Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



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How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp; In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp; Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata)...

Ultra-processed foods are those that have been chemically or physically altered during production, usually using industrial processes. However, say the authors of a recent article published in the <a href="https://gh.bmj.com/">BMJ Global Health</a>, these are not really foods and they deserve to be identified with a specific label warning the public of the dangers associated with consumption.



These foods can be recognized on the shelves because they are marketed as ready-to-eat, contain more than five ingredients and have a long shelf-life. Many are also high in salt, added <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-some-greenlanders-eating-sugar-has-health-benefits/">sugar</a>, and saturated fats. They are foods that cannot be made in the home kitchen because they have been transformed during the manufacturing process and by the addition of various flavorants, emulsifiers, colorants and preservatives.&nbsp;



“The industrial processing, as well as the cocktail of additives, flavors, emulsifiers and colors they contain to give flavor and texture, make the final product hyperpalatable or more appealing and potentially addictive, which in turn leads to poor dietary patterns,” explain the study authors from the global health organization, Vital Strategies.



Many consumers are unaware of the dangers of eating ultra-processed foods, which have been associated with negative health consequences, such as a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke, depression and death. And with more than half the total calories consumed in high income countries coming from ultra-processed foods, the authors predict a health crisis unless more aggressive advertising and awareness campaigns are instituted by public health authorities.



The experts state that these foods are “among the most aggressively promoted and marketed products in the world,” with rapidly growing sales in low- and middle-income countries as well.&nbsp;This means that billions of people are likely to be at risk of developing serious health issues unless action is taken to educate and inform the public.&nbsp;



Research conducted by the authors in Colombia and Brazil&nbsp;indicates that while people might recognize that these products are harmful, they also associate them with positive outcomes, such as satisfying cravings, being tasty and bringing joy. The authors suggest that this may be the result of “decades of persuasive marketing by the food industry.”&nbsp;



They call for governments and public health organizations to respond with education and advertising programs that directly link these products to serious ill health. Just as labels on the front of tobacco products warn smokers of potential health risks, labels on ultra-processed foods would go a long way in informing consumers of the risks they take by using these products.&nbsp;



“It’s time to invest in establishing the negative brand identity that ultra-processed foods and beverages deserve. We could start by taking lessons learnt from tobacco control to build public awareness and campaigns that reveal the true nature of these products and the looming threat to consumers’ health,” they write.



The success of tobacco control offers a useful lesson in how to tackle this major health threat, they say. It’s a shining example of “huge policy wins and strong public understanding of the consequences of consuming a dangerous product,” they explain.&nbsp;“Much of this success is a result of using tried and tested marketing techniques, coupled with a faithful adherence to the science of tobacco’s harms.”&nbsp;



The authors conclude: “If we are to stave off the devastation to our food system and our health, governments, with the support of the global public health community, need to urgently implement effective strategies that lead to decreasing consumption of these unhealthy products and enable healthier choices.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Action needed to expose the dangers of ultra-processed foods

Ultra-processed foods are those that have been chemically or physically...

The critical importance of protecting and restoring tropical ecosystems was a major focus of the recent UN Climate Change Conference (COP26). In order to makes positive strides in the right direction, however, scientists must first gain a better understanding of how much carbon dioxide is actually released during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-rainforest-hits-new-records/">deforestation</a>, and how much is absorbed as forests recover.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI) is shedding new light on this complex subject. The research was based on measurements of forest carbon storage in Panama.



Ultimately, the results of the study will reduce the uncertainty of mathematical models that are used to predict the extent of carbon dioxide emissions associated with deforestation. According to the researchers, their work also highlights the amazing capacity of young, regenerating or secondary forests to pull CO2 from the atmosphere.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"In 2014, the government of Panama created the “Alianza por el Millón” (Alliance for a Million), a government partnership bringing together business, non-governmental organizations, educational institutions and other organizations to reforest one million hectares," wrote the study authors.



"These efforts are advancing in recognition that vast areas of the world could be reforested, thereby making significant inroads to combating climate change."



The study analyzed the outcomes of various deforestation scenarios based on: recent deforestation trends, rates of deforestation calculated in the decades prior to 2000, and more optimistic scenarios in which deforestation is completely stopped or where forests regenerate on all available land.



