspot?

It is a well known fact that climate change will...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> have discovered that a gout medicine already approved by the United States’ Food and Drug Administration (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/">FDA</a>) in 1979 could also help combat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-one-third-of-americans-had-covid-19-by-the-end-of-2020/">COVID-19</a>. 



Probenicid, generally used to treat the joint tenderness and pain caused by gout, may prove effective against SARS-CoV-2 by preventing the virus from taking over a person’s cells and using them to replicate. Thus, prebencid may successfully stop the virus from spreading throughout the body and causing severe illness.



Scientists believe that gout medicine can also work in the fight against other respiratory illnesses, including the common flu, which doesn’t have a clear therapeutic path either. “There's really nothing out there to safely fight these viruses,” said lead author Dr. Ralph Tripp, a professor in the <a href="https://vet.uga.edu/education/academic-departments/infectious-diseases/">Department of Infectious Diseases</a> at the University of Georgia.



“This antiviral works for all RNA respiratory viruses we tested, including SARS-CoV-2. RSV, coronavirus and flu all circulate in the same season. Bottom line is you can potentially reduce infection and disease using this one oral drug.”



Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, many drugs have been used in the hope that they will manage to cure the disease, including monoclonal antibodies. However, these drugs are expensive, not very widely available, and they are mostly used when patients already reach a critical condition and they are hospitalized.



“These treatments have seen some effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2, but they're very expensive and very hard to come by,” explained Professor Tripp.&nbsp;“In reality, there are only a handful of options that can actually be used because of the cost, restricted IV usage, and lack of access. That's not very useful to the world.”



On the other hand, Probencid can be cheaply produced and distributed around the world, which creates an opportunity for low income nations to easily access these potentially helpful treatments. &nbsp;



“SARS-CoV-2, RSV and flu have a huge impact on health systems throughout the world. Probenecid has a potent antiviral effect against these viruses, and it works safely,” concluded Professor Tripp.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-97658-w?utm_medium=affiliate&amp;utm_source=commission_junction&amp;utm_campaign=3_nsn6445_deeplink_PID100032693&amp;utm_content=deeplink">Nature Communications</a>.



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gout medicine found to be effective against COVID-19

Researchers at the University of Georgia have discovered that a...

Microplastics are tiny fragments (less than 0.2 in or 5 mm in length) of any type of plastic that are found in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandas-can-thrive-in-less-than-perfect-environments/">environment</a>. They have been identified in oceans, fresh water and air, as well as in our food, drinks and house dust.&nbsp;



Microplastics enter the environment in one of two ways: tiny, man-made particles such as microfibers from clothing and microbeads from cosmetics, or plastic pellets from packaging, are already less than 0.2 in when they are disposed of; larger plastic items degrade and fragment due to natural weathering processes in the environment.



Because microplastics have a ubiquitous distribution it is not surprising that they have been found in the feces of humans and pets. Their effects on human health are not yet known.&nbsp;



It used to be thought that the plastic particles passed through the digestive system without causing damage. Now, it is understood that some fragments pass through, some get lodged in the stomach and intestinal lining, and the very tiniest particles move into the bloodstream and travel to organs and cells. Studies on laboratory animals have shown that exposure to microplastics can cause inflammation, cell death and metabolic disorders.&nbsp;



In a recent pilot study, reported in the American Chemical Society’s <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/estlcu">Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters</a>, a team of scientists led by Kurunthachalam Kannan from the New York University School of Medicine assess the levels of human exposure to two common microplastics - polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polycarbonate (PC) - by measuring levels in infant and adult feces.



The researchers used fecal samples from six infants and 10 adults in New York State, along with three samples of meconium (a newborn infant’s first stool). Mass spectrometry was used to determine the concentrations of PET and PC microplastics in the samples.&nbsp;



The experts found at least one type of plastic present in every sample and, although levels of PC microplastics were similar in adult and infant stools, feces from infants contained, on average, 10 times higher concentrations of PET than feces from adults.&nbsp;



The authors hypothesize that infants are exposed to higher levels of PET plastics through their extensive use of drinking bottles, teethers and toys, all of which are in regular and direct contact with the mouth. Further, more detailed studies are needed in order to corroborate these findings, they say.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Infants carry higher levels of microplastics than adults

Microplastics are tiny fragments (less than 0.2 in or 5...

