Galaxies come in many shapes and sizes, from massive spiral galaxies like the Milky Way to tiny, faint dwarf galaxies. While larger galaxies often steal the spotlight, small galaxies can also provide crucial insights into the history of the universe.



Researchers led by Kristen McQuinn of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) have used the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to investigate Leo P, an isolated dwarf galaxy located 5.3 million light-years from Earth.



Their study has revealed surprising patterns in star formation that could reshape our understanding of how galaxies evolve over cosmic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leo-p-a-galactic-time-capsule">Leo P: A galactic time capsule</h2>



Leo P is unique among dwarf <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-galaxy-with-quasar-jet-surprises-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. Unlike many of its counterparts, it sits relatively isolated, away from the gravitational influence of larger galaxies like the Milky Way and Andromeda. This makes it a pristine laboratory for studying galaxy evolution without the complications of external interference.



The “P” in Leo P stands for “pristine,” a reference to its low metal content. In astronomy, "metals" refer to elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, which are produced by stars over time.



Leo P contains just&nbsp;3% of the Sun’s heavy elements, making it&nbsp;one of the most metal-poor galaxies known. This means Leo P resembles&nbsp;some of the earliest galaxies that formed in the universe, offering a rare glimpse into what galaxies looked like billions of years ago.



“Leo P provides a unique laboratory to explore the early evolution of a low-mass galaxy in detail,” said McQuinn, who also leads the <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/roman" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a>’s Science Operations Center.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-start-stop-history-of-star-formation">A start-stop history of star formation</h2>



Astronomers have long studied&nbsp;how and when small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> form stars. 



In most cases, dwarf galaxies begin forming stars early in their history. However, many of them stop producing stars after a few billion years - often permanently. The new observations of Leo P challenge that assumption.



Using&nbsp;JWST’s Near-Infrared Camera (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/nircam/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRCam</a>), McQuinn’s team measured the&nbsp;brightness and colors of thousands of individual stars in Leo P. This data allowed them to reconstruct the&nbsp;star formation history&nbsp;of the galaxy in great detail.



They discovered that Leo P formed stars early in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-is-expanding-faster-than-science-can-explain-hubble-tension-physics-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic history</a> but then&nbsp;abruptly stopped forming new stars shortly after a period known as the Epoch of Reionization. 



This was a key phase in the early universe when radiation from the first galaxies ionized the remaining neutral hydrogen gas, ending the universe’s “dark ages.” Many small galaxies&nbsp;lost their ability to form stars during this period and never recovered.



But Leo P was different. After a long dormancy, the galaxy reignited its star formation billions of years later - something rarely seen in other dwarf galaxies.



“We have a measurement like this for only three other galaxies that are all isolated from the Milky Way, and they all show a similar pattern,”&nbsp;McQuinn explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-leo-p-different">What makes Leo P different? </h2>



This discovery challenges long-held assumptions about why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-the-violent-history-of-our-closest-cosmic-neighbor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> stop forming stars while others continue. 



For years, astronomers believed that a galaxy’s&nbsp;mass&nbsp;played the biggest role in whether it could sustain star formation.&nbsp;Smaller galaxies were thought to be more vulnerable to cosmic events like reionization, which stripped them of their gas and halted star formation.



However, Leo P tells a different story. The team compared its history with that of dwarf galaxies within the Local Group, the collection of galaxies that includes the Milky Way. Many of these galaxies ceased forming stars after the Epoch of Reionization - and never started again.



The difference?&nbsp;Leo P and the three other galaxies that restarted star formation are isolated, while the ones that remained dormant are&nbsp;satellite galaxies orbiting larger galaxies like the Milky Way.



This suggests that a galaxy’s environment, rather than just its mass, plays a crucial role in its ability to form stars over time.&nbsp;Galaxies that remain isolated may have a better chance of recovering and forming stars again, while those near large galaxies may lose their gas permanently.



“If the trend holds, it provides insights about the growth of low-mass structures that are not only a fundamental constraint for structure formation but a benchmark for cosmological simulations,” noted McQuinn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-the-early-universe">A window into the early universe</h2>



Another key finding from the study is that&nbsp;Leo P’s extremely low metal content makes it one of the closest analogs to the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in the universe. The first galaxies to form after the Big Bang were extremely metal-poor, composed mainly of&nbsp;hydrogen and helium. 



Studying galaxies like Leo P helps astronomers understand&nbsp;how those first galaxies evolved and produced the heavy elements that make up stars, planets, and even life itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-expanding-the-study">What’s next? Expanding the study</h2>



Leo P is just one piece of a much larger cosmic puzzle. To confirm whether its unusual star formation history is part of a broader pattern, McQuinn’s team plans to&nbsp;study four more isolated, star-forming dwarf galaxies&nbsp;using JWST. 



If they find similar trends, it could mean that&nbsp;many more galaxies in the early universe experienced multiple bursts of star formation instead of a single continuous phase.



These findings also have implications for&nbsp;cosmological simulations, which attempt to model how galaxies form and evolve over billions of years. If small galaxies like Leo P can reignite their star formation after long dormancies, then existing models may need to be revised to reflect this possibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-galaxies-with-big-secrets">Small galaxies with big secrets</h2>



The&nbsp;<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/?exclude_child_pages=false&amp;order=DESC&amp;orderby=date&amp;layout=list&amp;number_of_items=4&amp;requesting_id=48174&amp;science_only=false&amp;show_content_type_tags=yes&amp;show_excerpts=yes&amp;show_pagination=true&amp;show_readtime=no&amp;show_thumbnails=yes&amp;response_format=html&amp;listing_page=no&amp;listing_page_category_id=2881&amp;post_types=post%2Cpress-release&amp;categories=2881" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>&nbsp;continues to revolutionize astronomy. Its ability to peer into the past with&nbsp;unprecedented clarity&nbsp;allows astronomers to answer some of the biggest questions about&nbsp;galaxy formation and evolution.



The study of Leo P is just one example of how Webb is uncovering hidden details about the universe, helping scientists piece together the story of how galaxies - and ultimately, life itself - came to be.



Leo P’s&nbsp;unexpectedly complex history&nbsp;serves as a reminder that even the&nbsp;smallest galaxies can hold the biggest secrets.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Kristen McQuinn (STScI)



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Star formation 'reignited' in the galaxy Leo P after billions of years

Galaxies come in many shapes and sizes, from massive spiral galaxies like the Milky Way to tiny, faint dwarf galaxies. While larger galaxies often steal the spotlight, small galaxies can also provide crucial insights into the history of the universe. Researchers led by Kristen McQuinn of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) have used the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to investigate Leo P, an isolated dwarf galaxy located 5.3 million light-years from Earth. Their study has revealed surprising patterns in star formation that could reshape our understanding of how galaxies evolve over cosmic time. Leo...

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small events; brewing morning coffee, letting the dog out, starting the laptop, letting the dog back in. 



Our brains are constantly on the job, observing and processing these pieces that together make up our day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-start-and-finish-of-events">Start and finish of events</h2>



Professor Jeff Zacks, head of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences at Washington University, shines light on an essential fact.



“Knowing where events begin and where they end is crucial to understanding the world.” 



