Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



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How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp; In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp; Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata)...

A,Shaggy,Woolly,Mammoth,Stands,In,The,Long,Grass,Of

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from the Klondike region of the central Yukon territory’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-melting-may-release-nuclear-waste-into-the-atmosphere/">permafrost</a>, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca/">McMaster University</a> in Canada has found that ancestral species such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammoths-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change-not-humans/">mammoths</a> or wild horses survived thousands of years longer than initially estimated.



The scientists used DNA capture-enrichment technology to isolate and rebuild in great detail the fluctuating animal and plant communities at different time points during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, an unstable climatic period 11,000 to 14,000 years ago when various species such as mammoths, mastodons, or sabre-toothed cats went extinct.



By analyzing tiny soil samples collected from Canada’s permafrost and containing billions of microscopic genomic sequences from animal and plant species, the researchers managed to shed more light on the status of ancient ecosystems at different historical periods.&nbsp;



They found that although mammoths and horses were already in steep decline before the period of climatic instability marking the passage from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, they did not immediately disappear due to human overhunting as it was initially believed. In fact, the DNA evidence shows that the wooly mammoth and the North American wild horse persisted until about 5,000 years ago – well into the mid-Holocene period.



“The rich data provides a unique window into the population dynamics of megafuana and nuances the discussion around their extinction through more subtle reconstructions of past ecosystems,” said study lead author Hendrik Poinar, an evolutionary geneticist and director of the <a href="https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/mcmaster-ancient-dna-centre">McMaster Ancient DNA Centre</a>.



The genetic analyses that the research team performed have also shown a strong continuity between the genomic structures of ancient and contemporary horses. “Although mammoths are gone forever, horses are not,” said study co-author Ross MacPhee, a senior curator at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“The horse that lived in the Yukon 5,000 years ago is directly related to the horse species we have today,&nbsp;Equus caballus. Biologically, this makes the horse a native North American mammal, and it should be treated as such.”



The researchers stress the need to collect and archive more permafrost samples, which are at risk of being lost forever due to global warming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient mammoths survived longer than initially thought

By investigating ancient DNA found in soil samples pulled from...

Last year, COVID-19 restrictions drove a 5.6 percent decrease in fossil fuel consumption. Despite this, the average growth in carbon emissions were higher than average over the last decade.&nbsp;



Greenhouse gases, including CO2, have reached record highs across the globe. To address this problem, scientists have long been developing ways to capture carbon from the atmosphere. Some of these methods have required large amounts of energy or indeed create carbon themselves, making them impractical.&nbsp;



Now, a study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/green-energy-and-environment">Green Energy &amp; Environment</a> has demonstrated a simple new method for carbon capture developed by scientists at China’s Renmin University. The CO2 capture system uses modified sawdust as a CO2 absorbent powered only by sunlight.&nbsp;



“While a large number of high-performing CO2 absorbents have been developed in recent decades, people rarely pay attention to the carbon emitted by the adsorbent during its preparation," said study co-author Professor Yapei Wang.&nbsp;



"Moreover, typical&nbsp; industrial CO2 capture systems show high-energy consumption during the absorber regeneration process. To solve these issues, we focused on a solution that not only fabricates low-energy consumption CO2 absorbents, it also uses sunlight as the single energy input to regenerate those absorbents.”



An important aspect of this method is that it’s also reversible. This means that carbon captured using the system could then be used to create other fuel products such as ethanol, methanol and methane. We can imagine this as a way of recycling fuel carbon emissions.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the carbon capture system is quite simple and requires little energy input. Sawdust is soaked in a solution of amine based polymer. The sawdust is energized to absorb carbon with sunlight reflectors.&nbsp;



Study lead author Shiming Zhang said the team was inspired by solar water heaters. "Using sunlight as an energy input minimizes the need for traditional energy and is more environmentally-friendly.”



"In summary, a non-fossil energy-consuming method possessing advantages of high scalability and elegant simplicity was exploited to prepare CO2 absorbents with the ability of reversible CO2 capturing and releasing," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



"Serving as the supporting matrix, sawdust as a byproduct during the lumbering has been recognized as particularly new in the success of accommodating PEI polymers."&nbsp;



"The whole preparation process did not involve aggressive solvents or lengthy laboratory synthesis, affording great promise for the inexpensive and quick preparation of CO2 capture systems."



