Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp; In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp; Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata)...

A recent study conducted by researchers at Washington <a href="https://www.slu.edu/medicine/index.php">Saint Louis University School of Medicine</a> has investigated the antibody response to the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. The experts found that antibodies produced by immune cells become steadily more formidable and more precisely targeted against the virus that causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-older-adults-develop-medical-conditions-after-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> for at least six months after vaccination.



Immunologists are familiar with the concept that antibody quality improves as antibody number decreases. In 1964, Washington University immunologists Dr. Herman Eisen and Dr. Gregory Siskind confirmed this phenomenon in rats. The current study is the first to follow the maturation of the antibody response in humans in great detail.



According to the research, decreased antibody levels in the months following vaccination are mostly due to a change to a more stable immune response. It takes a lot of energy to make a large number of antibodies. Because the immune system can no longer maintain such a high level of activity, it gradually changes to making lesser numbers of more effective antibodies.



The researchers explained that even very low levels of antibodies will provide some protection against sickness as long as the virus does not alter.



“If the virus didn’t change, most people who got two doses of this vaccine would be in very good shape. The antibody response we saw is exactly what we’d expect from a robust immune response," explained study senior author Dr. Ali Ellebedy.



"We never thought that six months following that second injection, many people would still be actively improving the quality of their antibodies. To me, that is remarkable. The problem is that this virus keeps evolving and producing new variants. So, the antibodies are getting better at recognizing the original strain, but unfortunately the target keeps changing."



The B cell family includes immune cells that generate antibodies. The B cell response involves maximum antibody production to the development of memory cells that may quickly churn out new antibodies the next time the body meets the same virus.&nbsp;



To follow the complex response of B cells, samples must be collected from difficult-to-reach areas of the body. Key members of the B cell family can be found in the blood, lymph nodes, and bone marrow at various phases of the process. Obtaining B cells from lymph nodes requires the use of ultrasonography to find microscopic immunological structures known as germinal centres within the lymph nodes. The samples are extracted by inserting a needle into the pelvic bone.



For the investigation, blood samples were collected from 42 participants and lymph node samples were collected from 15 participants. Samples were obtained before each individual received an initial dose of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, and at various times over the following weeks. Bone marrow samples were also taken from 11 subjects 29 and 40 weeks after the first immunization dosage.



The researchers were able to trace the antibody response over time in eight participants who submitted all three types of samples. Because none of the eight had been infected with the COVID-19 virus, their antibody responses were solely attributable to vaccination.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that anti-SARS-CoV-2 B cells remained in the germinal centers of all subjects for months. B cells were still present in the germinal centers of 10 out of 15 participants six months following vaccination.&nbsp;



Germinal centers are similar to boot camps where B cells are taught how to create higher-quality antibodies. The longer B cells stay in germinal centers, the stronger their antibodies become. Because germinal centers were assumed to last only a few weeks, finding these boot camps continually training B cells in the majority of patients so long after vaccination was unexpected, according to Dr. Ellebedy, and an indicator of a strong antibody response that continued to grow and strengthen.



The antibodies were significantly better six months after immunization than they were at the start. Only 20 percent of early antibodies bonded to a viral protein in one set of testing, yet samples from the same individuals showed that nearly 80 percent of antibodies linked to viral proteins six months later.



“When you look at antibodies, quantity should not be your only concern. The antibodies at six months might be less in quantity, but they are much better in quality. And that refinement of the antibody response happens on its own. You get your shot, maybe your arm hurts for a day, and then you forget about it. But six months later your germinal centres are still ongoing and your antibodies are still getting better and better.” explained Dr. Ellebedy.



“Everything changes when a new variant comes. You have to retrain your immune system. It’s like updating your anti-malware software to make sure it matches the newest computer viruses that are going around. It doesn’t mean the old software was bad. It just means it no longer completely matches the viruses it is going to encounter.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



---



By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antibodies improve in quality for months after COVID-19 vaccination

A recent study conducted by researchers at Washington Saint Louis...

