Throughout history, Earth has faced cataclysmic events that reshaped its climate and ecosystems. Some of these events were triggered by asteroid impacts, leaving long-lasting effects on both land and sea. 



Scientists continue to study these possibilities, not just to understand past extinctions but to prepare for potential future threats.



A recent study by researchers from the IBS Center for Climate Physics (<a href="https://ibsclimate.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICCP</a>) at <a href="https://www.pusan.ac.kr/eng/Main.do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pusan National University</a> in South Korea explores what would happen if a medium-sized asteroid struck Earth.



Using advanced climate models, the research team simulated how such an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-asteroid-2024-yr4-has-a-chance-of-hitting-earth-in-2032/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> could disrupt the atmosphere, weather patterns, and even global food security. 



The findings reveal a world drastically altered, with some life struggling to survive while other forms unexpectedly thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-of-an-asteroid-collision">Risk of an asteroid collision</h2>



Earth is surrounded by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-ingredients-building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroid-bennu-dust-sample/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">countless objects</a> with relatively close orbits. Most pose no immediate threat, but some have collision probabilities that cannot be ignored.



One of the more notable objects is the asteroid Bennu, which measures about 500 meters in diameter. According to recent studies, there is a 1-in-2700 chance that Bennu could collide with Earth in September 2182.



To put that probability into perspective, it is similar to flipping a coin 11 times and getting the same outcome every time. 



While such a scenario remains unlikely, the potential consequences are severe enough to warrant scientific investigation.



If an asteroid of this size were to strike, the damage would go far beyond the initial impact zone, triggering worldwide disruptions that could last for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-an-asteroid-impact">Simulating an asteroid impact</h2>



To understand the potential consequences, researchers at <a href="https://ibsclimate.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICCP</a> created an advanced climate model to simulate a medium-sized asteroid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-large-asteroids-will-pass-near-earth-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collision</a>. 



Their model assumed that an impact would release several hundred million tons of dust into the upper atmosphere. This dust would block sunlight, triggering a global cooling event similar to what happened after massive volcanic eruptions in Earth's past.



Unlike previous studies, which focused mainly on atmospheric and temperature changes, this research also examined the effects on terrestrial and marine ecosystems. 



The team wanted to determine how plant life, both on land and in the ocean, would respond to the sudden climate shift.



Using the IBS supercomputer Aleph, the researchers ran multiple scenarios, varying the amount of dust injected into the atmosphere. 



The results showed widespread disruption to climate, atmospheric chemistry, and global photosynthesis for at least three to four years after the impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changes-due-to-asteroid-collision">Climate changes due to asteroid collision</h2>



The most extreme scenario revealed that solar dimming caused by dust would lead to a global surface cooling of up to 4°C. 



This drop in temperature would have a severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-recent-mini-moon-2024-pt5-seems-to-be-a-lost-fragment-of-our-real-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> on agriculture, making it harder for crops to grow in many parts of the world.



Rainfall would also decrease by around 15%, further worsening food production. In addition, the study predicted ozone depletion of about 32%, exposing life to harmful ultraviolet radiation.



While these changes would affect the entire planet, some regions would suffer more than others. Areas already prone to drought could experience even harsher conditions, while colder regions might see longer, more intense winters. 



The disruptions would make it difficult for many species, including humans, to adapt quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-land-and-ocean-ecosystems">Impact on land and ocean ecosystems</h2>



Dr. Lan DAI, a postdoctoral research fellow at ICCP and lead author of the study, explained how these changes would affect ecosystems across the globe.



“The abrupt impact winter would provide unfavorable climate conditions for plants to grow, leading to an initial 20–30% reduction of photosynthesis in terrestrial and marine ecosystems. This would likely cause massive disruptions in global food security,” said Dr. Lan DAI.



While land plants would struggle with the sudden drop in temperature and reduced sunlight, the researchers found something surprising when they analyzed ocean plankton. 



Unlike their land-based counterparts, plankton displayed an entirely different response to the impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-recovery-in-the-ocean">Surprising recovery in the ocean</h2>



The computer models showed that while photosynthesis on land declined sharply, ocean plankton rebounded quickly. 



Within six months, plankton levels returned to normal, and in some cases, they even surpassed pre-impact levels.



This unexpected recovery was linked to the composition of the asteroid dust and its climate impact.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/asteroid-impact-simulation_global-climate_plant-life_credit-IBS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/asteroid-impact-simulation_global-climate_plant-life_credit-IBS_1s.webp" alt="Climatic and ecological responses to dust injections of 400 million tons from a Bennu-type asteroid impact. Spatial changes of surface temperature (upper left), total precipitation (upper right), percentage change of terrestrial net primary productivity (lower left) averaged over the first 24 months, and percentage change of marine net primary productivity (lower right) averaged from 10 to 38 months after the impact relative to the control simulation. Credit: Institute for Basic Science" class="wp-image-1959081"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Climatic and ecological responses to dust injections of 400 million tons from a Bennu-type asteroid impact. Spatial changes of surface temperature (upper left), total precipitation (upper right), percentage change of terrestrial net primary productivity (lower left) averaged over the first 24 months, and percentage change of marine net primary productivity (lower right) averaged from 10 to 38 months after the impact relative to the control simulation. Credit: Institute for Basic Science</figcaption></figure>



“We were able to track this unexpected response to the iron concentration in the dust,” said Professor Axel Timmermann, Director of the ICCP and co-author of the study.