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sawdust shows great potential for capturing carbon

Last year, COVID-19 restrictions drove a 5.6 percent decrease in...

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the likelihood increases that it will escape the neutralizing effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">vaccines</a> and other forms of treatment that have been developed to date. In response to this, scientists are intensifying their search for more powerful therapeutic solutions.



In a recent study, Rockefeller scientists&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/896-michael-p-rout/">Michael P. Rout</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/902-brian-t-chait/">Brian T. Chait</a>&nbsp;and their colleagues at the Seattle Children’s Research Institute tested the effectiveness of a range of over one hundred nanobodies that target different parts of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nanobodies are like small antibodies that bind only to a specific section (domain) of an antigen such as the spike protein. They are found in members of the camel family, including llamas, alpacas and camels.



When llamas are immunized with small doses of coronavirus proteins their immune response is similar to that of humans after being vaccinated. However, instead of producing large, chunky antibodies as humans do, they produce small antibodies that bind to specific regions of the antigen only. These antigen-binding fragments are known as nanobodies.&nbsp;



The researchers collected blood samples from llamas that had been immunized and they identified a range of different nanobodies. They then located the genes in the llama’s genome that were responsible for coding these small antibody molecules and introduced the genetic information into bacterial chromosomes. The genetically modified bacteria were then cultured in the lab and produced large amounts of the nanobodies that could be used in analysis and testing.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests were done to find out which of the different nanobodies were most successful in neutralizing coronavirus particles. Some of the nanobodies targeted the region of the spike protein that attaches to receptors on human cells. This region is key to infection because, once the spike protein attaches to the host cell receptor, viral and host cell membranes fuse and the virus can enter into the host’s cell. Other nanobodies under investigation targeted different regions of the spike protein.



The results showed that several of&nbsp;the nanobodies were highly effective in neutralizing the original coronavirus, as well as its Delta, Beta and Gamma variants.&nbsp; The small size of nanobodies allows them to access hard-to-reach spots on the SARS-CoV-2 virus that larger antibodies may be unable to access. Furthermore, the research showed that up to three different nanobodies could bind to the same small region of the spike protein at the same time, increasing the chances of neutralizing the virus.&nbsp;



The researchers also found that different nanobodies were even more effective when combined. They suggested that this enhanced effect was due to the action of hitting different parts of the virus at the same time, thereby minimizing its chance of escaping neutralization.&nbsp;



“One of the most amazing things we observed with the nanobodies is that they show extraordinary synergy,” Chait says. “The combined effect is much greater than the sum of its parts.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists hope to develop cocktails of nanobodies that target different regions of the virus at the same time, reducing the chance that the virus can escape detection and neutralization. New studies are even underway to test the effectiveness of this technology on the Omicron variant.&nbsp;



Nanobodies are small and nimble, able to squeeze into hard-to-access folds of the viral spike protein. They are also inexpensive to mass-produce&nbsp;using genetically modified yeast or bacteria. This property, along with the fact that they are remarkably stable even in high temperatures and during long periods of storage, means that nanobodies could be developed into a drug suitable for use in different settings all over the world. This is particularly urgent in many developing countries where citizens still await access to vaccines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Llama antibodies have potential to treat coronavirus variants

As the latest coronavirus undergoes successive rounds of mutations, the...

New research from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has found that face mask litter has increased by 9,000 percent from March to October 2020. By identifying direct links between national legislations and the occurrence of discarded waste, including face masks and other protective equipment, this study highlights the environmental impact of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">COVID-19</a> pandemic and urges governments to put in place policies and legislation for the disposal of littered masks when making the wearing of them mandatory.&nbsp;



&nbsp;“The negative impacts of COVID-19 on our daily lives are well known. In April 2020, it was beginning to appear that there were some small positives in the decrease in human activity caused by lockdown, with improvements in air quality and water quality. Reduced human activity also saw reports of animals coming back to towns and cities,” said study lead author Dr. Keiron Roberts, a lecturer in Sustainability and the Built Environment at the University of Portsmouth.



“At the same time, reports of masks and gloves appearing on beaches and streets, where they hadn’t been before, started to emerge. As COVID-19 spread, so did the news reports of this new type of litter. National lockdowns made it incredibly difficult to go out and visit these places to gather evidence of what were anecdotal accounts.”