Vacation photos of various animals such as zebras or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-travel-thousands-of-miles-to-mate/">whales</a> that tourists post on social media may have an unexpected benefit. According to new research led by the <a href="https://imageomics.osu.edu/team">Imageomics Institute</a> at the Ohio State University (OSU), vacation photos could help scientists track and gather information on endangered species. 



By using artificial intelligence (AI) programs to analyze photos of animals from publicly shared social media posts, researchers can identify and track individuals and better understand the patterns of their movements, as well as larger population trends.



“We have millions of images of endangered and threatened animals taken by scientists, camera traps, drones and even tourists,” said Tanya Berger-Wolf, the director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://tdai.osu.edu/">Translational Data Analytics Institute</a>&nbsp;at OSU. “Those images contain a wealth of data that we can extract and analyze to help protect animals and combat extinction.”



Since one of the biggest challenges that environmentalists currently face is the lack of data on nearly half of the 142,000 species on the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a>, the initiative of Dr. Berger-Wolf and her colleagues is a crucial step forward in clarifying the status of a large number of endangered species.



“If we want to save African elephants from extinction, we have to know how many there are in the world, and where they are, and how fast they’re declining,” Dr. Berger-Wolf explained. “We don’t have enough GPS collars and satellite tags to monitor all the elephants and answer those questions. But we can use AI techniques such as machine learning to analyze images of elephants to provide much of the information we need.”



Together with her research team, Dr. Berger-Wolf created a system called&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wildme.org/#/wildbook">Wildbook</a>,&nbsp;which uses computer vision algorithms to analyze photos taken by researchers in the field, as well as tourists on vacation. These highly performant AI algorithms can identify not only species of animals, but also individuals. For instance, Wildbook currently contains over two million photos of about 60,000 uniquely identified whales and dolphins from all over the world.



Besides offering precise information about when and where the images were taken, these photos can help conservation efforts by providing population counts, birth and death dynamics, species range, and details regarding the animals’ patterns of social interaction.&nbsp;



“The ability to extract biological information from images is the foundation of imageomics. We’re teaching machines to see things in images that humans may have missed or can’t see,” Dr. Berger-Wolf concluded.&nbsp;



She recently discussed these advances in using AI to analyze wildlife images in a <a href="https://aaas.confex.com/aaas/2022/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/29573">presentation</a> at the <a href="https://meetings.aaas.org/?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D49172270223902357213481499257602856343%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1645335554&amp;_ga=2.104515776.1389846101.1645260711-2046344334.1629960599">annual meeting</a> of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vacation photos can help save endangered animals

Vacation photos of various animals such as zebras or whales...

A Trump administration rule change left gray wolves throughout the United States without protection. Environmental and wildlife advocacy groups have been fighting this rule change in court as it lingered under the current administration.



On February 10, US District Judge Jeffrey White restored protection to wolves, prohibiting trapping and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-can-help-stabilize-wildlife-populations/">hunting</a> of the canids outside of the northern Rocky Mountain region. The Center for Biological Diversity is calling this a victory for wolves and for the plaintiffs.



“This is a huge win for gray wolves and the many people across the country who care so deeply about them,” said Collette Adkins, carnivore conservation director at the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/">Center for Biological Diversity</a>.&nbsp;



“I hope this ruling finally convinces the Fish and Wildlife Service to abandon its longstanding, misguided efforts to remove federal wolf protections. The agency should work instead to restore these ecologically important top carnivores to places like the southern Rockies and northeastern United States.”



In his 26-page ruling, Judge White wrote that the Service’s analysis relied on two core wolf populations to delist wolves nationally and failed to provide a reasonable interpretation of the ‘significant portion of its range’ standard.



For these reasons, he set aside the delisting of wolves from the Endangered Species Act, restoring protections to gray wolves across regions of the Great Lakes, West Coast, and the southern Rocky Mountains.



“Again and again, we’ve had to take the fight for wolves to the courts,” said Adkins. “I’m relieved that the court set things right but saddened that hundreds of wolves suffered and died under this illegal delisting rule. It will take years to undo the damage done to wolf populations.”