Iron is a critical nutrient for algae, and in some parts of the ocean, natural iron levels are extremely low. When the asteroid struck, it released iron-rich dust into the atmosphere, which eventually settled into the ocean.



This sudden influx of iron created ideal conditions for algae growth, particularly in nutrient-depleted regions like the Southern Ocean and the eastern tropical Pacific. The result was an explosion of marine productivity, with algae blooms spreading across large ocean areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boom-in-marine-life">Boom in marine life</h2>



The study found that silicate-rich algae, known as diatoms, benefited the most from the increased iron levels. 



These microscopic organisms form the base of the marine food chain, meaning their growth would attract higher levels of zooplankton, which feed on them. This process set off a chain reaction, boosting marine life at multiple levels.



“The simulated excessive phytoplankton and zooplankton blooms might be a blessing for the biosphere and may help alleviate emerging food insecurity related to the longer-lasting reduction in terrestrial productivity,” noted Dr. Lan DAI.



While terrestrial ecosystems would struggle for years after an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-test-simulation-shows-earth-not-prepared-prevent-large-asteroid-strike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid impact</a>, the ocean might become a refuge for certain species. This unexpected benefit could help balance some of the food shortages caused by declining crop yields on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-past-asteroid-strikes">Lessons from past asteroid strikes </h2>



Medium-sized asteroids have collided with Earth approximately every 100,000 to 200,000 years. These events have left permanent marks on the planet’s geological and biological history. 



Scientists believe that some of these impacts may have shaped human evolution by forcing early human populations to adapt to harsh environmental conditions.



“On average, medium-sized asteroids collide with Earth about every 100-200 thousand years. This means that our early human ancestors may have experienced some of these planet-shifting events before with potential impacts on human evolution and even our own genetic makeup,” said Professor Timmermann.



Studying these past events can help scientists understand how humanity might respond to a future impact. If a medium-sized asteroid were to strike again, modern technology and global cooperation could play a key role in minimizing its effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroid-driven-climate-shifts-of-the-past">Asteroid-driven climate shifts of the past </h2>



The ICCP researchers plan to expand their study by simulating how early human populations might have responded to asteroid-driven climate shifts. 



Using agent-based computer models, they aim to recreate the survival strategies of ancient humans as they faced drastic environmental changes.



Understanding past events is crucial, but preparing for the future is just as important. While the chances of an asteroid collision remain low, having scientific models in place can help policymakers and researchers develop strategies to mitigate potential risks. 



From planetary defense initiatives to climate adaptation plans, the knowledge gained from these studies could one day prove vital for protecting life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq5399" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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What would happen if a small asteroid hit Earth? Scientists have an idea

Throughout history, Earth has faced cataclysmic events that reshaped its climate and ecosystems. Some of these events were triggered by asteroid impacts, leaving long-lasting effects on both land and sea. Scientists continue to study these possibilities, not just to understand past extinctions but to prepare for potential future threats. A recent study by researchers from the IBS Center for Climate Physics (ICCP) at Pusan National University in South Korea explores what would happen if a medium-sized asteroid struck Earth. Using advanced climate models, the research team simulated...

It’s well known to most that the iconic Amazon rainforest is dwindling; with trees under the saw and flame as you read this. Thousands of acres of forest are destroyed each year. We all know this story.&nbsp;



What is less common knowledge is the destruction of life in the Amazon River itself. Now a new study published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a> takes a hard look at fishing in the great river. This is the first, large-scale pan-Amazonian investigation of the river’s fisheries, and the findings aren’t good.



The research team looked at the places where fish catches are left to see what fish are present and which ones are becoming less common.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We are seeing a decline in large-bodied species,” said lead author Sebastian Heilpern, a Cornell Presidential Postdoctoral Fellow. “Large-body species are more vulnerable, as they are slower to develop. As they decline, we see they are also being replaced by smaller species. This pattern is consistent with overexploitation.”



The evidence is clear that fishes are being caught at rates which are unsustainable. There are simply not enough fish reproducing fast enough to replenish the numbers lost to hungry humans. Given that the Amazon is the most productive freshwater fishery in the world, it’s not surprising that the people living on its banks and the surrounding areas eat a lot of fish. In fact, at an average of 110 lbs of fish per year, per person, these are some of the highest fish consumption rates anywhere.&nbsp;



This problem is a long time coming. In 1990, the United Nations reported that 90 percent of the fish were still at sustainable levels. By 2017, this percentage had dropped to an estimated 65.8 percent.&nbsp;&nbsp;



There is still hope, however. The research suggests that greater enforcement of fishing regulations, improved monitoring and better laws could help the problem. “Additionally, expanding protected areas can maintain habitats that are critical for many fish species,” said Heilpern.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Overfishing is wiping out large-bodied fish in the Amazon

It’s well known to most that the iconic Amazon rainforest...