“Panama has been making strides to calculate both the carbon sequestration potential in its forests and emissions due to forest loss,” said study lead author and STRI staff scientist Jefferson Hall. “Scenarios can help decision makers better anticipate the potential consequences of alternative sets of land-use decisions, which have a significant impact on Panama’s climate mitigation strategy.”



The experts calculated deforestation rates based on maps of existing forest cover in Panama that were created by study co-author Kendra Walker.&nbsp;



The research team, which included scientists from the Harvard Forest, also used a Panama-wide carbon density map that was produced using the airborne laser technology LiDAR.



The study showed that at the current rate of deforestation, central Panama could still store about 15 percent of the national carbon goals by 2050. In a scenario where deforestation was completely stopped in central Panama and the forest could naturally regenerate, the country could achieve up to 56 percent of its goal.



By contrast, an accelerated rate of deforestation would cause Panama to lose almost half of its forests and up to 25 percent of its carbon baseline by the middle of the century.



According to the experts, meeting Panama’s carbon sequestration goals will require a combination of active reforestation and allowing passive natural processes of forest succession to take place.&nbsp;



“Our estimates of potential carbon storage demonstrate the important contribution of secondary forests to land-based carbon storage in central Panama,” said Hall. “Protecting these forests will contribute significantly to meeting Panama’s climate change mitigation goals and enhancing water security.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10980">Landscape Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical forests are critical for reaching climate goals

The critical importance of protecting and restoring tropical ecosystems was...

Venus is sometimes referred to as Earth’s sister <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dozens-of-free-floating-planets-found-in-the-milky-way/">planet</a> because of its similar mass and size, and scientists have speculated for decades about the potential presence of life on the planet. Local and remote observations of the physical and chemical attributes of the planet over the past 50 years have led to greater knowledge but have also identified anomalies that perplex scientists to this day.&nbsp;



Unlike many planets, Venus has an atmosphere. However, this is composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) and the greenhouse effect of this gas leads to extremely high temperatures on the planet. The surface of Venus is approximately 700 K, which is way too hot to allow any life to exist there.&nbsp;



Instead, scientists speculate that life may be able to exist at the Earth-like temperatures and pressures found in the clouds at altitudes of 48–60 km above the surface. Although these temperatures and pressures sound habitable for life forms, the prevailing consensus is that the clouds of Venus are made from droplets of concentrated sulfuric acid, which would make them totally inhospitable.&nbsp;



However, in a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/">Cardiff University</a> proposes that the clouds at these altitudes around Venus are not made entirely of sulfuric acid. Instead, their model suggests that the cloud droplets contain ammonium salts which may be the result of the biological production of ammonia gas (NH3).



Scientists have long been puzzled by the presence of NH3 in the atmosphere of Venus; this is a gas that was tentatively detected in the 1970s and that by all accounts should not be produced through any chemical process known on Venus. The scientists were guided by the in-situ observations of NH3 in the Venus cloud layers, both from Venera 8 chemical assay and from the Pioneer Venus probe mass spectrometry.&nbsp;



The new model suggests that, if NH3 is present and forms ammonia salts within cloud droplets, it would have the effect of reducing the acidity of these droplets from a pH of -11 to a pH of between -1 and 1. This would be in the range that is tolerable to acidophile bacteria in certain environments on Earth. Furthermore, there are lifeforms on Earth that produce ammonia in order to neutralize and make livable otherwise highly acidic environments.



“We know that life can grow in acid environments on Earth, but nothing as acid as the clouds of Venus were believed to be. But if something is making ammonia in the clouds, then that will neutralize some of the droplets, making them potentially more habitable,” said study co-author Dr. William Bains from Cardiff University’s School of Physics and Astronomy.



This suggestion also helps to explain several long-standing mysterious features of the Venusian atmosphere, which have not been well explained by previous atmospheric chemistry models. For example, there is a uniform distribution of water vapor through the cloud layers, while the concentration of sulfur dioxide decreases as altitude increases. Unidentified large particles or unknown origin are present in the lower cloud layers. Another mystery is the presence of oxygen (O2) in the clouds – there is no known process for O2 formation in the cloud layers.