Using information from online databases such as the&nbsp; <a href="https://www.bsg.ox.ac.uk/research/research-projects/covid-19-government-response-tracker">COVID-19 Government Response Tracker</a> and a litter collection app called <a href="https://litterati.org/">Litterati</a>, Dr. Roberts and his colleagues have found that over two million pieces of COVID-related litter were collected across 11 countries during the first six months of the pandemic.



“Overall the study shows the impact that legislating the use of items such as masks can have on their occurrence as litter. We found that littered masks had an exponential increase from March 2020, resulting in an 84-fold increase by October 2020. There is a clear need to ensure that requiring the use of these items is accompanied with education campaigns to limit their release into the environment,” said Dr. Roberts.



According to the researchers, mask littering has short, medium, and long-term impacts. While in the short term, they can act as potential viral vectors, and cause blockages if they enter sewers, and in the medium-term they can affect animals that might eat them, in the long-term, littered items can eventually become <a href="https://www.newsbreak.com/news/2412700467748/microplastics-discovered-in-the-blood-of-livestock">microplastics</a> and potentially enter the food chain.



“As nations use masks to support social interactions, they need to support the safe disposal of this litter, and while they are at it, all other litter too,” Dr. Roberts concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00824-1">Nature Sustainability</a>. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Face mask litter jumped by 9,000% from March to October 2020

New research from the University of Portsmouth has found that...

Complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-develop-larger-sex-organs-when-co2-levels-are-high/">organs</a> in our own bodies are composed of numerous different types of cells and tissues, all working together cooperatively to achieve a particular function. For example, a heart contains muscle tissue, valves, ligaments and nerves, all of which act to pump blood efficiently. The question is, how did these different types of tissues originally come together to work as an organ?



This question has puzzled evolutionary biologists for decades. Now it seems that new research on a species of rove beetle may be able to cast some light on the issue. Published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>, the research shows how two different types of cells form a specialized gland in the beetle’s abdomen, with the function of making and secreting noxious chemicals for defense.&nbsp;



Rove beetles live in the leaf litter and soil of ecosystems all over the world and use cocktails of unpleasant chemical substances to keep would-be predators at bay. The beetles smear themselves and other, threatening insects, with the secreted compounds, which have the effect of triggering pain receptors in the recipient. In this way, some species of rove beetles are even able to live inside ant colonies without suffering any negative consequences.



“These beetles are fantastic models for understanding how new kinds of ecological relationships emerge during evolution, through changes at the molecular, cellular, and behavioral levels,” says senior author Joseph Parker of the California Institute of Technology.&nbsp;



“As part of this question, we’re very interested in how rove beetles have pieced together these glandular structures in their abdomens, which are made of different cell types that work together. These structures are the embodiment of a major conundrum: how complex organs evolve that are often composed of many different cell types that appear to seamlessly cooperate with each other. How this cooperativity emerges during evolution is challenging to explain.”



Parker and his colleagues focused their research on Dalotia coriaria, a species of rove beetle that synthesizes and releases a defensive chemical from tergal glands in its abdomen. The substance is composed of two different types of compounds: benzoquinones, which are highly toxic solids, and solvents that consist of a blend of an alkane and esters. The solvents, on their own, are harmless, but when they dissolve the benzoquinones, they turn the resultant cocktail into a serious weapon.



Each tergal gland contains two types of cells engaged in synthesizing the different compounds to be used in defense. “One cell type makes the benzoquinones and the other makes the solvents,” Parker explains. “Both are needed to create a functional secretion that confers adaptive value.”



In the study, the investigators used single-cell transcriptomics to uncover novel enzyme pathways that are used in the creation of these substances in each cell type. They then used these findings to dig deeper, exploring how each cell type’s pathway was constructed from pre-existing components that functioned in other, more ancient cell types, elsewhere in the beetle.&nbsp;



“We were able to discover the biosynthetic pathways in each cell type and could then ask how these pathways were stitched together during evolution,” noted Parker.&nbsp;



Interestingly, one of the cell types – the solvent cells that make the alkane and esters – was found to be a hybrid of cuticle cells and other ancient metabolic cells used originally to make pheromones and to produce and store fats. The solvent cells now carry out their function using a mixture of enzymes from each of the ancient parental cell types.&nbsp;



“The beetle has recruited a major gene expression program from these ancient metabolic cell types and installed it into a patch of cuticle, creating a gland,” said Parker.