Polar reversals have happened before, and although the average time between them has been 200,000 years, these events occur at irregular intervals. There is a strange and mysterious zone in the South Atlantic where the strength of the magnetic field is waning quickly. This odd phenomenon has led some to speculate that the Earth’s magnetic field is moving towards flipping or reversing itself. Now, a new study shows that a polar reversal is unlikely any time soon. 



Over the last 180 years, Earth’s magnetic field has decreased as the strange area in the South Atlantic with a weak magnetic field has grown in size. This spot often causes satellites to falter due to exposure to highly charged particles from the sun and is known as the “South Atlantic anomaly."&nbsp;



“We have mapped changes in the Earth’s magnetic field over the past 9,000 years, and anomalies like the one in the South Atlantic are probably recurring phenomena linked to corresponding variations in the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field," said study co-author Andreas Nilsson, a geologist at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a>.



The researchers were able to map the magnetic field by looking at volcanic rock samples, core drillings, even clay pots heated to temperatures over 580 degrees celsius. When rocks are heated to such temperatures, the liquid magnetic components align themselves with the Earth’s magnetic field. As the rocks cool, they harden into a snapshot of the magnetic field at the time. 



“We have developed a new modeling technique that connects these indirect observations from different time periods and locations into one global reconstruction of the magnetic field over the past 9,000 years," said Nilsson.



With this magnetic field record in hand, the scientists were able to compare the modern magnetic field, anomalies included with past iterations and come to the conclusion that a reversal is not imminent,&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Based on similarities with the recreated anomalies, we predict that the South Atlantic Anomaly will probably disappear within the next 300 years, and that Earth is not heading towards a polarity reversal," concluded Nilsson.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth's magnetic field is not likely to reverse any time soon

Polar reversals have happened before, and although the average time...

Scientists have recently identified <a href="https://news.osu.edu/ocean-water-samples-yield-treasure-trove-of-rna-virus-data/">5,500 marine RNA virus species</a>. The study has revealed that several of these species could drive carbon absorbed from the atmosphere to be stored on the ocean floor.



A small portion of these newly identified species had “stolen” genes from organisms they infected, helping researchers identify their hosts and functions in marine processes. This research is leading to a fuller understanding of the role these tiny particles play in the ocean ecosystem.



“The findings are important for model development and predicting what is happening with carbon in the correct direction and at the correct magnitude,” said Ahmed Zayed, a research scientist at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> and co-first author of the study.



Lead author Matthew Sullivan envisions identifying viruses that, when engineered on a massive scale, could function as controllable “knobs” affecting how carbon in the ocean is stored.



“As humans put more carbon into the atmosphere, we’re dependent on the massive buffering capacity of the ocean to slow climate change. We’re growing more and more aware that we might need to tune the pump at the scale of the ocean,” said Sullivan.



“We’d be interested in viruses that could tune toward a more digestible carbon, which allows the system to grow, produce bigger and bigger cells, and sink. And if it sinks, we gain another few hundred or a thousand years from the worst effects of climate change.”



These RNA viruses were detected in plankton samples collected by the <a href="https://fondationtaraocean.org/en/home/">Tara Oceans Consortium</a>, a global study on the impact of climate change on the ocean. The research project aims to predict how the ocean will respond to climate change by understanding the organisms that absorb half of human-generated carbon in the atmosphere and produce half of the oxygen we breathe.



These marine viral species infect organisms using their cellular machinery to make copies of themselves. While this is bad for the host, the virus could generate environmental benefits, such as reducing a harmful algal bloom.



As a result of the statistical analysis, the study revealed that while warmer regions usually are more biodiverse, the diversity of RNA viral species was higher than expected in the Arctic and Antarctic.



“When it comes to diversity, viruses don’t care about the temperature,” said co-first author Guillermo Dominguez-Huerta. “There were more apparent interactions between viruses and cellular life in polar areas. That tells us the high diversity we’re looking at in polar areas is basically because we have more viral species competing for the same host. We see fewer species of hosts but more viral species infecting the same hosts.”



The viruses were also found to integrate themselves into genomes accidentally. “When it happens, it’s a clue about the host because if you find a virus signal within a host genome, it’s because at some point the virus was inside the cell,” Dominguez-Huerta said.



The experts found that RNA viruses mostly infect fungi and microbial eukaryotes and invertebrates. Only a tiny fraction of the viruses infect bacteria.



Further analysis identified 1,243 RNA virus species connected to carbon export. Eleven species were involved in promoting carbon export to the bottom of the sea. Of those, two viruses linked to hosts in the algae family were selected as the most promising targets for follow-up.