The scientists modeled the series of chemical processes that could take place in the clouds if NH3 gas were present and found that O2 would be produced naturally as a consequence of these reactions. Furthermore, once present in the clouds, NH3 would dissolve in the sulfuric acid in the cloud droplets, effectively neutralizing the acid and making them more habitable to living organisms.&nbsp;



The introduction of ammonia into the droplets would transform their formerly round, liquid shape into more of a non-spherical, salt-like slurry. Once ammonia dissolved in sulfuric acid, the reaction would trigger any surrounding sulfur dioxide to dissolve as well, which may explain the change in concentration gradient of sulfur dioxide in the Venusian atmosphere.



The new model involving the presence of ammonia gas would thus explain most of the major anomalies seen in Venus’ clouds.&nbsp;



But what is the origin of this ammonia gas? The researchers show that sources such as lightning, volcanic eruptions, and even a meteorite strike could not produce the amount of ammonia required to explain the anomalies. They therefore conclude that it might be produced by living organisms that are present in the outer clouds and that make the cloud droplets more habitable for themselves by producing ammonia.



“Ammonia shouldn’t be on Venus,” said study co-author Professor Sara Seager, from MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS). “It has hydrogen attached to it, and there’s very little hydrogen around. Any gas that doesn’t belong in the context of its environment is automatically suspicious for being made by life.”



“There are many other challenges for life to overcome if it is to live in the clouds of Venus,” said Dr. Bains. “There is almost no water there for a start, and all life that we know of needs water. But if life is there, then neutralizing the acid will make the clouds just a bit more habitable than we thought.”



Scientists may have a chance to check for the presence of ammonia, and signs of life, in the next several years with the Venus Life Finder Missions. These privately funded missions, of which Seager is principal investigator, <a href="https://eur03.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2F74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me%2FL0%2Fhttps%3A%252F%252Fnews.mit.edu%252F2021%252Fnewer-nimbler-faster-mission-venus-search-signs-life-clouds-sulfuric-acid-1210%2F1%2F0102017dd80c76b9-f937d43a-d6ae-46b3-9efb-532d338e5b6a-000000%2FiLRK45R4zkCwsT4ILlixp-T5etM%3D249&amp;data=04%7C01%7Cbishopm1%40cardiff.ac.uk%7Cf1bd5d5378b647a28d8b08d9c3bd5f80%7Cbdb74b3095684856bdbf06759778fcbc%7C1%7C0%7C637756041190252802%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C2000&amp;sdata=nIRaMsMSOwZKEmDw2DLNWrI%2BblbgLtfLVs9yxSPJJbs%3D&amp;reserved=0">plan to send spacecraft to Venus</a>&nbsp;to measure its clouds for ammonia and other signatures of life.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Living organisms may be transforming the clouds around Venus

Venus is sometimes referred to as Earth’s sister planet because...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41588-021-00971-3">Nature Genetics</a> has found that lychees have been grown in China since ancient times, with records of their cultivation dating back to 2,000 years ago. In fact, this radiant and flavorful fruit seemed to have been so highly esteemed by ancient Chinese that it was domesticated twice, in two different regions of the country.



Lychee is a tropical agricultural crop in the&nbsp;Sapindaceae family (including also maples and horse chestnuts). It is one of the most widespread fruit crops in Eastern Asia, and is becoming increasingly famous even in the United States, where it is often found as a flavorful ingredient in bubble gum, cocktails, or ice creams.



In this recent study, scientists used genomic analysis to peer deeper into the lychee’s history. “By sequencing and analyzing wild and cultivated lychee varieties, we were able to trace the origin and domestication history of lychee. We demonstrated that extremely early- and late-maturing cultivars were derived from independent human domestication events in Yunnan and Hainan, respectively,” explained study senior author Jianguo Li, a professor at the <a href="https://english.scau.edu.cn/">South China Agricultural University</a>.



The results suggest that wild lychees originated in the Yunnan province of southwestern China, spread east and south to Hainan Island, and then were domesticated independently in each of these two regions. According to the scientists, the evolutionary split between lychee populations in Yunnan and Hainan probably occurred around 18,000 years ago.