A recent study has found that the mass extinction from 252 million years ago which killed nine of out ten species on Earth was caused by a “toxic soup” of accelerated greenhouse emissions, increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanoes-stabilize-temperatures-at-earths-surface/">temperatures</a>, and abundant nutrients leading to a huge spike in toxic algae blooms in rivers and lakes. Scientists warn that, although this extinction at the end of the Permian period was caused by prolonged volcanic eruptions, today’s anthropogenic climate change might lead to similar outcomes.&nbsp;



By studying fossils, sediment, and chemical records of rocks near Sydney, Australia, researchers from the <a href="https://www.nrm.se/en/16.html">Swedish Museum of Natural History</a> and the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/">University of Nebraska</a> discovered that a massive volcanic eruption that ran for almost a million years and released enormous amounts of chemicals into the atmosphere caused the Earth’s largest mass extinction 252 million years ago. By stripping the Earth of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-years-ozone-hole-is-larger-than-antarctica/">ozone layer</a> and poisoning the waters and the atmosphere, this catastrophic event wiped out almost 90 percent of life from Earth.



When comparing the fossil records of other warming-related mass extinctions, scientists found highly similar patterns, increasing worries that our current situation might lead to the same catastrophic outcomes.&nbsp;



“We're seeing more and more toxic algae blooms in lakes and in shallow marine environments that's related to increases in temperature and changes in plant communities which are leading to increases in nutrient contributions to freshwater environments,” reported co-author Tracy Frank, an adjunct professor in the <a href="https://eas.unl.edu/">Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences</a> at the University of Nebraska.



“The volcanism was a source of CO2 in the past but we know that the rate of CO2 input that was seen back then was similar to the rate of CO2 increases we're seeing today because of anthropogenic effects.”



According to study co-author Christopher Fielding, a professor emeritus at the University of Nebraska, another important parallel is that the increase in temperature at the end of the Permian coincided with massive increases in forest fires.&nbsp;



“One of the things that destroyed whole ecosystems was fire, and we're seeing that right now in places like California. One wonders what the longer-term consequences of events like that as they are becoming more and more widespread.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25711-3?utm_medium=affiliate&amp;utm_source=commission_junction&amp;utm_campaign=3_nsn6445_deeplink_PID100032693&amp;utm_content=deeplink">Nature Communications</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change is following a pattern similar to Earth’s largest mass extinction

A recent study has found that the mass extinction from...

Due to climate change effects such as ocean warming and acidification, the biodiversity of coral reef cryptobiota will most likely shuffle rather than decline, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2103275118">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</a>.



Coral reefs - some of the most complex, diverse, and productive ecosystems on Earth - consist of a multitude of microorganisms known as cryptobiota. These organisms play a fundamental role in reef processes such as cementation, nutrient cycling, and food web dynamics. Many scientists have worried that climate change will lead to a dramatic loss of this coral reef biodiversity.



However, a research team led by the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawai‘i (UH) at Mānoa</a> has found that while the species that dominate the coral reef communities might shift, the total biodiversity will not collapse under future climate conditions.



“Rather than the predicted collapse of biodiversity under ocean warming and acidification, we found significant changes in the relative abundance, but not the occurrence of species, resulting in a shuffling of coral reef community structure,” said lead study author Molly Timmers, a doctoral student at the&nbsp;<a href="http://www.himb.hawaii.edu/">Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology</a>&nbsp;(HIMB).



In order to assess cryptobiota’s response to future ocean conditions, Timmers and her colleagues conducted an experiment in which tiered settlement plates were placed in experimental flow-through tanks. These recipients were filled with untreated seawater from a nearby coral reef and were then exposed to end-of-21st-century predicted ocean warming and acidification conditions.&nbsp;



The team found that after two years of exposure, the total number of species did not change, but the composition of the coral reef community differed significantly from the initial one. The scientists believe that the outcome of this shuffling will depend upon the ecological roles that the winners and losers among these microorganisms will play.&nbsp;



As Timmers explained, however, “we lack sufficient information on the ecological functions, life histories, and distributions (let alone names) for most members of the coral reef cryptobenthic community to be able to adequately predict responses or ecosystem outcomes of changes in this community.”



Nonetheless, this study highlights the importance of including these understudied microorganisms in research related to the future effects of climate change on marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coral reef biodiversity expected to shuffle but not decline

Due to climate change effects such as ocean warming and...

Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) are currently studying whether they can turn edible plants such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/romaine-lettuce-not-safe/">lettuce</a> or spinach into mRNA vaccine factories. 



One of the challenges of the available mRNA vaccines is that they need to be constantly kept at very low temperatures and are thus difficult to store and transport. A $500,000 grant from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> aims to overcome these challenges by creating edible plant-based mRNA vaccines that can be stored at room temperature.



The researchers plan to deliver DNA containing mRNA vaccines into plant cells where they will replicate and produce enough mRNA to replace a traditional shot. “Ideally, a single plant would produce enough mRNA to vaccinate a single person,” explained Juan Pablo Giraldo, an associate professor in the <a href="https://plantbiology.ucr.edu/">Department of Botany and Plant Sciences</a> at UCR. 



“We are testing this approach with&nbsp;spinach and lettuce&nbsp;and have long-term goals of people growing it in their own garden. Farmers could also eventually grow entire fields of it.”