“I’m envisioning our use of AMGs and these viruses that are predicted to infect particular hosts to actually dial up those metabolic maps toward the carbon we need. It’s through that metabolic activity that we probably need to act.” said Sullivan.



Sullivan, Dominguez-Huerta and Zayed are also team members in the <a href="https://emerge-bii.github.io/people/">EMERGE Biology Integration Institute</a> at Ohio State.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn6358?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D55374184033133270110813161660133997534%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1654732824">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marine viruses may help slow climate change

Scientists have recently identified 5,500 marine RNA virus species. The...

Ectothermic animals do not maintain a constant body temperature but, instead, have variable temperatures that largely reflect the ambient temperature of their surroundings. This often makes them dependent on environmental warmth for their metabolic functioning. In warmer conditions, their metabolic rates increase and they become more active and soon need to consume more food in order to support themselves.&nbsp;



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian Institute</a> and Temple University have now conducted a study to establish experimentally whether marine predatory fish are more active and voracious in the warmer oceans of the world, and what the possible consequences of this may be for marine food webs that have existed for millennia but that now face ocean warming.



“It’s taken thousands of years to get to this state, and then suddenly we’re ramping up the temperature at a much higher rate,” said Gail Ashton, lead author of the report and marine biologist with the&nbsp;<a href="https://serc.si.edu/">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a>&nbsp;(SERC). “And we don’t really know the implications of that temperature increase.”



Although it seems obvious that predators in tropical waters will be more active and have higher metabolic rates, past research on this topic has led to conflicting findings. And very few studies have tackled the question of how increased predator activity affects prey communities. These are very pertinent issues, given the gradual increases in ocean temperatures measured throughout the world.&nbsp;



“Warmer waters tend to favor animals high in the food chain, which become more active and need more food – and it’s their prey who pay for that increased activity,” said co-author Emmett Duffy, director of the Smithsonian’s&nbsp;<a href="https://marinegeo.si.edu/">Marine Global Earth Observatory</a>&nbsp;network (MarineGEO). “This suggests that warming seas could see big shifts in the life of sensitive seabed habitats.”



In order to investigate these issues, the researchers set up experimental sites, with international partners, at 36 locations along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the Americas. The sites spanned from Alaska in the north to Tierra de Fuego, at the southernmost tip of South America. At each site, the researchers performed the same three experiments on predators and prey.



The first experiment involved attracting predatory fish to bait stations using “squid pops.” Designed by Duffy and the MarineGEO team, squid pops resembled cake pops at coffee shops. They consisted of pieces of dried squid that were attached to a stake and left under water for an hour, after which the researchers checked how many baits had been devoured. The results of this experiment confirmed that predation was more intense at warmer sites while it dropped to near zero where the water was cold (below 68oF or 20oC).



“This temperature threshold represents an ecological tipping point in these coastal marine ecosystems, above which predation intensity increases,” said Amy Freestone, co-author and associate professor of biology at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.temple.edu/">Temple University.</a>&nbsp;“With climate change, more coastal waters will exceed this tipping point, or warm even further, fundamentally changing how these ecosystems function.”&nbsp;



In the second experiment, the researchers tried to quantify the effects of hungrier predators on some of their prey species. They looked at the stationary underwater invertebrates that fish like to feast on, like tunicates and bryozoans, and measured their rates of colonization and growth on underwater plastic panels for three months. Some of the panels were covered by protective cages that allowed normal water circulation but kept the predators out, while other panels were left exposed.&nbsp;



In a final experimental procedure, an entire set of panels was protected from predators for 10 weeks, by means of cages. After this time, half of the panels were uncaged and the prey communities left exposed for the following two weeks, while the other half of the panels remained protected.



The results, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, showed that in warmer water, the more voracious appetites of predatory fish had significant impacts on the prey communities. Total prey biomass plunged in the tropics when prey were left unprotected. But in the coldest zones, protecting prey from predators made little difference, suggesting that predators did not have as much of an impact in these conditions.&nbsp;



“We knew from previous work in Panama that predation in the neotropics can be intense,” said Mark Torchin, co-author and marine ecologist with the&nbsp;<a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>&nbsp;in Panama. “However, working with our colleagues across the Americas allowed us to test the generality of this and to evaluate how the effects of predation change in colder environments.”



In addition, the researchers found that predation changed the structure of prey communities in their experiments. Predators liked eating solitary, bottle-shaped tunicates (“sea squirts”), so those prey suffered major losses in the tropics when left unprotected. Meanwhile, encrusting bryozoans (“moss animals”) flourished in the newly freed space as fish largely left them alone. Tunicates are prolific filterers of seawater and provide microhabitats for other organisms to become established. Bryozoans do not do this as effectively, meaning that such a change in community structure is likely to result in changes in biodiversity as well.