Besides shedding new light on the history of lychee plants, the study also provides an in-depth look at flowering time, a crucial trait in agriculture. “Early-maturing lychees versus late-maturing lychees came from different places and were domesticated independently,” said senior co-author Victor Albert, an evolutionary biologist at the <a href="http://www.buffalo.edu/">University of Buffalo</a>. “This, by itself, is an interesting story, but we also wanted to know what causes these differences: Why do these varieties fruit and flower at different times?”



By comparing the DNA of several lychee varieties, Professor Albert and his colleagues have discovered a genetic variant (a chunk of missing DNA) that can now be used to create a simple test for identifying early- versus late-blooming lychee plants. Yunnan varieties that bloom early appear to have this genetic deletion, while Hainan varieties that mature late do not have it at all.&nbsp;



“This is very useful for breeders. Because the lychee is perishable, flowering times have been important to extending the season for which the lychee is available in markets,” Albert concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic testing sheds new light on lychee plants

A new study published in the journal Nature Genetics has...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04241-4">Nature</a> has described kinship practices from the Early Neolithic Britain, as revealed through the analysis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-detect-insect-dna-in-air-samples/">DNA</a> found in one of the best-preserved Neolithic tombs in Britain, located at the Hazleton North long cairn in the Cotswolds-Severn region. This is the first study to explore in such detail how prehistoric families were structured and to provide insight into kinship and burial practices in Neolithic times.



By analyzing DNA extracted from the bones and teeth of 35 individuals entombed at the Hazleton North cairn, scientists found that 27 of them were close biological relatives. The group lived approximately 5,700 years ago, about 100 years after farming practices were introduced in Britain. Most of those buried there were descended from four women who all had children with the same male.&nbsp;



"The excellent DNA preservation at the tomb and the use of the latest technologies in ancient DNA recovery and analysis allowed us to uncover the oldest family tree ever reconstructed and analyze it to understand something profound about the social structure of these ancient groups," said study lead geneticist Iñigo Olalde of the <a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en">University of the Basque Country</a>.



The researchers discovered that men were generally buried together with their father and brothers, indicating that descent was patrilinear. The complete absence of adult daughters from the tomb suggests that they may have been placed in the tombs of male partners with whom they had children.&nbsp;



However, the choice of whether individuals were buried in the northern or southern room of the two-chambered tomb seemed to have initially depended on the first-generation woman from whom they were descended, suggesting that such women were highly significant in the collective memory of this community.



There are also indications that “stepsons” (males whose mother but not biological father was buried in the tomb) were adopted into the lineage. Moreover, since there was no evidence that eight individuals were biological relatives of those in the family tree, biological relativeness may not have been the only criterion for inclusion.



&nbsp;"It was difficult to imagine just a few years ago that we would ever know about Neolithic kinship structures,” said study co-author Ron Pinhasi, an expert in Biological Anthropology at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a>. “But this is just the beginning and no doubt there is a lot more to be discovered from other sites in Britain, Atlantic France, and other regions."



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neolithic tomb reveals ancient burial practices

A new study published in the journal Nature has described...

According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca">McGill University</a> and the <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/neuro/fr">Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital</a> (The Neuro), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/year-three-the-beginning-of-the-end-of-the-pandemic/">pandemic</a>-related worries have a negative impact on cognitive abilities and can significantly alter risk perception, at a time when making the right health choices is critically important.



Researchers surveyed over 1,500 Americans online from April to June, 2020 and asked them to rate their level of worry about the COVID-19 pandemic and, afterwards, to complete a set of psychological tests to measure their basic cognitive abilities, such as processing and remembering information. The results were compared with similar data collected before the pandemic.



The scientists found that participants who experienced more pandemic-related worry had reduced information processing speed and capacity to retain information needed in order to perform specific tasks, as well as lower ability to maintain goals in mind. Overall, they performed more poorly on simple cognitive tasks than participants from the pre-pandemic group.



Furthermore, the study results suggest that pandemic-related worries increased people’s tendency to distort described risk levels, such as underweighting likely probabilities and overweighting unlikely probabilities. Thus, worries can significantly affect people’s decision-making capacity, often causing them to take wrong decisions (such as not to get vaccinated, for instance).