Under the rule change, wolves in the northern Rocky Mountain states of Montana, Idaho and Wyoming aren’t protected. However, concern over new laws enacted in Montana and Idaho that would lead to decimation of local wolves have caused the US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service to determine that protection <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/09/17/2021-20088/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-90-day-finding-for-two-petitions-to-list-the-gray-wolf">might be warranted</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Federal protection restored for some gray wolves, but not others

A Trump administration rule change left gray wolves throughout the...

A team of psychologists from <a href="http://uni-heidelberg.de/">Heidelberg University</a> has recently found that, contrary to previous widespread assumptions, mental speed - the speed at which we respond to issues requiring rapid decision-making - does not change substantially between the ages of 20 and 60, and starts deteriorating only at older ages.



“The common assumption is that the older we get, the more slowly we react to external stimuli. If that were so, mental speed would be fastest at the age of about twenty and would then decline with increasing age,” said study lead author Mischa von Krause, a postdoctoral researcher at Heidelberg.&nbsp;



Dr. von Kraus and his colleagues re-evaluated data from a large-scale online experiment with 1.2 million participants that was initially designed to study implicit biases. In the initial study, the participants had to press a button to sort pictures of individuals in the categories “white” and “black” and words into the categories “good” and “bad.” According to Dr. von Krause, the content focus was not important for the new study. Instead, the large dataset was used as an example of a response-time task to measure the duration of cognitive decisions.



Although the data analysis showed that, on average, the response times of the subjects increased with age, applying a complex mathematical model helped the scientists discover that, in fact, this phenomenon was not due to changes in mental speed. “Instead, we think that older test subjects are mainly slower because they reply more cautiously and concentrate more on avoiding mistakes,”&nbsp;said Dr. von Krause. Moreover, motor execution speed slows down with age, with older participants needing more time to press the appropriate button after finding the right answer.



The findings also suggest that, after the age of 60, average information processing speed only progressively declined. “It looks as though, in the course of our life, we don’t need to fear any substantial losses of mental speed – particularly not in the course of a typical working life,” concluded Dr. von Krause.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-021-01282-7">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mental speed remains high until the age of 60

A team of psychologists from Heidelberg University has recently found...

Humpaback,Whales,Playing,In,The,Ocean,In,Juneau,,Alaska

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0547#d1e1723">Biology Letters</a> has found that some humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) travel extremely long distances in search of mates during their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-have-a-high-risk-of-disease-due-to-inbreeding/">breeding</a> season. Moreover, while scientists previously presumed that whales which assemble on winter breeding grounds in Mexico and Hawaii are seasonally isolated, the new findings suggest that whales in these two winter assemblies may mix during one winter season.



By analyzing the <a href="https://www.happywhale.com/home">Happywhale</a> database, which includes photos of over 26,000 individual humpback whales taken since 1977, a research team led by <a href="https://whaletrust.org/">Whale Trust</a> in Hawaii found that two distinctive male humpback whales swam thousands of miles in search of partners during their mating season.&nbsp;



While the first whale traveled 2,824 miles (4,545 km) from Maui, Hawaii to the Revillagigedo Archipelago of Mexico between 23 February and 17 April 2006, the other made the opposite journey, travelling 3,693 miles (5,944 km) from Guerrero, Mexico to Maui between 16 February and 5 April 2018. Moreover, both whales have also been spotted in northern feeding grounds off Alaska and Canada during the summer months.



Although on average, humpback whales swim at speeds of around 2.5 mph, to complete their journeys in the time they did, the two males must have been swimming much faster than this.



“Our first reaction was, ‘You've got to be kidding me!’” said study lead author James Darling, a researcher at Whale Trust. “They might just be traveling the ocean like it's their own backyard.”



According to Darling and his colleagues, females may also be making these mammoth journeys. “If the males were out there following females, it would make more sense than them out there by themselves swimming for 40 days sans females during the breeding season,” explained Darling.&nbsp; &nbsp;



Overall, the findings suggest that, contrary to previous opinions, there aren’t distinct humpback whale populations in the north-east Pacific. The sighting of the two males in both Mexico and Hawaii, “combined with other lines of evidence on Mexico–Hawaii mixing, including interchange of individuals year to year, long-term similarity of everchanging songs, one earlier same-season travel record, and detection of humpback whales mid-ocean between these locations in winter, suggests reassessment of the ‘distinctiveness' of these populations may be warranted,” the authors concluded.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Humpback whales travel thousands of miles to mate

A new study published in the journal Biology Letters has...