Key to develop such vaccines are chloroplasts, which are small organs from plant cells that play a fundamental role in converting sunlight into energy the plants can use. 



“They’re tiny, solar-powered factories that produce sugar and other molecules which allow the plant to grow,” explained Professor Giraldo. “They’re also an untapped source for making desirable molecules.”



In previous studies, by delivering foreign genetic material into plant cells, Professor Giraldo and colleagues have found that chloroplasts can be used to express genes that are not natural parts of the plants. This discovery is crucial for the new research on plant-based mRNA vaccines.&nbsp;



“Our idea is to repurpose naturally occurring nanoparticles, namely plant viruses, for gene&nbsp;delivery to plants,” said Nicole Steinmetz, a professor of Nanoengineering at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> who will collaborate with Professor Giraldo in this new project. 



“Some engineering goes into this to make the nanoparticles go to the chloroplasts and also to render them non-infectious toward the plants.”



If this project succeeds, the future of vaccination may look more like eating a side-dish rather than getting a shot in the arm. “I’m very excited about all of this research,” Giraldo said. “I think it could have a huge impact on peoples’ lives.”



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Edible plants could replace shots as vaccines

Scientists from the University of California, Riverside (UCR) are currently...

A new DNA analysis of prehistoric humans has found that inbreeding - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mating-secrets-uncovered-in-european-corn-borer-moths/">mating</a> between related individuals such as cousins - is more common today than it was during the past 45,000 years. After analyzing the DNA from the remains of 1,785 individuals, researchers from the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/">Max Planck Society</a> found that only about three percent (54) of these individuals’ parents were blood-related. This is a considerably lower percentage than the over ten percent of modern-day global marriages that occur between first- or second-degree cousins.&nbsp;



Scientists from Max Planck developed a new computational tool able to screen ancient DNA for parental relatedness by detecting long stretches of DNA (“runs of homozygosity”) that are identical in the two DNA copies inherited from each parent. The closer the parents were related, the longer and richer such identical segments were.



“By applying this new technique we could screen more than ten times as many ancient genomes than previously possible,” explained lead study author Harald Ringbauer from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.&nbsp;



To compare the ancient situation to the modern one, researchers also analyzed the DNA of a random sample of 1,941 modern individuals and identified runs of homozygosity (ROH) in 176 of them (nearly ten percent). This proves a much larger prevalence of inbreeding in our contemporary society than in ancient civilizations.



“In contrast to ancient data, several geographic clusters of long ROH are found, mainly in present-day Near East, North Africa, Central/South Asia, and South America,” the authors report. “This signal was described previously and mirrors the estimated prevalence of cousin marriages.”



Another significant finding was a marked decay in background parental relatedness occurring at the same time or shortly after the agricultural revolution from approximately 10,000 years ago. 



According to the researchers, this phenomenon is correlated to the increasing of population sizes across several geographic regions worldwide. Inbreeding could thus be a phenomenon related to small population sizes and might diminish once populations expand in both dimensions and geographical location.&nbsp;However, more research needs to be done to properly understand the surprisingly high degree of inbreeding that we are witnessing in our contemporary societies.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25289-w?utm_medium=affiliate&amp;utm_source=commission_junction&amp;utm_campaign=3_nsn6445_deeplink_PID100032693&amp;utm_content=deeplink#Sec8">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Inbreeding is more common today than 45,000 years ago

A new DNA analysis of prehistoric humans has found that...

Record high temperature and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-the-future-of-water-availability-in-the-american-west/">droughts in the American West</a> have left California’s 14,179-foot Mount Shasta (one of the highest peaks in the continental United States) without its usual snow cover. The surrounding glaciers are also starting to melt. Experts report that the Whitney Glacier, for instance, has lost 15 to 20 percent of its volume this year.



Mt. Shasta’s peak, a dormant volcano usually covered with snow during the entire year, has progressively lost its snow cover this summer, accelerating the melting of its already endangered glaciers too. Temperatures have risen up to 103 degrees Fahrenheit in the town of Shasta, California, which is located about five miles southwest of the mountain, and reached 77 to 84 degrees even halfway up the mountain.



According to geologist Nick Caselli, operation director for <a href="https://shastaguides.com/">Shasta Mountains Guide</a>, the “spectacular loss of snowpack” has left the west side of the mountain completely bare. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Unfortunately, Mt. Shasta is not the only one affected by huge rises in temperature. Its surrounding glaciers are suffering too, causing severe mudflows known as “lahars,” which can wash out bridges and roads and endanger the local population. The Whitney Glacier, which is the largest in California, has retreated approximately half of a mile, which is almost one quarter of its total length.&nbsp;



“Imagine how fast it was melting for two months instead of maybe a few days at the end of September,” said Mauri Pelto, director of the <a href="https://glaciers.nichols.edu/">North Cascades Glacier Climate Project</a>. “The loss is accelerating and 2021 will be the single biggest volume loss year.”&nbsp;



The Hotlum and Bolam glaciers are also strongly affected, with the former reportedly breaking down in smaller fragments. “If you (continually) repeat this summer, glaciers on Mt. Shasta can’t survive,” Pelto explained.&nbsp;



“As a business model (glaciers) are not sustainable. They can’t change their climate. They can’t relocate. They have tried shedding their worst-performing divisions, so to speak, at lower elevations. And that hasn’t helped. The only remaining question is just how fast do you lose them.”