“The basic cognitive abilities measured here are crucial for healthy daily living and decision-making,” explained study lead author Kevin da Silva Castanheira, a graduate student in Psychology at McGill. 



“The impairments associated with worry observed here suggest that under periods of high stress, like a pandemic, our ability to think, plan, an evaluate risks is altered. Understanding these changes are critical as managing stressful situations often relies on these abilities.”&nbsp;



“The impact of stress and of worry on cognitive function are well known, but are typically studied in laboratory settings,” added study co-author Dr. Madeleine Sharp, a researcher and neurologist at The Neuro. 



“Here, we were able to extend these findings by studying the effects of a real-world stressor in a large sample. An important future direction will be to examine why some people are more sensitive than others to stress and to identify coping strategies that help to protect from the effects of stress.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0260061">PLoS One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic-related worries diminish cognitive skills

According to a new study led by McGill University and...

A catastrophic mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-the-largest-animals-to-extinction-for-1-5-million-years/">extinction</a> event could wipe out hundreds of thousands of species within the next decade, according to an alarming new report, the "<a href="https://www.wwf.de/2021/dezember/gewinner-und-verlierer-2021">Winners and Losers of 2021</a>." 



Scientists at <a href="https://www.wwf.de/">WWF Germany</a> warn that many species which are already pushed to the brink of extinction - including polar bears, African forest elephants, and sharks - may soon vanish forever. 



“Around one million species could go extinct within the next decade, which would be the largest mass extinction event since the end of the dinosaur age," the experts said in a statement.



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List currently classifies 142,500 species as being endangered. Overall, about 40,000 of these species are threatened with extinction, which is the largest number on record.&nbsp;



Among the species that may be losing their battle, African forest elephants are now classified as "critically endangered." Their population has declined by more than 86 percent in the last 31 years.&nbsp;



As a result of human development and subsequent habitat loss, more than half of all frog and toad species may vanish across Germany. Worldwide, more than 40 percent of all amphibians are threatened with extinction.



The IUCN Red List also shows that about one-third of all shark and ray species have already disappeared due to climate change, habitat loss, and overfishing. Polar bears are severely threatened with habitat loss, in particular, as sea ice continues to decline in the rapidly warming Arctic.&nbsp;



The "winners" of 2021 include the largest bird of the Alps, the bearded vulture. According to the WWF report, an international resettlement program that was initiated over thirty years ago has boosted the bearded vulture population to over 300 birds throughout the Alpine region.



In Cambodia, the discovery of young Siamese crocodiles was a "real surprise," said the scientists. "In a protected area, young animals of the extremely rare freshwater crocodiles were spotted for the first time in over ten years."



One of the rarest cats in the world, the the Iberian lynx, has also made a comeback. A recent census shows that the population of the Iberian lynx, which is found exclusively in Spain and Portugal, has increased more than ten-fold in the last 18 years to more than 1,000 animals.



"Species protection is no longer just about eliminating an environmental problem, but about the question of whether mankind will someday end up on the red list in a hazard category and become the loser of their own way of life," said Eberhard Brandes, managing director at WWF Germany.&nbsp;



Brandes warns that if the Earth is sick, humans will be sick as well. "Because we depend on vital ecosystems and biodiversity for our own safe and healthy life - for example in the fight against the climate crisis."&nbsp;



"At the same time, the winners of the list show that there are still opportunities for species protection: If we implement effective nature conservation measures, we can protect plants, animals and, ultimately, the climate. "



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

More than one million species could vanish over the next decade

A catastrophic mass extinction event could wipe out hundreds of...