Professor Zacks' research has focused on understanding this fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human cognition</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-models-learning-from-uncertainty">Computer models learning from uncertainty</h2>



To comprehend these processes better, Professor Zacks and his research team embarked on two separate studies.



In the first project, they trained computer models to watch over 25 hours of videos featuring people performing simple, daily tasks. After this, they asked the computer models to predict what would happen next. 



Interestingly, the results showed that these models performed best when they responded to uncertainty. 



In situations where predictions of next actions puzzled them, the models would assess the scene from scratch - a strategy that improved their understanding remarkably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-turn-of-events-in-the-brain">Unexpected turn of events in the brain</h2>



Professor Zacks had previously hypothesized that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-changes-how-we-recall-memories-making-them-seem-frightening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human brain</a> was particularly sensitive to life’s little surprises and would reassess a situation every time something unexpected happened. 



He proposed that surprising situations forced people to re-evaluate their surroundings, a concept known as "prediction error."



However, the study's findings threw a wrench in this theory, with the model paying more attention to uncertainty than to prediction errors. The researchers were undeterred by these findings.



“We’re doing science here. We revise theories when faced with new data," said Professor Zacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-act-of-events-in-the-brain">Balancing act of events in the brain</h2>



Surprises continue to matter, however, and the concept of prediction error should not be entirely discarded.



Tan Nguyen, a graduate student in Zacks’ Dynamic Cognition Laboratory proposes an alternative approach - the brain possibly uses both mechanisms in balance. 



"It’s not a case of either/or. Each model can make unique contributions to our understanding of human cognition,” explained Nguyen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-memory-and-event-comprehension">Exploring memory and event comprehension</h2>



Taking the research further, another member of the <a href="https://dcl.wustl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dynamic Cognition Lab</a>, Maverick Smith, is inspecting the correlation between event comprehension and memory.



Smith collaborated with Heather Bailey, an associate professor at Kansas State University and a former postdoc at WashU.



Their work collates evidence suggesting that long-term memory is closely tied to one’s ability to discern logically and accurately where one event ends and another begins. 



“There are a lot of individual differences in the ability to identify when events start and stop, and those differences can strongly predict how much people remember later on,” noted Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-capacity-to-process-events">Brain's capacity to process events</h2>



Smith’s research shows that older people often have difficulty processing events, a problem that potentially contributes to age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> loss.



“Maybe there’s a way we can intervene to help them better remember the events in their lives,” said Smith.



Professor Zacks, Nguyen, Smith, and other members of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences have ambitious plans to deepen their understanding of the brain’s capacity to process and remember events.



Currently, they're using fMRI brain imaging to monitor real-time responses to everyday event videos from 45 study participants.



In one ongoing study, the team is tracking eye movements, revealing how we visually process the world around us. 



Another of Smith's video-based experiments aims to improve the memory of study subjects - including older people and Alzheimer's patients - by making event boundaries more identifiable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-understanding-of-events">The brain's understanding of events</h2>



“Some people are definitely better than others at segmenting events into meaningful chunks. Can that ability be improved, and can that lead to improvements in memory? Those are the questions we’re still asking,” Smith concluded.



In the end, our understanding of the world hinges on how we comprehend the mundane, everyday occurrences that make up our lives. 



In a world driven by big events, we often overlook these smaller instances. Yet, it's these "little things" that allow our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to comprehend and navigate our lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/3/10/pgae459/7818226?login=false">PNAS Nexus.</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Our brain breaks life into 'events' to make sense of the chaos

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small...

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be detected by the simple prick of a finger?



This could soon be a reality in the world of Alzheimer's testing, which would increase accessibility to this critical information for people across the globe. In fact, it could be as easy as dropping a little blood onto a card, popping it into the mail and awaiting your results.



Thanks to the hard work of European researchers based primarily at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> in Sweden, this simplified testing method is on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-magic-behind-the-method">The magic behind the method</h2>



The promising test involves gathering a couple of blood drops from a finger prick onto a uniquely crafted card that is specifically designed for optimal sample preservation.



The primary function of this innovative card is to separate blood cells from plasma, thereby ensuring that the sample remains viable for further analysis.



After about 15 minutes, and once it has had a chance to dry completely, the card is securely packaged and ready to be mailed in the regular post to a specialized lab.



There, contemporary high-sensitivity techniques are utilized to examine and analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-biomarkers-predict-dementia-onset-15-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers</a> within the plasma.



This refined method is the culmination of years of extensive development and fine-tuning to identify certain biomarkers that have demonstrated impressive accuracy and reliability in identifying potential Alzheimer's sufferers.



Impressively, these markers have shown significant efficacy, initially when tested in cerebrospinal fluid, and then in venous blood samples. The idea is now to assess their presence in the blood from superficial vessels in the finger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-new-with-the-old">Comparing the new with the old</h2>



To illustrate the effectiveness of this new method, a recent study included capillary blood samples from 203 people all of whom underwent the finger prick test. 



The memory clinics responsible for administering these tests are spread across five different locations in Europe. 



Once the tests were completed, they were sent over to the Neurochemistry Department at the University of Gothenburg for detailed analysis, which included testing for the presence of established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-earliest-biomarker-protein-psd-95-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers for Alzheimer's</a>, such as pTau217.



The outcomes of the study were shared by Hanna Huber, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg’s Sahlgrenska Academy, at the CTAD (Clinical Trials on Alzheimer’s Disease) conference in Madrid, Spain, on October 30, 2024. 



"The simple capillary blood test works almost as well as venous samples,' explained Huber. "But, unlike traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-tests-offer-new-hope-in-detecting-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood tests</a>, this new test does not require transport on dry ice. This could significantly increase accessibility to Alzheimer's testing in countries and regions lacking the infrastructure needed for high-sensitivity analyses."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-alzheimer-s-testing">The future of Alzheimer's testing</h2>



Looking ahead, this test could become available within a matter of years, with a new European study already underway to explore whether it can be self-administered.



This capability would empower individuals to perform their own finger prick and then mail the sample to a lab, which would bypass the need for healthcare personnel.



The test arrives just in time as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pomegranates-may-be-key-in-preventing-and-treating-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's treatments</a> are making strides, with drugs like lecanemab already being approved in a variety of countries outside the EU. 



For these treatments to work, early detection is crucial. The new test could pave the way for new research opportunities with regard to Alzheimer's disease, including into its genetic makeup and its prevalence among different global populations.



It is important to note that this test is not designed for general screening purposes. 



The World Health Organization (WHO) currently discourages general screening for Alzheimer's disease, as past treatment options have been limited, which renders widespread screening ethically unjustified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-global-access-to-alzheimer-s-testing">Expanding global access to Alzheimer's testing</h2>



One of the most promising aspects of this new finger-prick test is its potential to close the gap in global access to Alzheimer's diagnostics.



Many regions, particularly in low-resource countries, struggle to provide the necessary infrastructure for traditional testing methods, which often require specialized equipment and transportation of samples under strict conditions, such as on dry ice.



By simplifying the process and eliminating the need for complex logistics, this test could bring early detection and intervention to communities that have historically been underserved. 