3d,Rendering,Of,The,Walking,Spinosaurus

A research team led by the NOVA <a href="https://www.fct.unl.pt/en">School of Science and Technology</a> in Portugal has recently redescribed the fossils of a large theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">dinosaur</a> with a crocodile-like skull and spiny back discovered in 1999 around 30 miles south of Lisbon. The remains were initially assigned to&nbsp;Baryonyx walkeri, a genus of theropod dinosaurs that lived in the Early Cretaceous period (130-125 million years ago).&nbsp;



However, new materials recovered in 2020 together with fresh phylogenetic analyses have revealed that the fossils actually belong to a new genus and species, Iberospinus natarioi - a type of spinosaurid that roamed most of the Earth from the Early to Mid-Cretaceous.



“Spinosaurs are some of the most enigmatic theropod dinosaurs due to their unique adaptations to aquatic environments and their relative scarcity,” explained study lead author Octavio Mateus, a paleontologist at NOVA. “Their diet mainly included fish, although other food items, such as pterosaurs, were consumed.”



Iberospinus natarioi (named after Carlos Natario, an amateur paleontologist who discovered the fossils in 1999) was a medium-sized spinosaur, with a length of about 33 feet and a weight of three tons. It had a massive skull and spiny back similar to those of today’s crocodiles, and most probably waded into the water to prey on fish.&nbsp;



One of the most striking features of this dinosaur is its unique pattern of nearly constant teeth replacement, with new teeth growing in its jaws always ready to replace those used or damaged as a result of hunting. Among the fossils discovered near Lisbon, scientists found tooth sockets with two replacement teeth in development next to the one in use. Although frequent teeth replacement is known to be quite common among spinosaurids, Iberospinus natarioi seemed to have a much quicker turnaround time than its relatives.



According to Professor Mateus and his colleagues, the rather unusual body plan of this dinosaur and related spinosaurids is an adaptation to the largely aquatic environments in which they hunted, “either as specialized pursuit aquatic predators in some cases or as wading-ambush hunters, like herons.”



The remains of this dinosaur form one of the most complete spinosaurid specimens discovered until now, and offers further evidence that the spinosaurid clade possibly originated in the territory of today’s Western Europe.



A detailed description of Iberospinus natarioi is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0262614">PLOS One</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spinosaurid found in Portugal had a crocodile-like skull

A research team led by the NOVA School of Science...

Frozen,Reflection,Lake,And,Mount,Rainier,At,Sunrise,,Mount,Rainier

For centuries, the beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-will-have-major-consequences-for-lakes-worldwide/">lakes</a> of Madison, Wisconsin (especially Lake Monona and Lake Mendota) have been important winter attractions for a large number of locals and tourists interested in outdoor pursuits such as ice fishing, ice skating, ice boating, or simply strolling along the lakes’ frozen surfaces. However, while it was once common for the lakes to freeze in mid-December and hold ice until April, climate change is recently driving later freeze dates and earlier thaws across the Northern Hemisphere.



Scientists have been keeping track of these lakes’ <a href="https://www.aos.wisc.edu/~sco/lakes/Mendota-ice.html">freezing and thawing dates</a> for over 170 years – long enough to see trends in “lake ice seasons.” The data shows that, over this period, the number of days the lakes spend covered in ice each winter has shrunk by a month.



According to the Wisconsin State Climatology Office’s <a href="https://www.aos.wisc.edu/~sco/lakes/msnicesum.html">Madison Lakes Ice Summary</a>, this year both Lake Monona and Lake Mendota froze only in January. While these dates (January 3rd and January 7th) don’t rank in the top ten latest freeze dates on record, they are more than two weeks beyond the median freeze date of December 20th.&nbsp;



Since record keeping was initiated in 1852, the median freeze date of the Madison lakes is five days before Christmas. However, while in the first several decades, the majority of freeze dates were earlier than December 20th, the last few decades reveal a highly different picture of what a “normal” ice season looks like.