The Quadrantid meteor shower is always the first meteor shower of the new year, and is typically very active. Despite its intensity, however, the event can be difficult to observe. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-composition-of-a-meteorite-can-make-it-more-deadly/">meteor</a> shower lasts only six hours, giving observers a relatively short window to watch.&nbsp;



The Quadrantids are brief because they originate from asteroid 2003 EH1, unlike most meteor showers that originate from comets. Adding to the thinner stream of particles from an asteroid, the shower also hits the earth’s atmosphere at a specific angle.&nbsp;



This year will be a particularly strange one for observing the Quadrantids because of an exceptionally dark night sky but a daytime peak. On January 2, the new moon will be synchronized with the sun, rising and setting at the same time, thus leaving the night sky dark for meteor observations.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, the peak of meteor activity is also during the day time for North Americans. The showers are predicted to peak around 21:00 <a href="https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/universal-time">UTC</a>. Thus, the best time to observe the Quadrantids in North America, is actually during the early morning hours.&nbsp;&nbsp;



People who want to watch the Quadrantids should start in a dark location, as far from light pollution as possible after midnight. This is before the peak but some meteors should be visible. Astronomers report that during its peak, a single observer could expect to see 120 meteors per hour in a dark sky.&nbsp;



Different sources predict the peak for the meteor shower to be overnight on either January 2nd or 3rd - although the showers could possibly be visible from anywhere from December 26 and January 16.&nbsp;



Predictions for meteor showers are like weather predictions, and the shower may actually surprise us. It’s possible that even the peak of the meteor shower will turn out to be visible at night. In past years, some have even seen bits of the Quadrantids in the southern hemisphere. The only way to find out is to get outside and watch the sky.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Quadrantid meteors will put on an early 2022 show

The Quadrantid meteor shower is always the first meteor shower...

The Covid-19 pandemic began in December 2019 in the city of Wuhan, China. From there, it spread quickly all over the world, infecting until now over 287 million people and killing more than 5.43 million. During these two years, the virus suffered numerous mutations, some of them, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/delta-variants-could-further-prolong-the-covid-pandemic/">Delta</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-is-surging-but-may-cause-less-severe-illness/">Omicron</a>, proving to be more transmissible than the wild type that emerged from China.&nbsp;&nbsp;



With the manufacturing and approval of several groundbreaking vaccines at the end of 2020, people hoped that the disease could finally be controlled if not even eradicated. However, due to the slowness of vaccine uptake worldwide, particularly in developing Asian and African countries, new dangerous variants emerged, such as the particularly severe Delta in India in April 2021, and the highly contagious and immunity-evasive Omicron in South Africa in November.&nbsp;



The emergence and rapid spread of such variants shattered hopes of quickly achieving herd immunity and eradicating this disease. Increasingly more specialists argue that we will never be able to be completely rid of SARS-CoV-2 and urge us to learn to live with it instead.



However, Omicron’s advent and fulminant spread may well turn out to be a blessing in disguise. Although countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, or Spain are setting record after record of daily new cases, with infections cropping up in many vaccinated or previously infected people too, hospitalization and death rates appear to be lower than in the case of Delta.&nbsp;



Moreover, South African medical experts claim that their Omicron-fueled wave has already passed, leaving behind significantly lower hospitalizations and casualties. If Omicron turns out to be less virulent, it may quickly bring high levels of herd immunity all over the globe at much lower costs than previous variants did.



According to the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), the “tsunami of cases” brought about by the rise of Omicron could mark <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/12/1108932">the end of the “acute stage”</a> of the pandemic. And while there is a high possibility that SARS-CoV-2 will remain with us forever, the pandemic could soon turn into an endemic, with the coronavirus becoming an ongoing part of the world’s infectious-disease landscape, while causing less severe illness and death. Whether and how soon this will happen is still not clear, and remains dependent upon a variety of factors, including vaccine rollout, the development of new drugs, and the possible emergence of new variants.



“Populism, narrow nationalism and hoarding of health tools, including masks, therapeutics, diagnostics and vaccines, by a small number of countries undermined equity, and created the ideal conditions for the emergence of new variants”, said WHO’s Director-General&nbsp;Tedros Ghebreyesus.&nbsp;“This is the time to rise above short-term nationalism and protect populations and economies against future variants by ending global vaccine inequity,” he urged.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Year three: the beginning of the end of the pandemic?

The Covid-19 pandemic began in December 2019 in the city...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> in Konstanz, Germany has analyzed the interaction between orangutan mothers and their infants in Sumatra, Indonesia. The researchers found that when orangutan mothers are foraging, they tailor their behavior to match the age and capacities of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-abandon-their-offspring-early-but-its-for-their-own-good/">offspring</a>, thereby helping them to learn.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, this study uncovered the first evidence yet of active involvement by orangutan mothers in their offspring’s learning of new skills.