This advancement could also encourage more research collaborations and support the collection of diverse data sets, which would potentially enhance the understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's disease</a> manifests across different populations and contribute to more targeted and inclusive treatments.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Finger prick method could simplify Alzheimer's testing

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be...

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have identified, for the first time, pairs of white dwarf and main sequence stars within young star clusters.&nbsp;



This significant finding, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>, opens a new window into an extreme phase of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a>, offering a critical link in understanding the lifecycle of binary star systems. These insights may also shed light on cosmic events such as supernova explosions and gravitational waves.



Binary systems - where two stars orbit a shared center of gravity - are central to the universe's evolution.&nbsp;



The discovery of these rare systems could help astronomers piece together the transition between the early and final stages of binary stars, advancing our understanding of how stars and galaxies evolve and how elements are created.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-stage-of-stellar-evolution-nbsp">Mysterious stage of stellar evolution&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binary star systems</a> are widespread, with about half of all stars similar to the Sun existing in such pairings. 



Typically, these stars vary in mass, which influences how they evolve. Massive stars age more rapidly, transitioning through life stages far faster than their lower-mass companions.



In the later stages of a massive star’s life, it swells dramatically during the red giant or asymptotic giant branch phases.&nbsp;



In close binary systems, this expansion can engulf the smaller companion star in a shared layer of material, a phenomenon known as the common envelope phase.&nbsp;



This mysterious stage plays a critical role in stellar evolution, but its details have long eluded scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-binary-star-systems-nbsp">The role of binary star systems&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">White dwarfs</a> - the dense remnants of dead stars - provide a unique opportunity to study this phase. 



Identifying systems that pair white dwarfs with main sequence stars, known as white dwarf-main sequence binaries, offers critical clues about what happens during and after the common envelope stage.



“Binary stars play a huge role in our universe,” said lead author Steffani Grondin, a graduate student at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics. 



“This observational sample marks a key first step in allowing us to trace the full life cycles of binaries and will hopefully allow us to constrain the most mysterious phase of stellar evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-star-pair-discovery">Machine learning and star pair discovery</h2>



Despite their predicted abundance, white dwarf-main sequence binaries have been notoriously difficult to find. Before this study, only two candidates had been confirmed within star clusters.&nbsp;



Using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a>, the researchers analyzed data from three astronomical surveys: the European Space Agency’s Gaia mission, the 2MASS infrared survey, and the Pan-STARRS1 optical survey. This innovative approach uncovered 52 potential binaries across 38 star clusters.



Study co-author Joshua Speagle is a professor in U of T’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics and Department of Statistical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The use of machine learning helped us to identify clear signatures for these unique systems that we weren't able to easily identify with just a few datapoints alone,” said Speagle.&nbsp;



“It also allowed us to automate our search across hundreds of clusters, a task that would have been impossible if we were trying to identify these systems manually.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-timeline-of-binary-star-systems">Evolutionary timeline of binary star systems</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-origins-of-young-star-clusters-traced-to-three-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star clusters</a> are invaluable for studying the evolution of stars because all stars in a cluster are believed to have formed simultaneously. Finding white dwarf-main sequence binaries within these clusters allows researchers to determine the systems' ages and trace their evolutionary paths.



“It really points out how much in our universe is hiding in plain sight - still waiting to be found,” said co-author Maria Drout, an astronomer at U of T.&nbsp;



“While there are many examples of this type of binary system, very few have the age constraints necessary to fully map their evolutionary history. While there is plenty of work left to confirm and fully characterize these systems, these results will have implications across multiple areas of astrophysics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrophysics-and-beyond">Implications for astrophysics and beyond</h2>



Binary systems containing compact stellar remnants are linked to some of the universe’s most dramatic events, such as Type Ia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a> and gravitational wave-producing mergers. 



Type Ia supernovae are crucial tools for measuring cosmic distances, while gravitational waves - ripples in spacetime - are detectable by instruments like the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).



The team plans to refine their findings using data from telescopes such as Gemini, Keck, and Magellan.&nbsp;



As they confirm and measure the properties of these binaries, the researchers hope their work will provide a deeper understanding of the transient phenomena that shape our universe.



Image Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), Olofsson et al. Acknowledgement: Robert Cumming.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Binary systems with living and dead stars reveal stellar secrets 

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have...

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding across Central and Eastern Europe, could have been nearly nine percent less intense without the current levels of global warming. This is the conclusion of a recent analysis from the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI).



This finding was made possible by a novel modeling technique called “storylines,” which provides a new way to trace the fingerprints of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> in real time. 



This approach is described in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01847-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a> and is accessible via a new online tool developed by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-a-warmer-climate">The impact of a warmer climate</h2>



In mid-September, Storm Boris unleashed torrential rain across Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, and Romania, resulting in catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a> and displacing countless families. 



Boris produced one of the highest rainfall totals ever recorded in several areas over a five-day period, and the floods claimed at least 27 lives. While cleanup is underway, public and media inquiries are focusing on whether global climate change played a role in this tragic event.



“For the past few years, science has been able to provide robust answers to this absolutely legitimate question,” said lead author Marylou Athanase, a climate physicist at AWI.&nbsp;



“As early as one or two weeks after a given event, so-called probabilistic attribution studies can be used to draw initial conclusions on how much more probable the event was, due to climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-climate-trends-and-weather-events">Connecting climate trends and weather events</h2>



Yet explaining these probabilities to the public has often proven challenging. Probabilistic studies, while valuable, may lack clarity when connecting global climate trends with specific weather events.&nbsp;



“That’s why we at the AWI have worked so hard to advance a totally new way - the ‘storyline’ approach,” explained co-lead author Antonio Sánchez-Benítez.&nbsp;



“Essentially, we apply the ‘what if?’ principle. What would a given catastrophe look like in a world without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>? And what about in a climate that was even warmer?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-on-specific-storms">Climate impact on specific storms</h2>



Using the storm as a case study, AWI’s team illustrated the power of this approach. Their analysis showed that, if not for climate change, Storm Boris would have dropped about nine percent less rain.&nbsp;



On its journey from the eastern Mediterranean toward Central Europe, Boris intensified as it encountered water roughly two degrees Celsius warmer than preindustrial levels, which increased the water vapor in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



While nine percent may sound minimal, it can make a significant difference in areas where the additional water exceeds the capacity of rivers, dams, or drainage systems, leading to potentially devastating consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-models-and-real-world-weather">Climate models and real-world weather</h2>



One of the key challenges was to accurately connect long-term climate modeling with the actual, observed conditions of specific weather events.&nbsp;



To address this, the team used a process called “nudging,” where actual wind data, including jet stream information, is fed into the model to align it more closely with real-world conditions.&nbsp;



“Climate models normally simulate a specific, quasi-random sequence of weather conditions,” explained Helge Gößling, a climate physicist and head of storyline research at AWI.&nbsp;



“With nudging, we provide the model with actually observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-make-it-difficult-for-albatrosses-to-feed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind</a> data, and we nudge the model a bit in the direction of the actually observed wind. In this way, we can accurately reproduce real weather in the real climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-the-influence-of-global-warming-nbsp">Quantifying the influence of global warming&nbsp;</h2>



In their models, the researchers could simulate a pre-climate change world by reducing greenhouse gas levels and adjusting other variables.&nbsp;



By rerunning the scenario, they produced a side-by-side comparison of current and hypothetical climates. This approach allows scientists to quantify the influence of global warming on specific events, from extreme storms to more typical weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-climate-data-and-technology">Advanced climate data and technology</h2>



The researchers used the CMIP6 version of the AWI climate model, which contributed to the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report, incorporating real-time wind data from the <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a> (ECMWF). 