Further experimental work with the beetles showed that, when the metabolic pathway for the production of either the solvent or the benzoquinones was rendered non-functional (by genetic knockdown), the beetles lost their defensive capabilities.&nbsp;



Since both pathways are needed for the beetles’ chemical defense system, they would both have been under the influence of natural selection during the beetles’ evolutionary history. Thus, the researchers propose that the evolution of each cell type was shaped by coevolution between the two cell types.&nbsp;



“The solvent cells created a niche for a second cell type to produce the solid benzoquinones, which could dissolve in the alkane and esters. A highly toxic secretion emerged that massively raised the gland’s adaptive value, locking the two cell types into a unit where they cooperate. In essence, a new organ emerged,” said Parker.



According to the researchers, their findings illustrate how cooperation between cell types arises, generating new, organ-level behaviors. This new understanding has implications for mapping out the evolution of more sophisticated organs found across the animal kingdom, including in humans.



“Across the animal tree of life, you see complex multicellular organs that are composed of many different cell types functioning collectively,” said Parker. “Think of something like the mammalian eye, which has about 70 different cell types all functioning together to enable our visual system. The scenario we find playing out in the tergal gland – an organ made of only two cell types – you can imagine could go through further rounds as cell types create niches for new ones to be added, eventually generating really elaborate, multicellular complexity.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beetle glands help explain how complex organs evolved

Complex organs in our own bodies are composed of numerous...

<a href="https://medicago.com/en/">Medicago</a>, a Canadian biotech company, has recently reported positive results from a large, late-stage clinical trial study of its new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-increases-heart-inflammation-risk-in-young-athletes/">COVID-19</a> vaccine, which they developed in collaboration with the pharmaceutical company <a href="https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/home/">GlaxoSmithKline</a> (GSK). 



The phase three clinical trials showed a 75.3 percent efficacy against the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/delta-variants-could-further-prolong-the-covid-pandemic/">Delta</a> variant, with the vaccine’s overall efficacy rate against all variants (besides <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">Omicron</a>) being approximately 71 percent. What makes this vaccine unusual is that its key ingredient is grown in plants.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"These are encouraging results given data were obtained in an environment with no ancestral virus circulating. The global COVID-19 pandemic is continuing to show new facets with the current dominance of the Delta variant, upcoming Omicron, and other variants likely to follow," said GSK Chief Global Health Officer Thomas Breuer.



Medicago has already developed an experimental flu vaccine grown&nbsp;in&nbsp;<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18616398/">Nicotiana benthamian</a>,&nbsp;a plant related to tobacco. When the COVID-19 pandemic struck, they decided to use similar technology to produce a vaccine against the coronavirus. The vaccine uses virus-like particles to mimic the structure of the coronavirus, without actually containing genetic material from the real virus.



In March 2021, the company started the late-stage clinical trials, with over 24,000 participants aged 18 or above from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentine. The results were highly promising. "We had about 74%-78% efficacy to prevent moderate and severe disease," reported Medicago medical officer&nbsp;Brian Ward. When taking into account milder cases too, the vaccine had a slightly lower efficacy, close to 70 percent.



In terms of side effects, Ward said, “pretty much everybody gets a sore arm.” This is probably due to the fact that the vaccine uses an adjuvant produced by GSK in order to rev up the immune response. However, less cases of fever and other side effects were reported than for other types of vaccines. Moreover, another advantage of the new vaccine is that it does not require special freezers to store it, such as Pfizer’s or Moderna’s vaccines.



Medicago plans to ask Canadian regulators to authorize their vaccine as soon as possible. If this application will be successful, they will immediately start distributing the 76 million doses promised to the Canadian government.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant-based COVID vaccine is safe and effective

Medicago, a Canadian biotech company, has recently reported positive results...

In an effort to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-not-keeping-pace-with-climate-change/">climate</a> change, President Joe Biden signed an executive order today that aims to cut the federal government’s carbon emissions by 65 percent over the remainder of this decade. The ultimate goal is for federal operations to become carbon neutral by 2050.



The government’s new climate goals align with the global target of reaching net-zero carbon emissions by mid-century. According to scientists, achieving this target is necessary to give the world a fighting chance at preventing the catastrophic impacts of unabated global warming.



According to a report from <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/">CNBC</a>, the White House will spend its annual allowance of $650 billion to upgrade efficiency at 300,000 government buildings and replace its fleet of 600,000 cars and trucks with electric vehicles.