“Immature orangutans acquire their feeding skills over several years, via social and independent learning,” wrote the study authors. “So far, it has remained uninvestigated to what extent orangutan mothers are actively involved in this learning process. We conclude that orangutan mothers have a more active role in the skill acquisition of their offspring than previously thought.”



During their infancy, orangutans must learn to recognize and process over 200 food items, many of which require several steps before they can be eaten. For instance, while most flowers and leaves require no previous processing, bark must be loosened from the trees and scraped with the teeth in order to access its nutritive parts. The most difficult foods, such as honey from bee hives, require even the use of tools such as sticks in order to consume it.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, immature orangutans learn such complex skills by observing their mothers while they are eating.&nbsp;



“It was puzzling that mothers always seemed so passive during these feeding interactions,” said study lead author Dr. Caroline Schuppli, an evolutionary biologist at the Max Plank Institute. “Mothers have so much time with their offspring, and maintain such a close connection, but they never appeared to be actively involved in the skill acquisition of their young.”&nbsp;



However, by analyzing over 1,300 instances of immature orangutan’s food solicitation – asking or trying to obtain food from their mother – Dr. Schuppli and her colleagues have found that orangutan mothers do in fact respond to their offspring during feeding, and therefore facilitate learning opportunities.&nbsp;



When their offspring solicit food, mothers usually adjust their “tolerance” according to their offspring's age and how difficult the food item is to process.



“Our findings suggest that orangutan mothers are actively involved in their offspring's skill learning,” Dr Schuppli said. “However, they do this in a reactive, rather than proactive way.&nbsp;Interestingly, there were very few incidents of active food sharing only.&nbsp;This means that orangutan immatures need to take the initiative during learning.&nbsp;This is very different from humans, where active teaching plays an important role and role models are much more proactive.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02901-z">Nature Scientific Reports.&nbsp;</a>



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young orangutans learn survival skills from their mom

A new study led by the Max Planck Institute of...

Tropical cyclones (TCs), also known as hurricanes and typhoons, generally form at low latitudes and have their impacts in tropical regions to the north and south of the equator. They start as clusters of individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-variability-is-driving-more-intense-thunderstorms/">thunderstorms</a> that rotate weakly around a common axis but transition into a cyclone over weeks, days or even hours. Their formation is associated with the warm waters of tropical oceans, but far enough away from the equator to allow the Earth’s rotation to cause them to spin up into the spiraling vortices so typical of a cyclone.



Once formed, tropical cyclones generally move westward and poleward before they interact with mid-latitude westerly winds, known as jet streams, that circle the planet. But as the climate warms, temperature differences between the equator and the poles will decrease, which may cause weakening or even a split in the jet streams; this may allow conditions to arise in the mid-latitudes where tropical cyclones can form and intensify.&nbsp;



In a review article published recently in the journal Nature Geoscience, a team of scientists led by Joshua Studholme from&nbsp;<a href="https://earth.yale.edu/">Yale’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a> suggests that the 21st&nbsp;century will see an expansion of hurricanes and typhoons into mid-latitude regions, which includes major cities such as New York, Boston, Beijing, and Tokyo. These are some of the most populous cities in the world and tropical cyclones that reach them could cause untold death and damage.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For the study, Studholme and colleagues analyzed numerical simulations of warm climates from Earth’s distant past, recent satellite observations, and a variety of weather and climate projections, as well as the fundamental physics governing atmospheric convection and planetary-scale winds.



They noted that the configuration of the continents during the Eocene epoch (56 to 34 million years ago), along with the warmer climates, extratropical humidity, CO2 concentrations and shifts in the jet streams would have favored poleward expansion of the areas favorable for TC formation. Eocene simulations thus showed that TCs most probably formed in the subtropics (~25° latitude) in both hemispheres, in contrast with the situation in the modern era.



According to the authors, contemporary TC distributions were probably established towards the end of the warm Pliocene epoch, some 3 million years ago. This has remained largely stable since that time but today, as the planet warms due to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, the conditions for a poleward movement of tropical cyclones could once again be established.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This research predicts that the 21st&nbsp;century’s tropical cyclones will likely occur over a wider range of latitudes than has been the case on Earth for the last 3 million years,” Studholme said.