“We have since automated the system to the point where daily analyses on the current weather are run on the supercomputer at the <a href="https://www.dkrz.de/en/about-en/about-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Climate Computing Center</a> (DKRZ),” Athanase said



The results are then made available to the public on AWI’s online platform. This <a href="https://climate-storylines.awi.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tool</a>, updated with a three-day lag from real-time, provides users with access to maps and interactive timelines showing the “Climate Change Signal of the Day” for extreme and daily weather events worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-science-and-public-understanding-nbsp">Climate science and public understanding&nbsp;</h2>



By offering a visual and interactive way to examine climate change’s influence, AWI hopes to bridge the gap between complex climate science and public understanding.&nbsp;



For now, the tool tracks temperature and precipitation data starting from January 2024, allowing users to explore climate impacts on recent weather events.&nbsp;



“Our goal is to promote a better understanding of the connections between climate change and extreme weather events, and to supply concrete and timely answers that can also be used in media coverage of these events,” Athanase said.



The AWI’s storyline model and online tool represent an innovative step forward in climate science communication, helping researchers, decision-makers, and the public see, in real terms, how global warming affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a> and extreme events.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How much does climate change influence extreme weather events?

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding...

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our understanding of the Red Planet's mysterious landscapes and puzzling geological features.



Around the corner awaits a new expedition for Curiosity, this time to investigate a formation known as a boxwork. This intriguing network of patterns lies in a region at the foot of Mount Sharp and promises even more fascinating discoveries. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-finds-yellow-sulfur-stones">Curiosity finds yellow sulfur stones</h2>



Before embarking on this new quest, Curiosity bids farewell to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-explores-mars-ridge-with-intriguing-watery-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a>, a channel that is shrouded in enigma.



Details of the formation of this channel during a period of transition to a drier climate continue to elude scientists. 



But it is not just the channel that piques their interest. Curiosity stumbled upon a strange field of yellow sulfur stones during the summer, literally crushing them with its wheels as it drove along. This adds another layer of mystery to the Martian puzzle.



Before moving out, Curiosity provided scientists with invaluable imagery. The rover captured 360-degree panoramas of the stones, along with channel features, making sure no detail was overlooked.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="cczO1PejFp-4040684-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quest-for-ancient-life">The quest for ancient life</h2>



A fundamental purpose of the rover's mission is probing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-found-for-life-on-mars-where-ancient-rivers-once-flowed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars' past</a>, with the hope of finding traces of ancient life.



Billions of years ago, Mars was flush with lakes and rivers, potentially creating conditions conducive to microbial life. 



Nestled in the foothills of Mount Sharp, which is a towering mountain, Gediz Vallis might hold the key to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how Mars looked</a> as water dwindled on its surface.



Scientists aren't just interested in understanding the climate shift. The team is also investigating different features within the channel, including a debris mound aptly nicknamed “Pinnacle Ridge.”



Evidence suggests that rivers, wet debris flows, and dry avalanches have all left their signatures on this formation.



Intriguingly, the process of constructing a timeline of these events is well underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-stones-the-latest-martian-mystery">Sulfur stones: The latest Martian mystery</h2>



The sprawling field of sulfur stones, originally appearing as an unremarkable patch of light-colored terrain in images from NASA’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-photo-of-martian-space-potato-moon-phobos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>, has sprung a pleasant surprise.



A close inspection by Curiosity revealed that these sulfur stones were teeming with yellow crystals, a find unlike anything seen on Mars before.



The rover's instruments confirmed that the stones were pure sulfur - an unusual occurrence that raises more questions than it answers.



On our home planet, sulfur is usually linked with the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and hot springs. Yet, no evidence on Mount Sharp suggests these phenomena as likely candidates.



Ashwin Vasavada is a Curiosity project scientist at NASA’s <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.



“We looked at the sulfur field from every angle - from the top and the side - and looked for anything mixed with the sulfur that might give us clues as to how it formed. We’ve gathered a ton of data, and now we have a fun puzzle to solve," said Vasavada.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treading-on-martian-spiderwebs">Treading on Martian "spiderwebs"</h2>



Having completed a thorough survey of the Gediz Vallis, Curiosity is all set to traverse the edge of the channel, capturing a few more panoramas before making its way to the boxwork region.



This formation of ridges, likened to spiderwebs sprawling across the surface, is believed to be linked to minerals settling into rock crevices and hardening over time. They have been left behind as the surrounding rock eroded.



“These ridges will include minerals that crystallized underground, where it would have been warmer, with salty liquid water flowing through. Early Earth microbes could have survived in a similar environment. That makes this an exciting place to explore,” said Kirsten Siebach, a Curiosity scientist from <a href="https://www.rice.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> in Houston.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-curious-legacy-of-curiosity">The curious legacy of Curiosity</h2>



Curiosity, a brainchild of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed by Caltech, continues to be a cornerstone of Martian exploration for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. 



The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Project, under the management of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, and its High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) instrument, constructed by BAE Systems, also play significant roles in taking our understanding of Mars to new heights.



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sulfur stones and spiderwebs: Curiosity's latest discoveries on Mars

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our...

Bad habits are repetitive behaviors or patterns that may have negative consequences on physical health, mental well-being, relationships, or productivity. 



They often develop unconsciously and can be challenging to break because they are reinforced by habit loops, which consist of a cue, a routine, and a reward.



But what if you could easily change your habits? What if you had the power to take control of your brain's habit-making mechanism and use it to your advantage?



Enter cognitive neuroscience, a field that offers fresh insights into how our brains form habits. In a recent study, scientists at Trinity College Dublin have proposed a new approach to changing habits that promise lasting results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-habits">The power of habits</h2>



Led by Dr. Eike Buabang, postdoctoral research fellow in the lab of Professor Claire Gillan, the study explores how habits drive our daily lives.



"Habits play a central role in our daily lives, from making that first cup of coffee in the morning to the route we take to work, and the routine we follow to prepare for bed," said Dr. Buabang.



"Our research reveals why these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">automatic behaviors</a> are so powerful - and how we can harness our brain's mechanisms to change them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-brain-systems">Two brain systems</h2>



Our habits are driven by two brain systems. One triggers automatic responses to familiar cues, while the other enables goal-directed control.



Take, for instance, the habit of scrolling through social media when you're bored - this is the result of an automatic response system. But when you put your phone away to focus on work - that's the goal-directed brain control system at work.



When these two systems are imbalanced, it can lead to action slips like entering an old password instead of the new one. 



In more severe cases, it can contribute to compulsive behaviors seen in conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, substance-use disorders, and eating disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-from-bad-habits-to-good-ones">Switching from bad habits to good ones</h2>



Understanding the interplay between these two systems can pave the way for personal development and clinical treatment of compulsive disorders. 