The executive order also introduced a "buy clean" initiative that directs the government to promote the use of products that are associated with lower greenhouse gas emissions. This is meant to expand the market for American-made sustainable goods with a low carbon footprint.



"By transforming how the federal government builds, buys, and manages its assets and operations, the federal government will support the growth of America's clean energy and clean technology industries," the White House said.&nbsp;



To help reach its goal of becoming carbon neutral, the government has pledged to stop purchasing gas-powered passenger vehicles in the next five years, and plans to purchase only zero-emission vehicles by 2035. The executive order establishes that all buildings owned or leased by the federal government will produce zero carbon emissions by 2045.



According to the Washington Post, the administration’s push for carbon neutrality could have a ripple effect across the country. Duke University Professor Sarah Bloom Raskin said the government is a significant driver of demand that could “send a signal” without even adopting new regulations or passing legislation.



“It doesn’t tell the private sector entities what to do, but to some extent it will demand a certain kind of good and service so companies can shift what’s being made,” said Professor Raskin.



The White House said the executive order will reduce emissions across federal operations, invest in American clean energy industries and manufacturing, and create clean, healthy, and resilient communities.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

U.S. government pledges to be carbon neutral by mid-century

In an effort to address climate change, President Joe Biden...

Humor is a universal human feature that relies on a cognitive process allowing us to perceive things as funny, and then to laugh about them. According to one of the most common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-sleep-reduces-the-risk-of-cognitive-decline/">cognitive</a> theories, humor requires first the introduction and comprehension of something that goes against expectations, and then the resolution of this incongruity, which is associated with amusement. Different brain regions are involved in the processing of these aspects of humor.



Having a sense of humor is crucial for the social development of children. From humorous encounters they learn playfulness and gain an understanding of the emotional attitudes, expectations and intentions of others. Although many studies have investigated the neural regions involved when adults appreciate humor, very few have examined the neurodevelopment of humor in young children.&nbsp;



In order to appreciate humor, children need to have the ability to comprehend when a situation arises that is contrary to expectations. This implies that they must have a certain level of cognitive development as well as a basic level of moral development in order to identify the incongruous situation. We all know that young children can find great amusement in funny situations, which indicates that the humor-processing network is already present in early childhood.



In a recent study by Naama Mayseless and Allan Reiss, both from the <a href="https://med.stanford.edu/">Stanford University School of Medicine</a>, the neural basis of humor processing was investigated in 35 children between the ages of six and eight years. The children watched samples of funny and neutral video clips while undergoing functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). This is a method that is noninvasive and does not require participants to keep still, making it a useful technology when monitoring brain activity in children and infants in naturalistic settings.&nbsp;



The children were given the task of watching 32 short video clips chosen in random sequence from two categories: either funny (16 clips with average duration of 11 ± 2.06 sec) or neutral (16 clips with average duration of 10.18 ± 1.55 sec). After watching each video clip, the children had to choose a “smiley face” if they thought the video was funny, or a “frowny face” if it was not.&nbsp;&nbsp;



While doing the task, each child wore a specially fitted cap with 10–20 optodes, sensors that measure changes in blood oxygenation in the scalp. The optodes were connected to a fNIRS device that interpreted the stimuli in terms of brain activation.



The results, published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS One</a>, showed that when children were watching funny videos, their brain activity increased in several different regions, but specifically in the left temporo-occipito-parietal junction (TOPJ). This is a region of the brain that has been associated with humor appreciation in adults, highlighting the idea that even young children share the same humor-processing network with adults. It is also a region that sits at the intersection between three of the brain’s lobes, and is ideally placed for integrating information from all of them.&nbsp;



The researchers observed that activation in the TOPJ region was positively correlated with age, reflecting the fact that older children have more mature cognitive, linguistic, and social skills that would enable them to process humorous stimuli.&nbsp;



The study also revealed that connectivity between different regions of the brain, as well as within individual regions, was greater when children were watching funny videos. They speculate that appreciating humorous content requires more information processing and brain gymnastics in different regions than processing neutral videos. This coherence effect was more noticeable in boys than in girls.