In fact, the 2020 subtropical storm Alpha, the first tropical cyclone observed making landfall in Portugal, as well as this year’s Hurricane Henri, which made landfall in Connecticut, may already provide evidence of the trend predicted in the study.&nbsp;



Although scientists disagree about whether the number of tropical cyclones will increase as the planet warms, evidence certainly suggests that they will become more intense.



“There are large uncertainties in how tropical cyclones will change in the future,” said Alexey Fedorov, a professor of oceanic and atmospheric sciences at Yale. However, multiple lines of evidence indicate that we could see more tropical cyclones in mid-latitudes, even if the total frequency of tropical cyclones does not increase, which is still actively debated. Compounded by the expected increase in average tropical cyclone intensity, this finding implies higher risks due to tropical cyclones in Earth’s warming climate.”



“The core problem when making future hurricane predictions is that models used for climate projections do not have sufficient resolution to simulate realistic tropical cyclones,” explained Studholme. “Instead, several different, indirect approaches are typically used. However, those methods seem to distort the underlying physics of how tropical cyclones form and develop. A number of these methods also provide predictions that contradict each other.”



The new study derives its conclusions by examining connections between hurricane physics on scales too small to be represented in current climate models and the better-simulated dynamics of Earth’s jet streams and north-south air circulation, known as the Hadley cells.



The authors of the review conclude that, since at least the 1970s, the planet’s TC distribution has moved unambiguously poleward, with latitudes of peak TC intensity migrating poleward at a rate of around 0.5° latitude per decade. Should this continue as predicted, these deep-tropical TCs will most certainly become a critical feature of Earth’s climate and a potential source of devastation to human life and property.&nbsp;



“This represents an important, under-estimated risk of climate change,” said Studholme.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warming climate will push hurricanes into more populated regions

Tropical cyclones (TCs), also known as hurricanes and typhoons, generally...

Within only a few weeks from its emergence in the United States, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-is-surging-but-may-cause-less-severe-illness/">Omicron</a> variant has fueled thousands of hospitalizations among children. Experts believe that this surge is mainly caused by the lower vaccination rates in this age category.



Between December 21 and December 27, the seven-day-average number of daily hospitalizations for children is up by 58 percent nationwide, compared to around 19 percent for all age groups. 



According to the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC), fewer than 25 percent of the 74 million Americans under 18 are vaccinated. Moreover, young children have the lowest vaccination rates, with many families hesitating to vaccinate their youngest members.



Although the Pfizer vaccine has been authorized for use in children over five years of age, less than 15 percent of children between five and eleven have been fully vaccinated.



According to scientists, it is still too early to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; determine whether Omicron causes more severe illness in children than previous variants. However, its extremely high transmissibility is an important factor driving up hospitalizations.&nbsp;



"It is going to infect more people and it is infecting more people. We've seen numbers go up, we've seen hospitalizations in kids go up," said Dr. Jennifer Nayak, an infectious disease expert and pediatrician at the <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/">University of Rochester Medical Center.</a>



"What we are seeing is that children under five remain unvaccinated so there's still a relatively large population of children who are naive, so they have no preexisting immunity to this virus.”



"The virus has just been able to outsmart, penetrate beyond, what it is the parents have done to shelter those children," said William Schaffner, a leading infectious disease expert from the <a href="https://medschool.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University School of Medicine</a>.



Unfortunately, many doctors reported more severe symptoms in hospitalized children this month, including high fever, difficulty breathing, and dehydration. 



"They need help breathing, they need help getting oxygen, they need extra hydration. They are sick enough to end up in the hospital, and that's scary for doctors, and it's scary for parents," said Rebecca Madan, a pediatric infectious disease expert at the <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/">New York University's Langone Health</a> hospital system.



Scientists expect the number of cases and hospitalizations to rise even more after the Christmas and New Year’s Eve holiday gatherings, and the return to schools next week.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Omicron leads to rise in children’s hospitalizations

Within only a few weeks from its emergence in the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...