"Good and bad habits are two sides of the same coin - both arise when automatic responses overpower goal-directed control. By understanding this dynamic, we can start to use it to our own advantage, to both make and break habits," noted Dr. Buabang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-involved-in-habit-change">Factors involved in habit change</h2>



Dr. Buabang's research provides a playbook for behavior change, bridging brain science with practical applications. The framework describes several factors crucial for influencing the balance between automatic responses and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-to-set-realistic-goals-and-achieve-them-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goal-directed control</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repetition-and-reinforcement">Repetition and reinforcement</h3>



Repeating a behavior builds strong associations between cues and responses, while rewarding the behavior makes it more likely to be repeated. 



The same mechanism can be leveraged to break habits, by replacing old behaviors with new ones to create competing automatic responses.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment">Environment</h3>



Your surroundings play a significant role in habit change. Tweaking your environment to make desired behaviors easier to access encourages good habits, while removing cues that trigger unwanted behavior disrupts the bad ones.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goal-directed-system">Goal-directed system</h3>



Knowing how to engage your goal-directed system can help strengthen and weaken habits. 



However, stress, time pressure, and fatigue can trigger a return to old patterns, so staying mindful and intentional is crucial when trying to break them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-theory-to-real-world-applications">From theory to real-world applications</h2>



The theory doesn't stop at habit change; it also opens the door to personalizing treatments based on how different people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-long-does-it-take-to-form-a-habit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form</a> and break habits.



"We are all different; depending on your neurobiology, it might make more sense to focus on avoiding cues than reducing stress or allowing yourself more time for your daily routine," said Professor Gillan.



These insights have far-reaching implications. They could reshape public health strategies and help policymakers design more effective health campaigns. 



"By working with - rather than against - how our brains naturally form habits, we can create strategies that make healthier choices more automatic at both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shopping-habits-have-remained-consistent-for-3500-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individual</a> and societal levels," noted Professor Gillan.



In conclusion, this new approach to habit change has the potential to revolutionize both personal development and the treatment of compulsive disorders. 



The exciting findings from the <a href="https://www.tcd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a> team have provided a new avenue for tapping into our brain's potential, making habit change achievable and lasting.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(24)00266-3?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661324002663%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Brain science: A new approach to breaking bad habits

Bad habits are repetitive behaviors or patterns that may have...

There is a green deficit in our cities, and it's more serious than you think. A new study led by RMIT University in Australia highlights this glaring issue. The study measured access to nature in eight global cities and found most of them to be grossly deficient in canopy cover.



This is despite these cities having a significant number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> in sight. The discrepancy lies in the lack of adequate "canopy cover" - the overhead layer of branches and leaves that provide shade, reducing temperatures and increasing green cover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-troubling-tree-deficit">Troubling tree deficit</h2>



Less than 30 percent of buildings in cities such as New York City, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires, and Denver were found to be in neighborhoods with adequate canopy cover.



New York and Amsterdam scored almost 0% for canopy cover, while a whopping 92 and 50 percent of their buildings, respectively, had views of at least three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>.



This research, a collaborative effort with the Technical University of Munich, studied over 2.5 million buildings across eight cities using the "3-30-300" rule, an emerging sustainable cities measure.



This innovative rule states that every home, school, and workplace should have a view of at least three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>, be located in a neighborhood with at least 30% canopy cover, and be within 300 meters of a park.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-canopy-cover-champions">Canopy cover champions</h2>



Among the cities studied, only Seattle and Singapore could pass the 30% canopy benchmark. In these cities, 45% and 75% of buildings, respectively, have the luxury of enjoying adequate shading.



But the access to parks is not consistent. Singapore and Amsterdam scored high, while Buenos Aires and New York City trailed behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-more-canopy-cover">Need for more canopy cover</h2>



Dr. Thami Croeser, a lead researcher and an <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RMIT University</a> research fellow, found it alarming that a majority of the buildings studied failed the 30% tree canopy test.



Considering that 2023 was the hottest year on record and 25% of the global population experienced dangerous levels of extreme heat, canopy cover is an urgent requirement to cool down our cities, noted Dr. Croeser.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-tree-cover-in-cities">Benefits of tree cover in cities</h2>



"Previous research has shown depression, anxiety, obesity and heatstroke are more prevalent in urban areas that lack access to shady <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> canopy and green open spaces," said Dr. Croeser.



Environmentally, urban trees play a critical role in improving air quality by absorbing pollutants such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, while also filtering harmful particulate matter. 



Additionally, trees are essential for stormwater management, as their roots absorb rainfall and reduce the risk of flooding.



By storing carbon, urban forests help offset greenhouse gas emissions. They also provide vital habitats for birds, insects, and other wildlife, enhancing urban biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insufficiency-of-current-practices">Insufficiency of current practices</h2>



Dr. Croeser is critical of current methods of street design or retrofitting, which tend to prioritize infrastructure like cabling and pipelines over tree growth.



He advocates for a change in our practice, to prioritize green infrastructure and incorporate trees into early stages of design.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-struggles-of-urban-trees">Struggles of urban trees</h2>



Urban trees face a tough life. They are planted in compacted soil, covered with asphalt and lack proper water access.



Dr. Croeser argues that improving these conditions can greatly enhance the growth and longevity of urban trees, thus increasing canopy cover. The "3-30-300" rule might be relatively new, but it is rapidly gaining global acceptance.



This benchmark was devised by Dutch urban forestry expert Professor Cecil Konijnendijk.to set a definitive, evidence-based minimum for nature in cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Professor Wolfgang Weisser from the <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Munich</a> and Dirk Voets, Senior Advisor Geospatial at Cobra Groeninzicht, have expressed support of the "3-30-300" rule and are optimistic about its potential.



The study is a clarion call for us to reassess our urban designs. The findings reach out to a global audience to advocate for more harmonious co-existence with nature in our urban spaces.



The research may ultimately be a catalyst for significant change, leading us to build more sustainable, liveable, and delightful cities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53402-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Most cities lack sufficient canopy cover, despite visible trees

There is a green deficit in our cities, and it's...

We think about the foods we consume daily and the impact of our diets on our health, but how often do we consider the broader implications of these choices on the health of our planet?



Can shifting to more sustainable diets simultaneously tackle climate change and global food insecurity? This is a delicate balance to strike, but the answer is a resounding "yes."



Before diving into this, though, we ought to remember the words of Joe DeCesaro, a data analyst at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a>’s National Center for Ecological Analysis &amp; Synthesis (NCEAS).



“Changes in food demand in one part of the world can have cascading environmental and human welfare implications for people around the world,” he cautioned.



DeCesaro and his team at the NCEAS have conducted a fascinating study that aimed to understand the environmental implications of a major shift towards four distinct types of diets, globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-global-diet-shifts">Environmental impact of global diet shifts</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-food-system-is-unsustainable-and-must-be-transformed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food system</a> is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, accounting for about a third of global greenhouse gas emissions and using more than 70% of freshwater resources.



Apart from this, agriculture causes significant land degradation and contributes to nutrient pollution in water bodies. 