In the last thirty years, half of Lake Mendota’s freeze dates have been in January, and over the last decade, eight of them have been after the December 20th median, and seven of those were in January. Considering the fact that, before 2010, there was no single decade in the lake ice dataset when a majority of freeze dates were in January, the current situation is worrisome.&nbsp;



As larger <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0393-5">studies</a> suggest, climate change is driving loss of lake ice all around the Northern Hemisphere, with 14,800 lakes currently experiencing intermittent winter ice cover.&nbsp;



Scientists estimate that, within the next generation, an even more extensive loss of lake ice will occur, a phenomenon which highlights the importance of climate change mitigation strategies in order to preserve ecosystem structure and function, as well as local winter cultural heritage and traditions, such as those associated with the Madison Lakes for over two centuries.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

North American lakes are freezing later, thawing earlier

For centuries, the beautiful lakes of Madison, Wisconsin (especially Lake...

A new study has identified structural connectivity changes that "rewire" the brains of cosmonauts during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-hibernating-squirrels-can-teach-space-travelers/">space</a> missions. To study the changing of the human brain due to spaceflight, the scientists studied brain images created using fiber tractography.&nbsp;



The research was a collaboration between the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos led by Dr. Floris Wuyts.



“Fiber tractography gives a sort of wiring scheme of the brain. Our study is the first to use this specific method to detect changes in brain structure after spaceflight,” explained Wuyts.&nbsp;



“From previous studies, we know that these motor areas show signs of adaptation after spaceflight. Now, we have a first indication that it is also reflected at the level of connections between those regions,”



The research team studied images of the brains of 12 male cosmonauts before and immediately after spaceflight, as well as eight scans seven months after the flight. All of the cosmonauts were on long flights, averaging 172 days.&nbsp;



Motor function control in the brain seemed to adjust over time, to compensate for weightlessness. Even seven months after a return to earth, these changes in the brain were still visible. There were also changes in anatomy seen immediately after spaceflight that the researchers were able to explain.&nbsp;



“We initially thought to have detected changes in the corpus callosum, which is the central highway connecting both hemispheres of the brain,” explained Wuyts. “The structural changes we initially found in the corpus callosum are actually caused by the dilation of the ventricles that induce anatomical shifts of the adjacent neural tissue."



"Where initially it was thought that there are real structural changes in the brain, we only observe shape changes. This puts the findings in a different perspective.”



The research shows one small piece of how humans change during spaceflight, something important to understand if we continue to explore space into the future.&nbsp;



“These findings give us additional pieces of the entire puzzle. Since this research is so pioneering, we don’t know how the whole puzzle will look yet. These results contribute to our overall understanding of what’s going on in the brains of space travelers," said Wuyts.



"It is crucial to maintain this line of research, looking for spaceflight induced brain changes from different perspectives and using different techniques."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neural-circuits">Frontiers in Neural Circuits</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cosmonaut brains are "rewired" during long spaceflights

A new study has identified structural connectivity changes that "rewire"...

A paper published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17596831">Journal of Systematics and Evolution</a> describes two&nbsp; new species of fossil birds discovered near the Great Wall of China in a place called Changma. Over a period of twenty years, paleontologists excavated more than 100 individual birds that lived more than 120 million years ago. Many of the fossils were crushed or incomplete, making them impossible to identify. Six of the specimens, however, were useful enough to identify two new species.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It was a long, painstaking process teasing out what these things were,” said study lead author Jingmai O’Connor, the associate curator of vertebrate paleontology at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>. “But these new specimens include two new species that increase our knowledge of Cretaceous bird faunas, and we found combinations of dental features that we’ve never seen in any other dinosaurs.”



O’Connor’s work focuses on birds and explores why some went extinct with the other dinosaurs, while others survived and gave rise to the species we have today.&nbsp;



“These fossils come from a site in China that has produced fossils of birds that are pretty darned close to modern birds, but all the bird fossils described thus far haven’t had skulls preserved with the bodies,” said co-author Jerry Harris of Utah Tech University. “These new skull specimens help fill in that gap in our knowledge of the birds from this site and of bird evolution as a whole.”