There are some limitations with the study, not least of which is the fact that fNIRS monitors changes in blood dynamics at the surface of the brain cortex and not in any of the deeper structures. It is also possible that, as the children laughed at the funny videos, the optodes may have moved and changed contact with the scalp, resulting in some confounding effects.&nbsp;



"While the current work expands our understanding on the neurodevelopment of humor as a crucial part of heathy development, we encourage future work to further characterize how and why children vary in their ability to comprehend and appreciate humorous content," wrote the study authors.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young children appreciate humor in the same brain region as adults

Humor is a universal human feature that relies on a...

With a wingspan of almost 40 feet, the giant pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus is the largest known flying animal. However, since only a few fossilized bones were discovered in West Texas in 1971, how such a massive creature managed to fly has remained a mystery. A new research <a href="https://utexas.box.com/s/xuynecqota9hs9ft7o2kaxajk3j0uflr">collection</a> published by the <a href="https://vertpaleo.org/">Society of Vertebrate Paleontology</a> provides the most comprehensive study of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">dinosaur</a> species yet, shedding new light on its habitat, morphology, and behavior.



“This is the first time that we have had any kind of comprehensive study,” said co-editor of the collection Matthew Brown, the director of the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a>’s <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu/vpl/">Vertebrate Paleontology Collections</a>. “Even though&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;has been known for 50 years, it has been poorly known.”&nbsp;



The in-depth study of all confirmed and suspected&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;bones led to the identification of two new pterosaur species, including a smaller one, with an 18-to-20-foot wingspan, which was named Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;lawsoni, in the honor of Douglas Lawson, the geologist who discovered the bones in 1971.



While the larger species is known from only around a dozen bones, hundreds of fossils from the smaller species were discovered. This offered the scientists the possibility to reconstruct an almost complete skeleton and study the ways in which it moved and flew. Later on, they applied their insights to its larger cousin too.&nbsp;



“Pterosaurs have huge breast bones, which is where the flight muscles attach, so there is no doubt that they were terrific flyers," said collection co-editor Kevin Padian, an emeritus professor and emeritus curator at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>.&nbsp;



Although scientists previously assumed that the pterosaur rocked forward on its wingtips like a vampire bat, or built up speed by running and flapping like an albatross, these new analyses suggest that it may have initially jumped at least eight feet into the air before lifting off by flipping its wings.



The researchers also found more details about these dinosaurs’ possible habitats and behaviors. While the larger&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus&nbsp;might have lived like today’s herons, hunting alone in rivers and streams, the smaller species appeared to flock together in lakes with at least 30 individuals found at a single fossil site.



“Never before has so much detailed information on azhdarchids (the pterosaur family that includes&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus) been gathered in the same place, this meaning that the work will serve as the standard go-to study of this group for years – probably decades – to come,” concluded vertebrate paleontologist Darren Naish.



Image Credit: James Kuether



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The world’s largest flying dinosaur jumped before takeoff

With a wingspan of almost 40 feet, the giant pterosaur...

Thousands of square meters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/">corals</a> are currently being grown on previously destroyed coral reefs in central Indonesia. Until recently, it has not been clear whether these new corals can revive the local reef ecosystem. 



However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has identified a diverse soundscape emerging from these restored coral reefs. According to the scientists, this rich array of whoops, croaks, raspberries, foghorns, and growls, are clear signs that the ecosystem is recovering.&nbsp;



"Restoration projects can be successful at growing coral, but that’s only part of the ecosystem," said study lead author Dr. Tim Lamont, a researcher at the University of Exeter and the&nbsp;<a href="http://www.buildingcoral.com/">Mars Coral Reef Restoration Project</a>. “This study provides exciting evidence that restoration really works for the other reef creatures too – by listening to the reefs, we’ve documented the return of a diverse range of animals."&nbsp;



The scientists used acoustic recordings taken in 2018 and 2019 as part of the monitoring program for the restoration of central Indonesia’s coral reefs, which involved the use of hexagonal metal frames called “Reef Stars” that were seeded with coral and laid over a large area in order to stabilize loose rubble and initiate rapid coral growth.



"We have been restoring and monitoring these reefs here in Indonesia for many years. Now it is amazing to see more and more evidence that our work is helping the reefs come back to life," said study co-author Mochyudho Prasetya, a researcher in the Mars Coral Reef Restoration Project.&nbsp;



“When the soundscape comes back like this, the reef has a better chance of becoming self-sustaining because those sounds attract more animals that maintain and diversify reef populations," explained study co-author Professor David Smith, a marine scientist at the University of Exeter.