One way to alleviate environmental pressure is to move towards more sustainable diets that reduce the consumption of resource-intensive food items, such as red meat, and increase the intake of nutrient-dense foods like vegetables and legumes.



Yet, DeCesaro's study reveals that diet change is only part of the solution. 



“We wanted to know who would actually be feeling the change from the food production if these shifts occur,” explained Ben Halpern, NCEAS director and a coauthor on the study.



The team, therefore, focused on understanding where and how environmental pressures might shift if global diets changed significantly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengths-and-weaknesses-of-different-diets">Strengths and weaknesses of different diets</h2>



The study analyzed the global impact of shifting to four types of diets: Indian, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-can-lead-to-longer-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean</a>, EAT-Lancet (largely plant-based or "flexitarian"), and average government-recommended Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs).



The Indian diet emerged as the most beneficial, potentially leading to a 20.9% reduction in food production-based environmental pressure. In contrast, following FBDGs could result in a 35.2% increase in global environmental pressure.



The researchers utilized extensive data, including each country's average diets, trade flows, and the environmental pressures of food production worldwide.



“The research was motivated originally by the question: Who’s consumption is generating the pressures of food production that are being felt by people and places around the world?” explained DeCesaro.



“Are poorer countries paying the environmental price of producing higher pressure foods that are being eaten by richer countries, or vice versa?" 



"Our methods allow us to track changes in the environmental pressures from the producer to the consumer, and vice versa, in a standardized format across four pressures. Our work is quite novel in this space.”



The study found that the Indian diet - primarily due to its recommendation of zero <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-seafood-has-one-sixth-the-carbon-footprint-of-red-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red meat</a> - was the most effective in reducing global cumulative pressure on environments.



This sharply contrasted with FBDGs, which typically recommend more red meat than what many countries currently consume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-high-income-countries">Learning from high-income countries</h2>



Interestingly, the study revealed that the majority of the reductions in global environmental pressure would come from high-income countries. 



“Higher-income countries’ average current diets have higher consumption quantities of most food categories than the recommended quantities in our diet scenarios,” said DeCesaro. 



This indicates that these countries are over-consuming, suggesting the potential for significant reductions in environmental pressure through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-dietary-shifts-could-keep-global-climate-goals-within-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary shifts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-sustainable-practices">Sharing sustainable practices</h2>



The research also revealed that a shift towards more sustainable, plant-forward diets could increase food-production-related environmental pressures in lower-income countries. 



However, DeCesaro noted, this increase is primarily due to these diets meeting more of the people's daily needs.



To ensure food security and equitable access to nutrition, he suggested that wealthier countries support by providing access to efficiently produced food imports and encouraging economic development to improve dietary health. This support could also include reducing environmental pressures from food production, promoting innovation and sharing sustainable food production practices.



In conclusion, the message, as summarized by Halpern, is clear: “The decisions we make about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-genes-identified-that-directly-influence-what-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">what we eat</a> are important for reducing our environmental footprint, but other people may pay the price for those decisions.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad8509">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Global diet shifts: The hidden costs of what we eat

We think about the foods we consume daily and the...

For a very long time, we have been under the impression that memory and learning are solely the brain's forte. Central to this belief is the fact that our brains, particularly our brain cells, store memories.



However, an innovative team of researchers begs to differ, suggesting that cells in other parts of the body partake in this memory function too.



The ability of non-brain cells to learn and form memories is a riveting discovery. 



This thought-provoking study provides us with a new understanding of memory's mechanisms and paves the way for potential advancements in learning and memory-related afflictions treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-memory-the-basics">Understanding memory -- the basics</h2>



Memory is like your brain’s personal filing system. When you experience something new -- like meeting a friend or learning a fact -- your brain encodes that information by turning it into patterns of neural activity. 



These patterns get stored in different parts of your brain, depending on what type of information it is. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-decides-which-memories-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual memories</a> might be stored in areas responsible for processing images, while facts and numbers find their way into regions that handle language and logic.



Retrieving memories happens when your brain needs to access those stored patterns. It’s similar to searching for a file on your computer. 



If you want to remember your friend’s birthday, your brain activates the relevant neural pathways to bring that information back into your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consciousness-may-stem-from-unseen-dimensions-beyond-our-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conscious mind</a>. 



Sometimes, this process is seamless, but other times memories can be a bit fuzzy or mixed up, especially if they’re not accessed frequently. That’s why you might struggle to recall something you haven’t thought about in a while.



Your memory isn’t perfect, and it can change over time. Each time you recall a memory, your brain might update it with new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlocking-memories-with-scents-may-help-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">information or emotions</a>, which can make the memory stronger or slightly different from the original event. Factors like sleep, stress, and even nutrition can influence how well your memory works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-formation-and-cells">Memory formation and cells</h2>



“Learning and memory are generally associated with brains and brain cells alone, but our study shows that other cells in the body can learn and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-is-shaped-by-both-past-and-future-experience-and-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form memories</a>, too,” explains New York University’s&nbsp;<a href="https://liberalstudies.nyu.edu/about/faculty-listing/nikolay-kukushkin.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nikolay V. Kukushkin</a>, the lead author of the&nbsp;study.&nbsp;



The goal of the research was straightforward -- to investigate if non-brain cells contribute to memory. To do this, the scientists deployed the time-honored neurological property, known as the massed-space effect.



This principle asserts that our retention capacity is better when information is studied in spaced intervals rather than crammed into a single, intensive session.



Does this strike a chord? We have all experienced the futility of last-minute cramming before tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-test-in-non-brain-cells">Memory test in non-brain cells</h2>



In this study, the scientists simulated the process of spaced learning by examining two types of non-brain human cells -- one from nerve tissue and one from kidney tissue -- in a laboratory setting.



These cells were exposed to varying patterns of chemical signals, akin to the exposure of brain cells to neurotransmitter patterns when we learn new information.



The intriguing part? These non-brain cells also switched on a "memory gene" - the same gene that brain cells activate when they detect information patterns and reorganize their connections to form memories.



So, how exactly did the scientists gauge the memory and learning process? 



They ingeniously engineered the non-brain cells to generate a glowing protein, which indicated whether the memory gene was active or dormant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-cells-learning-and-pulses">Memory cells, learning, and pulses</h2>



The results of this innovative research were nothing short of astounding. 



It turned out that these cells were able to discern when the chemical pulses (simulating bursts of neurotransmitters in the brain) were repeated rather than simply prolonged -- much like neurons in our own brains when we opt for break-filled studying instead of continuous cramming.



When the pulses were delivered at intervals, they activated the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> gene" more intensely and for a longer duration than when the same treatment was administered all at once - a perfect demonstration of the massed-space effect.



“This reflects the massed-space effect in action,” says Kukushkin, a clinical associate professor of life science at NYU Liberal Studies and a research fellow at NYU’s Center for Neural Science. 



“It shows that the ability to learn from spaced repetition isn't unique to brain cells, but, in fact, might be a fundamental property of all cells.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-memory-works">Understanding how memory works</h2>



Not only does this research on non-brain cells introduce fresh perspectives to study memory, but it also holds promise for potential health-related benefits.