The new genera and species were named Meemannavis ductrix and Brevidentavis zhangi. Meemannavis is named for Meemann Chang, a pioneering female Chinese paleontologist. The birds were similar to modern birds, with Brevidentavis having the small difference of being toothed and having a unique jaw.



“Brevidentavis is an ornithuromorph bird with teeth, and in ornithuromorphs with teeth, there’s a little bone at the front of the jaw called the predentary, where its chin would be if birds had chins,” explained O’Connor. “In this earlier study, we were able to tell that the predentary was capable of being moved, and that it would have been innervated – Brevidentavis wouldn’t just have been able to move its predentary, it would have been able to feel through it,”



It’s possible that Brevidentavis used its strange moveable jaw to catch insect prey, although we’ll probably never know for sure. Either way, it seems paleontologists have found a treasure trove of bird fossils in Changma.



“These discoveries strengthen the hypothesis that the Changma locality is unusual in that it is dominated by ornithuromorph birds, which is uncommon in the Cretaceous,” said O’Connor. “Learning about these relatives of modern birds can ultimately help us understand why today’s birds made it when the others didn’t.”



Image Credit: Illustration by Cindy Joli, Julio Francisco Garza Lorenzo, and René Dávila Rodríguez



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fascinating fossil birds discovered in China

A paper published in the Journal of Systematics and Evolution...

By pooling and analyzing data from dozens of experiments, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> has found that exercise can help older adults retain their episodic memory. This refers to the capacity to recollect personal experiences which contain detailed information about what happened, when, and where.



When asked to describe the nature of episodic memory, “I usually like to talk about the first time you got behind the wheel of a car,” said study lead author Sarah Aghjayan, a doctoral student at the University of Pittsburgh. “So you might remember where you were, how old you were, who was in the passenger seat explaining things to you, that feeling of excitement.”



While experiments in mice have already shown that exercise improves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-finds-strong-correlation-between-heart-and-brain-health/">brain health</a> and memory, studies investigating this link in humans had mixed results. In order to seek more clarity, Aghjayan and her colleagues pored over 1,279 studies, eventually narrowing them down to 36 which met specific criteria. By using specialized software to analyze the data, the researchers shown that a comparison of the 36 studies suggests that, for older adults, exercise has clear benefits for episodic memory.



Although the studies in themselves could not find clear correlations between exercise and improvements in memory, examining the whole body of research and comparing individual studies brought this pattern into focus. “When we combine and merge all this data, it allows us to examine almost 3,000 participants,” Aghjayan said. “Each individual study is very important: They all contribute to science in a meaningful way.”



The scientists found that there were greater improvements in episodic memory among participants who were 55 to 68 years old, compared to those with ages between 69 and 85. Moreover, the greatest effects of exercise were found in those who hadn’t yet experienced any cognitive decline and exercised about three times a week for at least four months.



Although further research is needed to clarify how the intensity of exercise affects the memory benefits, this study’s implications for public health are clear: exercise is an accessible way for older adults to mitigate cognitive decline, benefiting not only themselves but also their caretakers and the healthcare system in general.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43856-022-00079-7">Communications Medicine</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise helps you hold on to cherished memories

By pooling and analyzing data from dozens of experiments, a...

Rare earth elements are a group of 17 metal oxides that are difficult to acquire and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-can-be-recycled-into-construction-materials/">recycle</a>. They are widely used in the manufacturing of various electronic devices. A group of researchers at <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> recently made a groundbreaking discovery that could revolutionize rare mineral extraction.



Professor James Tour reported that his team has recovered valuable rare earth elements (REE) from garbage at yields high enough to help manufacturers address problems while increasing profitability.



The lab's flash Joule heating process, which was first used to produce graphene from any solid carbon source several years ago, is now being used to retrieve rare metals that have magnetic and electronic properties from three sources: coal fly ash, bauxite residue, and electronic waste. These metals are critical to modern electronics and green technologies.