“As predation changes, some species will be winners and some will be losers,” said co-author Greg Ruiz, head of SERC’s&nbsp;<a href="https://serc.si.edu/labs/marine-invasions-research">Marine Invasions Research Lab</a>. “Some will be defended; others will be vulnerable. But we don’t know exactly how that will play out.”



The findings of the study indicate that, as ocean waters warm, changes in the activity of predators can be expected to bring about changes in the communities of prey species. However, the nature of the changes that may take place in equatorial waters, which are already the warmest in the world, can only be guessed at, as these locations experience temperatures that rise even higher than what we see today.&nbsp;



“We don’t really know what might happen in the tropics, because we don’t have data from those warmer temperatures,” Ashton said.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Predatory fish become more voracious as waters warm

Ectothermic animals do not maintain a constant body temperature but,...

According to a research team led by <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> and <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>, a giant tortoise species believed to be extinct since over a century ago is still living in the Galápagos Islands in the Ecuador. The Fernandina Island Galápagos giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-found-in-giant-tortoises-of-galapagos/">tortoise</a> (Chelonoidis phantasticus, or “fantastic giant tortoise”) was known only from a single specimen, discovered in 1906. However, in 2019, a new specimen – which the scientists call Fernanda - was found on the Fernandina Island. 



By sequencing the genome of both this tortoise and the museum specimen discovered over a century ago, and comparing them to the other 13 species of Galápagos giant tortoises, the experts have shown that the two known Fernandina tortoises are members of the same species, which is genetically distinct from all the others.



“For many years it was thought that the original specimen collected in 1906 had been transplanted to the island, as it was the only one of its kind,”&nbsp;said Peter Grant, an emeritus professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Princeton. “It now seems to be one of a very few that were alive a century ago.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



When Fernanda was discovered, many scientists doubted that she was a phantasticus tortoise since she lacked the striking saddleback flaring of the male historical specimen. However, genetic analyses revealed that the tortoise belonged in fact to the same species. “We saw - honestly, to my surprise - that Fernanda was very similar to the one that they found on that island more than 100 years ago, and both of those were very different from all of the other islands’ tortoises,” said study lead author Stephen Gaughran, a postdoctoral fellow in Molecular Evolution at Princeton.



Dr. Gaughran and his colleagues estimate that Fernanda is well over 50 years old, but she is rather small, possibly due to the inadequate diet caused by limited vegetation on the Fernandina Island which may have stunted her growth. She is now kept at the Galápagos National Park Tortoise Center, a rescue and breeding facility, where scientists are exploring what they can do to keep the giant tortoise species alive.



“The finding of one alive specimen gives hope and also opens up new questions, as many mysteries still remain,” said study senior author Adalgisa Caccone, a senior research scientist in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Yale. “Are there more tortoises on Fernandina that can be brought back into captivity to start a breeding program? How did tortoises colonize Fernandina, and what is their evolutionary relationship to the other giant Galápagos tortoises? This also shows the importance of using museum collections to understand the past,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03483-w">Communications Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Courtesy of the Galápagos Conservancy



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant tortoise believed extinct found in the Galápagos

According to a research team led by Princeton University and...

Looking as similar as possible to humans is one of the top priorities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-influence-children-education/">robots</a> that are used in healthcare or service industries, since a human-like appearance can improve communication efficiency and evoke likeability. While current silicone skin made for robots can mimic to a certain degree human appearance, it nevertheless lacks skin-specific functions and falls short when it comes to delicate textures such as wrinkles. However, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has now managed to craft living human skin on a robotic finger. Besides looking real, this skin has also self-healing functions and is water-repellent.



“The finger looks slightly ‘sweaty’ straight out of the culture medium,” said study first author Shoji Takeuchi, an expert in Biohybrid Systems at the University of Tokyo. “Since the finger is driven by an electric motor, it is also interesting to hear the clicking sounds of the motor in harmony with a finger that looks just like a real one.”&nbsp;



To craft the skin, Professor Takeuchi and his colleagues submerged the robotic finger in a cylinder filled with a solution of collagen and human dermal fibroblasts, the main components of human skin’s connective tissues. This layer provided a uniform foundation for the next coat of cells – human epidermal keratinocytes – to stick to. These cells make up 90 percent of the outermost skin layer, giving the robot finger a skin-like texture and moisture-retaining barrier properties.



This skin had sufficient strength and elasticity to bear the dynamic movements as the robotic finger curled and stretched, while the outermost layer could repel water. Moreover, the crafted skin could even heal itself with the help of a collagen bandage that gradually morphed into the skin and withstood repeated movements.&nbsp;



However, this skin is weaker than natural skin and cannot survive for long without constant nutrient supply and waste removal. In future research, Professor Takeuchi and his team are planning to incorporate more sophisticated functional structures within the skin, including sensory neurons, hair follicles, nails, and sweat glands.&nbsp;



“We are surprised by how well the skin tissue conforms to the robot’s surface,” said Professor Takeuchi. “But this work is just the first step toward creating robots covered with living skin. I think living skin is the ultimate solution to give robots the look and touch of living creatures since it is exactly the same material that covers animal bodies,”&nbsp;he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2022.05.019">Matter</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists craft living human skin on a robotic finger

Looking as similar as possible to humans is one of...