However, there are multiple threats that coral reefs are currently facing all over the world, including climate change and water pollution, which must be urgently addressed in order to offer long-term protection to these vital ecosystems.



"Our study shows that reef restoration can really work, but it's only part of a solution that must also include rapid action on climate change and other threats to reefs worldwide," Dr. Lamont concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14089">Journal of Applied Ecology.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish songs are proof of coral restoration success

Thousands of square meters of corals are currently being grown...

Neuroscientists control signal transmissions and reception in an attempt at better understanding the function of the brain. Neurotransmitters released by vesicles through exocytosis mediate communication between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-the-resting-brain-consume-so-much-energy/">neurons</a> and glial cells. Because of this, it may be possible to control brain circuits by regulating exocytosis and thus gain a deeper understanding of brain function.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Despite the potential, actually controlling brain function in practice has been challenging for scientists. An indirect approach is controlling the membrane potential of cells. Unfortunately, controlling the membrane potential necessitates changing the acidity of the surrounding environment or possibly causing neurons to misfire. This method is also not useful for cells which don’t respond to membrane potential changes, including glial cells.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



To overcome this problem, a team of South Korean scientists led by C. Justin Lee, director of the Center for Cognition and Sociality within the Institute for Basic Science (IBS), and Professor Heo Won Do at Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) developed Opto-vTrap. The technology uses a system controlled by light to inhibit and trap vesicles from being released from brain cells.&nbsp;



The system can be used for differing types of brain cells, including those that are not sensitive to membrane potential changes, such as glial cells. Most importantly of all, the inhibition caused by the system is temporary, which is very important for neuroscience research.



"Since Opto-vTrap can be used in various cell types, it is expected to be helpful in various fields of brain science research," said Professor Heo. "We plan to conduct a study to figure out the spatiotemporal brain functions in various brain cell types in a specific environment using Opto-vTrap technology.”



Lee explained how this research may be used to improve human lives and research medical disorders.



“The usability of Opto-vTrap can extend not only to neuroscience but also to our lives. Opto-vTrap will contribute not only to elucidate brain circuit mapping but also epilepsy treatment, muscle spasm treatment, and skin tissue expansion technologies.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/home">Neuron</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can scientists control the brain with light?

Neuroscientists control signal transmissions and reception in an attempt at...

A daily dose of yogurt can help lower blood pressure, particularly among individuals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-pollution-exposure-linked-to-hypertension/">hypertension</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a>. 



More than one billion people suffer from hypertension, or high blood pressure. These individuals have a greater risk of heart attack, stroke, and cardiovascular diseases, which are the leading cause of death worldwide. Every 36 seconds, someone in the United States dies from cardiovascular disease.



Yogurt is known to improve digestive health, boost the immune system, and help with weight management. The current study explores the health benefits of yogurt specifically for individuals at a high risk of cardiovascular disease.



"Associations between fermented dairy products and blood pressure are unclear. The current study therefore examined the association between yogurt and blood pressure in hypertensive and non-hypertensive individuals," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



In collaboration with experts at the University of Maine, the researchers investigated the relationship between yogurt intake, blood pressure and cardiovascular risk factors. They found that for individuals with hypertension, yogurt is associated with lower blood pressure.



Study co-author Dr. Alexandra Wade said the research provides new evidence that connects yogurt with positive blood pressure outcomes for hypertensive people.



“High blood pressure is the number one risk factor for cardiovascular disease, so it’s important that we continue to find ways to reduce and regulate it,” explained Dr. Wade.



“Dairy foods, especially yogurt, may be capable of reducing blood pressure. This is because dairy foods contain a range of micronutrients, including calcium, magnesium and potassium, all of which are involved in the regulation of blood pressure."



“Yogurt is especially interesting because it also contains bacteria that promote the release of proteins which lowers blood pressure."



“This study showed for people with elevated blood pressure, even small amounts of yogurt were associated with lower blood pressure."



“And for those who consumed yogurt regularly, the results were even stronger, with blood pressure readings nearly seven points lower than those who did not consume yogurt.”



According to the researchers, future observational and intervention studies should continue to focus on at-risk individuals to examine the potential benefits of yogurt.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-dairy-journal">International Dairy Journal</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Yogurt is a powerful weapon against high blood pressure

A daily dose of yogurt can help lower blood pressure,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...