The researchers claim that this method is better for the environment because it uses significantly less energy and reduces the amount of acid necessary to recover the elements to a trickle.



Rare earth elements are not all that uncommon. Cerium, for example, is more plentiful than copper, and they all outnumber gold. However, together with yttrium and scandium, these 15 lanthanide elements are widely scattered and tough to extract from mined minerals.



“The U.S. used to mine rare earth elements, but you get a lot of radioactive elements as well. You’re not allowed to reinject the water, and it has to be disposed of, which is expensive and problematic. On the day the U.S. did away with all rare earth mining, the foreign sources raised their price tenfold.” explained Professor Tour.



There's plenty of incentive to recycle what's previously been mined, said Tour. Much of it is heaped up or buried in fly ash, a coal-fired power plant waste. Bauxite residue, sometimes known as red mud, is a harmful byproduct of aluminium manufacture, whereas electronic waste comes from old computers and phones.



“We have mountains of it. The residue of burning coal is silicon, aluminium, iron and calcium oxides that form glass around the trace elements, making them very hard to extract," said Professor Tour.&nbsp;



The Rice lab heats fly ash and other materials (combined with carbon black to enhance conductivity) to about 3,000 degrees Celsius (5,432 degrees Fahrenheit) in a second, whereas industrial extraction from these wastes typically involves leaching with strong acid, a time-consuming and non-green process. The waste is converted into highly soluble "activated REE species" during the process.



"Breaking the glass that encases these elements and converting REE phosphates to metal oxides that dissolve much more easily," Tour said of treating fly ash with flash Joule heating. To extract the components, industrial techniques utilize a 15-molar concentration of nitric acid. The Rice method uses a much softer 0.1-molar concentration of hydrochloric acid, which nonetheless provides more output.



The researchers discovered that flash Joule heating coal fly ash (CFA) more than doubled the production of most rare earth elements when compared to leaching untreated CFA in strong acids in studies headed by postdoctoral researcher and primary author Bing Deng.



"The method is general for various wastes.By using the same activation procedure, we were able to enhance REE recovery yields from coal fly ash, bauxite residue, and electronic wastes," said Bing.



The process's generality makes it particularly promising, according to Bing, because millions of tons of bauxite residue and electronic trash are created each year.



“The Department of Energy has determined this is a critical need that has to be resolved. Our process tells the country that we’re no longer dependent on environmentally detrimental mining or foreign sources for rare earth elements," said Professor Tour.&nbsp;



In 2020, Tour's lab pioneered flash Joule heating to convert coal, petroleum coke, and waste into graphene, a single-atom-thick form of carbon that is now commercialized. Since then, the group has improved the procedure to recover precious metals from electronic waste and turn plastic waste into graphene.



The research was supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the Department of Energy. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare earth elements are waiting to be discovered in waste

Rare earth elements are a group of 17 metal oxides...

The ability to recognize a reflection in a mirror as an image of self is considered a hallmark of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disorders-cognition-problems/">cognition</a> in animals. And the classic way of testing this self-awareness involves passing the ‘mark’ test. This test, also known as the mirror self-recognition (MSR) test, involves marking an individual animal in a place on the body that is only visible when the individual sees it in a mirror reflection. If the animal then investigates or touches the mark, it is considered to have demonstrated that it recognizes the image in the mirror as belonging to itself.&nbsp;



Very few species have passed the mark test. These include chimpanzees and other great apes, a single Asian elephant, some rays, dolphins, orcas and Eurasian magpies. A 2019 research paper that claimed cleaner wrasses&nbsp;(Labroides dimidiatus) also passed the mark test was criticized by some members of the scientific community, including the test's inventor, American psychologist&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_G._Gallup">Gordon G. Gallup</a>. In response, the authors of the 2019 paper have undertaken new and more extensive experiments with cleaner wrasses to determine the validity of the criticisms.



The new research, published today in the journal PLOS Biology, was led by Professor Masanori Kohda from the Graduate School of Science, <a href="https://www.osaka-cu.ac.jp/en">Osaka City University</a>. It tackled the methodological criticisms levelled at the initial experiments and has provided further evidence to suggest the fish do have the capacity for MSR.