Millions of shipwrecks lie deep beneath the world’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-extinction-event/">oceans</a>. These provide new habitats for sea life, but also impact microbial communities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) estimates that there are as many as three million shipwrecks around the world, most of which are made of wood.&nbsp;



A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> has found that wooden shipwrecks provide microbial habitats similar to naturally occurring geological seabed structures. This research is the first to show the impact of human activity on ocean microbial environments.&nbsp;



“Microbial communities are important to be aware of and understand because they provide early and clear evidence of how human activities change life in the ocean,” said corresponding author Dr. Leila Hamdan of the University of Southern Mississippi.



For the study, the research team chose two wooden sailing ships that sank in the Gulf of Mexico in the late 19th century. The team collected samples by placing pieces of pine and oak between zero and 200 meters from the shipwreck. After four months, they measured all of the bacteria, archaea and fungi using gene sequencing.



The results showed that different types of wood had varying impacts on bacterial diversity (oak was more favorable than pine). Microbial diversity also varied depending on the proximity to the shipwreck site.



The researchers were surprised to find that samples taken closest to the shipwrecks did not show the most diversity, which instead peaked at about 125 meters from the wreck sites.



“Ocean scientists have known that natural hard habitats, some of which have been present for hundreds to thousands of years shape the biodiversity of life on the seafloor," said Dr. Hamdan. "This work is the first to show that built habitats (places or things made or modified by humans) impact the films of microbes (biofilms) coating these surfaces as well. These biofilms are ultimately what enable hard habitats to transform into islands of biodiversity.”



The presence of shipwrecks overall increased microbial richness in the surrounding area. The distribution of biofilms also depended on environmental factors such as the depth of the water and proximity to a nutrient source like the Mississippi River delta.



While this study is focused on wooden structures, there are thousands of oil platforms and pipelines in oceans around the world. The impact of these structures requires further research to better understand.&nbsp;



“While we are aware human impacts on the seabed are increasing through the multiple economic uses, scientific discovery is not keeping pace with how this shapes the biology and chemistry of natural under sea landscapes,” said Dr. Hamdan.&nbsp;



The researchers hope that their findings will encourage further research on how built habitats are changing the world’s oceans.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wooden shipwrecks have become diverse microbial habitats

Millions of shipwrecks lie deep beneath the world’s oceans. These...

Although scientists have long assumed that changes to different genes - such as those controlling hormones that influence social behavior - played a fundamental role in the domestication of dogs, they did not manage to identify the precise genetic mechanisms behind this process. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.azabu-u.ac.jp/english/">Azabu University</a> in Japan has found that two mutations in the melanocortin 2 receptor gene, which is involved in the production of the stress hormone cortisol, may have led to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/puppy-dog-eyes-emerged-during-domestication/">domestication</a> of dogs. These mutations allowed dogs to develop the necessary social cognitive skills to efficiently interact and communicate with humans.&nbsp;



The researchers used two tasks to examine the social cognitive interactions of 624 domestic dogs. In the first task, designed to test dogs’ understanding of human gestures and communication, the dogs had to decide which bowl had food hidden under it, by following a series of cues from the experimenters, including gazing, pointing, and tapping. In the second one, they were presented with a problem-solving test, which involved them attempting to open a container in order to reach food. During this task, the scientists measured the frequency and duration the dogs spent looking at the experimenters in order to assess their social attachment to humans.



The dogs were separated into two groups, depending on their breed: the Ancient group, consisting of breeds considered to be genetically closer to wolves, such as the Siberian Husky and Akita, and the General group, comprising all other breeds that are more genetically distant from wolves. The experiments revealed that dogs in the Ancient group spent less time looking at humans during the second task, suggesting that they well less attached to them. In the first task, no significant breed-related differences were found.&nbsp;



In a further step, the scientists looked for differences in genes associated with human-related social cognition, including genes for oxytocin (OT), oxytocin receptor (OTR), melancortin 2 receptor (MC2R), as well as a gene called WBSCR17, which plays a critical role in the William-Beuren Syndrome, characterized by hyper-social behavior in humans. 



The experts found that two changes to the MC2R gene were associated with both correctly interpreting gestures during the first task, and looking at the experimenters more often in the problem-solving task. These findings suggest that the MCR2 gene may have played an important role in the domestication of dogs, possibly by promoting lower levels of stress in the presence of humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11130-x">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How did dogs become man's best friend?