“This discovery opens new doors for understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> works and could lead to better ways to enhance learning and treat memory problems,” notes Kukushkin.



“At the same time, it suggests that in the future, we will need to treat our body more like the brain -- for example, consider what our pancreas remembers about the pattern of our past meals to maintain healthy levels of blood glucose or consider what a cancer cell remembers about the pattern of chemotherapy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-this-research">Implications of this research</h2>



As we explore this fascinating new research on non-brain cells, the pressing question remains - how will this impact our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of memory formation</a>?



What implications does this discovery hold for the future of learning and memory-related treatments? Only time will tell. 



-----



The research team also included Thomas Carew, a professor in NYU’s Center for Neural Science; Tasnim Tabassum, an NYU researcher; and Robert Carney, an NYU undergraduate researcher. The study was funded by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01-MH120300-01A1).



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53922-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Memory is stored in cells throughout the body, not just the brain

For a very long time, we have been under the...

It's no secret that the global health community has been grappling with the catastrophic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic since it arose in 2019. This disease has presented unprecedented challenges in treatment and prevention, and we still do not fully understand the behavior of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.



As of today, the World Health Organization has documented over 770 million COVID-19 cases worldwide, indicating the extensive reach and impact that this virus has had on global populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-how-covid-19-travels">The mystery of how COVID-19 travels</h2>



While we have decent knowledge about how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-virus-lingers-body-two-years-after-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> enters our bodies - by attaching onto healthy cells in our nose and throat - there remains a level of mystery about how COVID-19 further travels and spreads once inside an airway, and how it contributes to severe illness and long-term complications.



But recently, thanks to extensive research efforts and collaborative studies, a new piece of the puzzle has been identified. The findings offer fresh insights that may inform future treatment strategies and preventive measures.



Scientists at <a href="https://www.nm.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern Medicine</a> embarked on a mission to uncover the mysteries of SARS-CoV-2 's proliferation in our bodies.



One of their most significant findings was that the virus uses our body's own mucus as its personal highway into the lower lungs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mucus-the-unexpected-accomplice">Mucus: The unexpected accomplice</h2>



In their study, which was published recently in Nature Communications, the researchers performed live imaging on human bronchial epithelium cells after they were exposed to SARS-CoV-2 virus.



Their observations revealed the virus' cunning tactic - the movement of our own mucus helps the virus to travel inside the respiratory tract.



This eventually leads to the formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-covid-19-is-transmitted-through-aerosols/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infectious aerosols</a>, which can further affect other individuals.



"The virus goes where the mucus goes," said Mark Becker, the leading student author of the study.



We generally understand mucus as a protective shield against infection, that traps viruses and other harmful particles before they can enter the tissues. Our own ciliated cells help to "sweep" dirty mucus upwards towards the throat, thus keeping the respiratory surfaces clean.



Ironically, when exploited by the SARS-CoV-2 virus , this protective defense becomes an accomplice that aids the spread after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-impacts-the-brain-through-inflammation-not-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infection</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-covid-19-insights-and-future-research">COVID-19 insights and future research</h2>



While funding for COVID-19 related research has started to decrease, the experts remain hopeful. 



They believe their discovery of how COVID-19 travels could have substantial applications in the context of other viral diseases as well, specifically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HIV</a>.



"The mucosal environment most similar to the lungs is the upper female reproductive tract," noted study senior author Dr. Thomas Hope.



Perhaps, then, this understanding of how the virus that causes COVID-19 manoeuvres through the respiratory tract can open doors to new research on other diseases that may similarly exploit the supply of mucus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-story-of-scientific-innovation">A story of scientific innovation </h2>



The success of this study is also a reflection of the robust infrastructure and commitment at Northwestern Medicine.



"The university really supported us and that is a testament to what a great environment Northwestern Medicine is," noted Dr. Hope.



It's a story of scientific innovation, pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the virus that has turned our world upside down. And above all, it's about teamwork - because that's how scientific breakthroughs happen.



This research contributes to the ever-growing body of knowledge about COVID-19. It demonstrates the virus's surprisingly strategic use of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body's own defenses</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-covid-19-insights-and-innovative-treatments">COVID-19 insights and innovative treatments</h2>



The newfound understanding of SARS-CoV-2's behavior in the mucosal environment has sparked interest in developing innovative treatment approaches.



Researchers are now looking at how this knowledge could be applied to create therapies that reinforce mucosal barriers, potentially preventing viral entry and spread. 



This type of preventive treatment could revolutionize how viral diseases are managed, particularly for infections that target mucosal tissues.



By focusing on fortifying the body’s first line of defense, scientists hope to reduce the severity and transmission of certain viral diseases.



Beyond COVID-19, these strategies could offer hope for combating other viruses that similarly exploit mucosal pathways, such as influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). 



The potential for cross-applicability means that advancements made now could lay the groundwork for a more resilient response to future viral outbreaks, and create a broad-spectrum approach to viral prevention and treatment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53791-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How the COVID-19 virus travels deep inside our lungs

It's no secret that the global health community has been...

Ever pondered the extraordinary migratory journeys of birds? 



These feathered wanderers traverse thousands of kilometers, exhibiting an incredible knack for endurance and navigation that almost seems magical. 



In past research, the stars, the Sun and the Earth's magnetic field have all been implicated as means by which birds find their way to faraway places.



A recent study has shed new light on how birds use the magnetic field to navigate, and the findings challenge previously held beliefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-bird-migration">The science behind bird migration</h2>



The research was conducted by scientists from <a href="https://www.bangor.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bangor University</a> in Wales, and focused on the migratory behavior of Eurasian reed warblers, which are small songbirds.



The study presents an intriguing hypothesis: these birds employ only the Earth's magnetic dip and variation to identify their position and set their direction.



This revelation is a significant stride away from the conventional belief that all aspects of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, particularly total intensity, are essential to precise navigation. 



For years, it was believed that birds carry a 'map-and-compass' navigation system. They identify their location using this "map," and the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-bats-use-earths-magnetic-field-as-a-compass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compass</a>" aids in maintaining the correct direction towards their destination.



However, the precise nature of this 'map' has always been a topic of debate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-birds-respond-to-virtual-displacement">How birds respond to virtual displacement </h2>



The experiment involved subjecting the warblers to "virtual displacement."



The birds experienced artificially adjusted values of magnetic inclination (the dip angle of the field lines) and declination&nbsp;(the difference between the direction to the geographic and magnetic poles).



This simulation created the illusion of a geographic relocation while maintaining a consistent total magnetic intensity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-use-certain-cues-to-navigate">Birds use certain cues to navigate</h2>



The results were nothing short of astonishing. Despite the simulated relocation, the birds recalibrated and redirected their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-geese-adapt-by-finding-a-new-migratory-route/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory routes</a> as though they were in an entirely different location. 



This behavior suggests that birds can determine their position and direction using only certain magnetic cues, even if other aspects of the magnetic field, such as total intensity, remain unchanged.



"What's interesting is that these findings reveal that the birds don't necessarily need all components of the Earth's magnetic field to determine their position. They can rely solely on inclination and declination, which are also used in compass orientation, to extract their location," explained Professor Richard Holland, the study's leader, who specializes in animal behavior. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-understanding-of-how-birds-navigate">New understanding of how birds navigate</h2>



These findings indicate that birds are equipped with a sophisticated and adaptable internal navigation system.