One of the criticisms related to the small sample of cleaner wrasses used in the mark test. “Previously, using a brown marking on the throat area of&nbsp;L. dimidiatus, we had shown three out of four cleaner fish to scrape their throats several times after swimming in front of a mirror, a number on par with similar studies done on other animals like elephants, dolphins, and magpies," explained Professor Kohda.



However, in response to the issue of small sample size, the researchers managed to increase the number of fish in the study to 18. They teamed up with scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior in Germany, and the University of Neuchâtel in Switzerland, and observed that 17 of the 18 cleaner fish (94 percent) demonstrated the same scraping behavior that was recorded for fish that had been marked in the 2019 study.



The critics of the initial study had also questioned the researchers’ use of a brown mark on the throat of the cleaner wrasses, when the classic mark test employs a bright red spot or sticker.&nbsp;



“After looking at similar studies done on monkeys, pigs, dogs, cats, etc. that clearly tested negative, we wondered if the reason these animals didn’t attend to the mark was because it didn’t represent something in their natural environment that they would be concerned about,” said Professor Kohda. “In our previous study, we used a brown mark as it may look like a small parasite that is a main food source for&nbsp;L. dimidiatus.”&nbsp;



At the time, critics had asserted that the physical sensation of the mark, together with seeing the brown mark in the mirror, may possibly have triggered behavior that didn’t conclusively suggest MSR. To address this, the team now tested how the fish would respond to a physical stimulus in their throat by injecting the brown mark 3 mm deep (as opposed to 1mm). At such a depth the mark was hardly visible, yet they found that fish with the deeper insertion scraped their throat at similar rates, whether a mirror was absent or present.&nbsp;



To further support their choice of a brown mark that was ecologically relevant to the cleaner fish, the team tested fish with green or blue marks and found that no fish injected with green or blue marks demonstrated the scraping behavior.



A further criticism of the initial research was that the experiments had not proven that L. dimidiatus&nbsp;recognized the mirror image as itself and not another fish. When training a fish to look at the image of itself in a mirror, three steps are involved. Initially, when faced with a mirror image, a fish will express aggressive behavior, probably because it perceives the image as another fish. Then, after some time, fish presented with the image in the mirror show some unnatural behavior but are not aggressive as they realize that there is no other fish associated with the mirror. And lastly the fish repeatedly looks at itself in the mirror, with no aggression. At this stage, MSR is possible as the fish can look intently at the image and can potentially see the mark and then respond by going to scrape it off.



“Our previous study demonstrated MSR in&nbsp;L. dimidiatus,” said Professor Kohda, “however studies with other animals have shown that simply moving a mirror reignites aggressive behavior, suggesting the animal has only learned a spatial contingency, not MSR.” To address this, the team transferred mirror-trained cleaner fish to a tank with a mirror on one side of the tank and then, three days later, to a different tank with a mirror on the other side. They found that the fish showed no aggression towards their mirror image in either of the tanks.



To further support the conclusion that the L. dimidiatus&nbsp;are actually capable of recognizing themselves during the mark test, the researchers placed mirror-trained fish in adjacent tanks that were separated by transparent glass. After two to three days, when fish largely reduced their aggressive behavior towards each other, they were all marked with a brown mark the following night. When they were exposed to the fish in the adjacent tank for 120 minutes the following morning, none of them scraped their throat.&nbsp;



“This result suggests that a visual ecologically relevant stimulus on another fish is not enough to induce throat scraping on marked subjects,” said Professor Kohda. The evidence arising from these new experiments supports the conclusion of the 2019 study that found cleaner wrasses show behavioral responses that can be interpreted as passing the mark (or mirror) test and could therefore be attributed with a sense of self-awareness.&nbsp;



“We still have much work to be done, especially quantitatively, to show that fish, as well as other animals have the capacity for MSR, however as a result of this study we reiterate the conclusion of our previous study that either self-awareness in animals or the validity of the mirror test needs to be revised,” concluded Professor Kohda.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study confirms that fish can recognize themselves in a mirror

The ability to recognize a reflection in a mirror as...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...