Although scientists have long assumed that changes to different genes...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> are providing new insight into one of the most studied organisms on the planet, Darwin's finches in the Galápagos Islands. Until now, the range of the finches had not been sufficiently studied due to the treacherous nature of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-pandas-face-shrinking-habitats-and-tough-decisions/">habitat</a>.&nbsp;



However, an international team of researchers was able to track the birds on the island of Santa Cruz by using small electric backpacks. They found that the finches cover a lot of ground within 24 hours.&nbsp;



Study lead author Marc-Olivier Beausoleil explained why this subject was necessary to examine. "Understanding the real space needs of these birds is crucial both to refine the interpretation of previous studies and to ensure the conservation of these birds in a landscape increasingly threatened by the expansion of urban areas."



The researchers observed behaviors that they had not anticipated. For example, they found that the finches commute the equivalent of 30 soccer fields in a single day. The experts wondered why the finches traveled so far since, during the day, they rarely went more than 100 meters from their nests.



Although most birds don't roost in groups during the breeding season, Darwin's finches are an exception, according to the study.&nbsp;



"Almost all the tagged finches left their breeding territories after sunset and moved four times the distance they normally cover in the daytime," said Beausoleil. "The mysterious destination: a lush grove of poison apple trees (Hippomane mancinella) located by the sea where nearly a thousand finches gather nightly to rest."



The question is, why would they do this? Carlos Camacho, a researcher at Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología and coordinator of the study explained that sleeping in the company of others helps the birds fight the cold and reduces the risk of predation.



"Although the advantages of this behavior are not as evident in a place where temperatures are mild and predators are scarce," said Camacho. "This leads us to think that this behavior may have been inherited from their continental ancestors."&nbsp;



Even 150 years after Darwin proposed his theory of natural selection, his finches still have something to teach us. The researchers believe that their findings will help inform diversity conservation.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Darwin's finches continue to surprise scientists

Researchers at McGill University are providing new insight into one...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> has found that a drastic change in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-communities-are-being-reshuffled-by-climate-change/">climate</a> conditions in the North Atlantic around 800 years ago led to a marked decline in Atlantic salmon populations returning to rivers. According to the experts, the transition from a warm to a cold climate initiating what is known as the Little Ice Age (1300-1850) caused large-scale changes in marine habitats corresponding with a decline in salmon in the River Spey in Scotland. Over the following centuries, increased human exploitation played a significant role in further diminishing these populations.



Atlantic salmon lay their eggs in the gravels of headwater streams, where their offspring live for about a year or two before migrating out to sea. After spending their adulthood in the ocean, they finally return to the rivers to spawn, and eventually die. Since their sperm, eggs, and carcasses are rich in marine nutrients which can be detected in sediment even centuries later, scientists can now map the historic population levels of salmon.&nbsp;



By collecting and measuring nutrients left by salmon in the River Spey, the researchers found that larger salmon populations in the past declined during a cooling climate – a period that coincided with an intensification in human exploitation. These findings also suggest that previous theories arguing that beavers have significantly impacted salmon populations are unfounded: larger salmon populations in the past occurred at a time when rivers were also inhabited by beavers, showing that the two animal species could peacefully coexist.&nbsp;



“These results can help us understand some of the controls on salmon populations prior to and during major human exploitation,” said study lead author David Sear, a professor of Geography and Environmental Science at Southampton.&nbsp;



“Our study shows that historically, beavers – common in Scotland hundreds of years ago – do not appear to have significantly impacted salmon numbers. This is very relevant today, as the animals are being reintroduced to UK rivers and a debate continues about their potential impact on migratory species like salmon.”&nbsp;



Since migratory fish, such as salmon, bring marine nutrients into nutrient poor upland rivers, population declines negatively affect river ecosystems today. Further research is needed to untangle the complex relationships between salmon and other aquatic animals in order to properly asses the larger impact that diminishing salmon populations have on a variety of ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09596836221095983">The Holocene</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Decline in Atlantic salmon linked to humans and climate

A new study led by the University of Southampton has...

Paleontologists from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> have discovered what seems to be the largest predatory dinosaur to ever walk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-farmland-is-a-huge-reservoir-of-microplastics/">Europe</a>. The dinosaur probably measured over 10 meters in length and lived approximately 125 million years ago.&nbsp;



“This was a huge animal, exceeding 10 m in length and probably several tonnes in weight. Judging from some of the dimensions, it appears to represent one of the largest predatory dinosaur [sic] ever found in Europe – maybe even the biggest yet known," said PhD student Chris Barker, who led the study. “It’s a shame it’s only known from a small amount of material, but these are enough to show it was an immense creature.”



The dinosaur was excavated on the Isle of Wight. The animal was a “two-legged” theropod with a face resembling a crocodile. The remains are now housed at Dinosaur Isle Museum in Sandown. The creature has been named the “White Rock spinosaurid” after the white rock layer where it was discovered.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Unusually, this specimen eroded out of the Vectis Formation, which is notoriously poor in dinosaur fossils," said corresponding author Dr. Neil Gostling, who teaches Evolution and Palaeobiology at the University of Southampton. “It’s likely to be the youngest spinosaur material yet known from the UK.”