Urgent action is needed to mitigate the effects of climate change in order to save these glaciers and other natural structures around the globe.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mount Shasta has lost its snow cover due extreme heat

Record high temperature and droughts in the American West have...

In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>, researchers have discovered key organic molecules in four out of five protoplanetary disks from our galaxy. They detected them by using the ALMA telescope, an extremely powerful telescope located in the Atacama Desert in Chile, that can pick up even the faintest signals from far away regions in outer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-at-blue-spaces-can-instantly-improve-body-image/">space</a>. These findings show that the chances of alien life in our galaxy are much more likely than we initially thought.



“The same ingredients needed for seeding life on our planet are also found around other stars,” said study co-author Dr. Catherine Walsh. These molecules - cyanoacetylene (HC3N), acetonitrile (CH3CN), and cyclopropenylidene (c-C3H2) – are stepping-stones between the simple carbon-based chemicals that are abundant in the universe and more complex substances that are known to be key ingredients for the development of life on Earth.&nbsp;



“Laboratory and theoretical studies suggest they are the 'raw ingredients' essential in biological chemistry on Earth. They create sugars, amino acids and even the components of ribonucleic acid (RNA) - under the right circumstances,” explained study lead author Dr. John Ilee from the <a href="https://eps.leeds.ac.uk/">Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences</a> at the University of Leeds.&nbsp;



Through observations with the powerful ALMA telescope, these molecules (together with 15 other substances thought to be connected to the origins of life) were discovered in protoplanetary disks of gas and dust that are surrounding the Milky Way’s youngest stars. According to the researchers, the ingredients of life could be present in 80 percent of the protoplanetary disks spinning throughout our galaxy.



“ALMA has allowed us to look for these molecules in the innermost regions of these disks, on size scales similar to our Solar System, for the first time,” Dr. Ilee reported. “Our analysis shows the molecules are primarily located in these inner regions with abundances between 10 and 100 times higher than models had predicted.”



Scientists believe that, in the past, the Earth was ‘seeded’ by meteorites, asteroids, and comets containing these types of molecules, ultimately giving birth to life as we know it. This new study, published in the <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2109.06319.pdf">Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series</a>, is the first to show that many other areas of our galaxy could be brimming with similar potential.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alien life is more likely to exist in our galaxy than we thought

In a new study led by the University of Leeds,...

A team of experts at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> is investigating the responses of bats to SARS-CoV-2 to gain new insight into how to treat infection in humans. The study is a major review of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/15000-year-old-viruses-found-in-tibetan-ice/">virus</a> ravages the human immune system.&nbsp;



In the months since SARS-CoV-2 was first identified in December of 2019, the virus has mutated. The variant strains Alpha, Beta and Delta are more infectious than the original strain.&nbsp;



In particular, the Delta strain is up to 79 percent more contagious than the Alpha mutant, and presumably more deadly, according to study co-author Professor Marcel Nold. He noted that there is an urgent need for effective therapies, at least in part because of the emergence of mutations.



"Preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection, or enabling patients to eradicate it, represents the ultimate goal in combating COVID-19: but it is uncertain when either will become reliably possible," wrote the researchers.



“Therefore, efforts at identifying safe and effective therapies to prevent COVID from progressing to the moderate and severe disease stages, are critical in the fight against the disease,” said Professor Nold.



When bats contract the virus, they exhibit a minimal response. For example, bats do not experience the same lung issues that often affect humans. 



"Preventing progression to severe disease, or effectively treating it - in other words emulating bats - would markedly relieve suffering and save lives," said the researchers.



According to Professor Nold, studying the way bats resist coronaviruses holds substantial promise not only for infections with SARS-CoV-2, but also to better prepare us for the next epidemic or pandemic.



The researchers noted that the common ancestor to the current coronavirus likely appeared in bats between 40 and 70 years ago, but the exact bat species or intermediate host involved in the 2019 outbreak remains elusive.



The study authors propose that some of the ways bats appear to resist COVID could be used in therapeutics to modify the human immune response to the virus, such as blocking inflammasomes in patients. Professor Nold said this could minimize the excessive inflammation, immune exhaustion, and the cytokine storms that are experienced in humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciimmunol">Science Immunology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do bats resist COVID-19 infection?

A team of experts at Monash University is investigating the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...