This system allows them to adjust to environmental changes, even in situations they've never encountered before.



"It remains to be seen whether birds use the total intensity of the Earth's magnetic field for navigation in other contexts, but what we've shown is that these two components - magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-birds-know-when-its-time-to-stop-migrating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inclination</a> and declination - are enough to provide positional information," stated Prof. Holland.



This study carves out exciting avenues for further research into animal navigation. It sets a solid foundation for broader biological studies, including into how animals decipher and interact with their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-advantage-of-magnetic-navigation">Evolutionary advantage of magnetic navigation</h2>



This newfound understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-migration-is-influenced-by-social-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird migration</a> and navigation raises questions about how these magnetic cues evolved and why they became central to avian migration.



The ability to rely on magnetic dip and variation could provide birds with a reliable, all-weather navigation system that ensures their survival across vast distances.



Unlike visual landmarks or celestial cues, magnetic fields are constant and unaffected by weather, providing an advantage in conditions where other methods might fail.



The evolutionary benefits of this specialized navigation system are immense. Birds that migrate successfully are better equipped to find food, suitable climates, and breeding grounds, thereby enhancing their chances of survival and reproduction.



This adaptability suggests that magnetic navigation may have been a critical trait for birds that traverse unpredictable environments, such as oceans or dense forests, where visual or auditory landmarks are scarce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Moreover, understanding the mechanics behind this capability opens doors to potential applications in biomimicry and navigation technologies. 



Researchers may one day harness the principles behind avian magnetic navigation to develop new, eco-friendly navigation tools or improve current systems used in aviation and marine transport. 



This study highlights how much we still have to learn from nature's most seasoned travelers.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1363" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Birds navigate using clues from Earth's magnetic field

Ever pondered the extraordinary migratory journeys of birds? These feathered...

Black holes need no introduction. Their ability to pull everything that crosses their boundary into a gravity pit is legendary. But did you know they can also spew out charged particles resulting in explosive bursts of gamma rays? 



In an instant, black holes can unleash more energy than our Sun will produce over its entire lifetime. This extraordinary phenomenon owes its intensity to a hidden asset: a formidable magnetic field.



But where this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-black-holes-are-trapped-in-an-eternal-dance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic power</a> originates from has remained an unsolved mystery, until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-of-magnetic-fields">Origin of magnetic fields</h2>



Experts at the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.simonsfoundation.org%2Fflatiron%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flatiron Institute</a>, backed by their collaborators, have managed to identify the source of these powerful magnetic fields.



Through meticulous calculations of black hole formation, they have traced the origin of the magnetic fields back to the collapsing parent stars of the black holes themselves.



Black holes are not born out of the blue. They emerge after a star explodes as a supernova, leaving a dense remnant core known as a proto-neutron star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mothers-of-black-holes">The mothers of black holes</h2>



Ore Gottlieb, the study’s first author, is a research fellow at the Flatiron Institute’s&nbsp;Center for Computational Astrophysics&nbsp;(<a href="https://www.simonsfoundation.org/flatiron/center-for-computational-astrophysics/?swcfpc=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CCA</a>) in New York City.



“Proto-neutron stars are the mothers of black holes in that when they collapse, a black hole is born. What we are seeing is that as this black hole forms, the proto-neutron star’s surrounding disk will essentially pin its magnetic lines to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-suggests-that-dark-energy-comes-from-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>,” said Gottlieb.&nbsp;



“It’s very exciting to finally understand this fundamental property of black holes and how they power gamma ray bursts - the most luminous explosions in the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dissecting-the-magnetic-enigma-of-black-holes">Dissecting the magnetic enigma of black holes</h2>



The journey of a star from birth, collapse, to the formation of a black hole is akin to a cosmic rollercoaster. 



The team set out to model this journey in an effort to study outflows like jets that generate gamma ray bursts. However, they hit a roadblock.



The behavior of these magnetic fields during the stellar collapse presented a modeling challenge. There were pre-existing theories about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/directly-detecting-dark-matter-primordial-black-holes-simple-as-monitoring-mars-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> and their magnetic prowess, but none added up when considering the power behind a black hole’s jets and gamma ray bursts.



“What had been thought to be the case is that the magnetic fields of collapsing stars are collapsing into the black hole,” explained Gottlieb. "During this collapse, these magnetic field lines are made stronger as they are compressed, so the density of the magnetic fields become higher.”



The team determined that a different process had to be at play and focused their attention on a black hole's progenitor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-maestro-the-neutron-star">Magnetic maestro: The neutron star</h2>



The researchers felt that previous simulations may not have presented the complete picture. 



“Past simulations have only considered isolated neutron stars and isolated black holes, where all magnetism is lost during the collapse. However, we found that these neutron stars have accretion disks of their own, just like black holes,” said Gottlieb.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/black-hole_magnetism-source_infographic_credit-Lucy-Reading-Ikkanda_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/black-hole_magnetism-source_infographic_credit-Lucy-Reading-Ikkanda_1s.webp" alt="Infographic explaining how black holes inherit their magnetism. Credit: Lucy Reading-Ikkanda / Simons Foundation" class="wp-image-1950869"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Infographic explaining how black holes inherit their magnetism. Credit: Lucy Reading-Ikkanda / Simons Foundation</figcaption></figure>



“And so, the idea is that maybe an accretion disk can save the magnetic field of the neutron star. This way, a black hole will form with the same magnetic field lines that threaded the neutron star.”



The team’s calculations revealed that before the newly formed black holes gobble up all the magnetic fields of their collapsing neutron stars, the disks of the neutron stars transfer their magnetic field lines to the black holes, anchoring them.



"In most cases, the timescale for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-spots-two-supermassive-black-holes-spiraling-on-collision-course/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole's</a> disk formation is shorter than it losing its magnetism," said Gottlieb. "So, by having an accretion disk, the black hole can inherit a magnetic field from its parent, the neutron star."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-across-the-universe">Echoes across the universe</h2>



Beyond solving a longstanding mystery, this discovery has the potential to expand our understanding of jets. 



“This study changes the way we think about what types of systems can support jet formation because if we know that accretion disks imply magnetism, then in theory, all you need is an early disk formation to power jets,” explained Gottlieb.



“I think it would be interesting for us to rethink all of the connections between populations of stars and jet formation now that we know this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-and-their-magnetic-mysteries">Black holes and their magnetic mysteries</h2>



Gottlieb attributes the success of this endeavor to the collaborative nature of the research and the computational resources at the CCA.



“This was a multidisciplinary collaboration that enabled us to address this question from different directions and form a coherent picture of a star’s evolution post-collapse,” said Gottlieb.



“And the generous computational resources of CCA let us run simulations of the collapse more consistently than has ever been done before. I think these two aspects led to an innovative approach.”



With this leap forward, we inch closer to fully comprehending the enigmatic black holes and their magnetic mysteries, shedding more light on the dark wonders of the universe.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad8563" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Black holes capture magnetic fields from collapsing stars

Black holes need no introduction. Their ability to pull everything...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...