Only scattered remains of the dinosaur who once roamed the lagoon nearby are left to tell the story, including two enormous vertebrae from the pelvis and tail.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Most of these amazing fossils were found by Nick Chase, one of Britain’s most skilled dinosaur hunters, who sadly died just before the Covid epidemic," said co-author Jeremy Lockwood, a PhD student at the University of Portsmouth and Natural History Museum. “I was searching for remains of this dinosaur with Nick and found a lump of pelvis with tunnels bored into it, each about the size of my index finger. We think they were caused by bone eating larvae of a type of scavenging beetle. It’s an interesting thought that this giant killer wound up becoming a meal for a host of insects.”



The scientists hope that further searching or erosion will reveal more remains of the White Rock spinosaurid to tell more of its story to the world.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.



Image Credit: UoS/A Hutchings



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals Europe’s largest predatory dinosaur

Paleontologists from the University of Southampton have discovered what seems...

Melanoma is a serious type of skin cancer that develops in the cells that produce melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color. The causes of this type of cancer are not well understood, although exposure to UV radiation appears to increase a person’s risk of developing it. And now a new study, involving almost 500,000 adults across America, has linked an increased risk of melanoma with the consumption of certain forms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-organs-of-electric-fish-evolve/">fish</a>.&nbsp;



“Melanoma is the fifth most common cancer in the USA and the risk of developing melanoma over a lifetime is one in 38 for white people, one in 1,000 for black people and one in 167 for Hispanic people. Although fish intake has increased in the USA and Europe in recent decades, the results of previous studies investigating associations between fish intake and melanoma risk have been inconsistent," said study co-author Eunyoung Cho.



The study, conducted by researchers from Brown University, made use of the data from 491,367 adults who were recruited from across the USA to the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study between 1995 and 1996. The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between daily median fish intake and melanoma risk. The participants, who were aged 62 years on average when the baseline data was collected, reported at the time how frequently they had eaten fried fish, non-fried fish and tuna during the previous year, as well as giving details of their portion sizes.



The researchers then obtained data on the incidence of melanoma amongst the participants over the following 15 years from cancer registries. They found that 5,034 participants (1.0%) developed malignant melanoma during the study period and 3,284 (0.7%) developed stage 0 melanoma, or melanoma in situ, which is characterized by the development of&nbsp;abnormal cells in the outer layer of the skin only.&nbsp;



Once the scientists had accounted for sociodemographic factors, participants’ BMI, physical activity levels, smoking history, daily intake of alcohol, caffeine and calories, family history of cancer, and the average UV radiation levels in their local areas, they found that higher intake of fish in general, and of non-fried fish and tuna in particular, was associated with increased risks of malignant melanoma and stage 0 melanoma.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The findings, published today in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10552-022-01588-5">Cancer Causes &amp; Control</a>, showed that participants whose median daily fish intake was 42.8 grams (approximately one 140 gram portion every three days) had a 22 percent higher risk of developing malignant melanoma than those whose median daily fish intake was 3.2 grams. The researchers also found that participants whose median daily intake was 42.8 grams of fish had a 28 percent increased risk of developing stage 0 melanoma when compared to those whose median daily intake was 3.2 grams of fish.&nbsp;



When considering the influence of the form of fish eaten, the researchers found that participants whose median daily tuna intake was 14.2 grams (a portion every 10 days) had a 20 percent higher risk of malignant melanoma and a 17 percent higher risk of stage 0 melanoma, when compared to those whose median daily tuna intake was only 0.3 grams.&nbsp;



In addition, a median intake of 17.8 grams of non-fried fish per day was associated with an 18 percent higher risk of malignant melanoma and a 25 percent higher risk of stage 0 melanoma, compared to a median intake of 0.3 grams of non-fried fish per day.&nbsp;



The researchers did not identify any significant associations between consumption of fried fish and the risk of malignant melanoma or stage 0 melanoma.



“We speculate that our findings could possibly be attributed to contaminants in fish, such as polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, arsenic and mercury," said Cho. "Previous research has found that higher fish intake is associated with higher levels of these contaminants within the body and has identified associations between these contaminants and a higher risk of skin cancer. However, we note that our study did not investigate the concentrations of these contaminants in participants’ bodies and so further research is needed to confirm this relationship.”



The study uses an observational method along with statistical analysis, which does not allow for conclusions about whether fish intake actually causes an increased risk of melanoma. In addition, the method did not take into consideration certain other risk factors for melanoma development, including initial mole count, hair color, history of severe sunburn and sun-related behaviors. The researchers also note that, since average daily fish intake was reported by participants for the period of a year before the start of the study, it may have changed over time.&nbsp;



However, the study authors suggest that their findings do warrant further investigation, particularly of the components of fish that could contribute to the observed association between fish intake and melanoma risk and any biological mechanisms underlying this.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fishy diet may be linked to increased melanoma risk

Melanoma is a serious type of skin cancer that develops...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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