Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



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How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp; In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp; Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata)...

A research team led by <a href="https://www.nuigalway.ie/">National University of Ireland Galway</a> (NUI Galway) has published the first record of a noble false widow spider feeding on a protected species of Pipistrelle bats in the United Kingdom. It is also the first time for any species of false widow spiders to be recorded preying on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-are-vanishing-in-the-uk/">mammals</a>, offering new evidence of how these spiders continue to impact native UK species.



The noble false widow is a species of spiders belonging to the family Theridiidae. It was first reported in southern England in 1879 and has significantly increased its range and population density in recent decades, spreading through Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. During the same period, the false widow has also spread globally to Europe, East Asia, North America, and South America.&nbsp;



These spiders possess a fast-acting neurotoxic venom with a very similar composition to that of true black widows, which can cause neuromuscular paralysis in terrestrial vertebrates. Although their bites are known to cause a range of mild to severe symptoms in people, their impact on native animal species has not yet been systematically documented.



Wildlife artist Ben Waddams has recently found two bats living in the attic of his home in North Stropshire, England, entangled in the spider’s web below the entrance to the roost. While a young bat pup was already dead and completely immobilized with its limbs pinned tightly to the torso with silk, the second, much larger bat, was still alive and was rescued.



“In more exotic parts of the world, scientists have been documenting such predation events by spiders on small vertebrates for many years, but we are only beginning to realize just how common these events occur. Now that this alien species has become well established in Ireland and Britain, we are witnessing such fascinating events on our very own doorstep,” said study lead author Dr. John Dunbar, a postdoctoral fellow at NUI Galway.



“Even other, much smaller, species of false widows are known to capture and feed on snakes and lizards. This study presents yet another example of the invasive impact by the noble false widow spider on native species. We know they are much more competitive than native spiders, and this further confirms their impact on prey species.”



“In the last three years alone, we have observed two occasions of the alien noble false widow capturing and feeding on protected species of vertebrate animals in Ireland and Britain,” added study co-author Aiste Vitkauskaite, a research assistant at NUI Galway.



“As the noble false widow continues to expand its range and increase populations across Ireland and Britain, we should expect to observe similar predation events on small vertebrate animals by this spider, including protected species.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.3959">Ecosphere</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noble false widow spiders prey upon protected bat species

A research team led by National University of Ireland Galway...

Since being identified in 2019, SARS-CoV-2 has infected a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-is-still-circulating-widely-through-animal-populations/">animal</a> species, both wild and domestic. Many scientists are concerned that these inter-species jumps can lead to novel mutations and even new, potentially dangerous variants.&nbsp;



A research team led by University of Pennsylvania’s <a href="https://www.vet.upenn.edu/">School of Veterinary Medicine</a> (Penn Vet) and <a href="https://www.med.upenn.edu/">Perelman School of Medicine</a> has recently sequenced the viral genome sampled from a house cat infected with SARS-CoV-2 in 2021 and found that it was a close match to viral sequences circulating in people in the Philadelphia region at that time. This suggests that SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted from one species to another without necessarily acquiring a significant number of mutations.



“SARS-CoV-2 has a really incredibly wide host range,” said study senior author Elizabeth Lennon, a veterinarian and assistant professor at Penn Vet. “What this means to me is that, as SARS-CoV-2 continues to be prevalent in the human population, we need to watch what's happening in other animal species as well.”



Since early in the pandemic, Professor Lennon and her colleagues have been sampling dogs and cats that were exposed to the virus in order to better understand the mechanisms of inter-species transmission. This particular cat – an 11-year-old female brought to the <a href="https://www.vet.upenn.edu/veterinary-hospitals/ryan-veterinary-hospital">Ryan Veterinary Hospital</a> with gastrointestinal symptoms – had been exposed to an owner who had COVID-19. Sequencing the genome of the cat’s virus, the researchers found that she was infected with the AY.3 lineage of the Delta variant, which was widely circulating in the Delaware Region at the time.



“When we looked at a random sampling of human sequences from our geographic area, there wasn't anything dramatically different about our cat's sample,” Professor Lennon reported. “So, our takeaway was that the cat was not infected by a virus that was somehow highly different.”&nbsp;



Although this particular case does not raise alarms for the virus acquiring a significant number of mutations as it moved between species, scientists are on the alert for other cases of infected animals which could harbor more dangerous variants.



“We know that the SARS-CoV-2 is undergoing changes as it passes between to become more and more transmissible over time," said Professor Lennon. "We saw that with the Omicron variant. It's host-adapting to people. We also want to know, when other animal species get infected, does the virus start to adapt to those species? And for those viruses that may adapt to a different species, do they still infect humans?”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/14/2/421">Viruses</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

House cat had the same COVID variant as humans

Since being identified in 2019, SARS-CoV-2 has infected a wide...

A new study published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-journal-of-archaeology">European Journal of Archaeology</a> has found that mummification of the dead was more common in prehistory than previously thought. By analyzing 8,000-year-old remains discovered at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-climate-mesolithic-tools/">hunter-gatherer</a> burial sites in the Sado Valley in Portugal, the archaeologists have shown that pre-burial treatments such as desiccation through mummification were common in European Mesolithic communities.



Until recently, the oldest cases of intentional mummification were known from the Chinchorro hunter-gatherer populations living in the coastal regions of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile about 7,000 years ago. However, most surviving mummies worldwide are more recent dating between a few hundreds and 4,000 years ago.



Using photographs of the skeletal remains of thirteen individuals excavated in the 1960s in the Sado Valley Mesolithic shell middens in Portugal, the researchers managed to reconstruct the positions in which the bodies were buried. The analysis revealed a hyperflexion of the limbs, an absence of disarticulation in significant parts of the skeleton, and a rapid infilling of sediment around the bones.&nbsp;



Although during decomposition, the bones usually become disarticulated at weak joints such as the feet, in these particular cases, the articulations were surprisingly well conserved. According to the scientists, this pattern of hyperflexion and lack of disarticulation could only be explained if the bodies were not put in the graves as fresh cadavers, but in desiccated states as mummified corpses. The process of desiccation maintains some of these otherwise weak articulations, and allows for a strong flexion of the body since the range of movement increases when the volume of soft tissue is smaller.



The archaeologists suggest that the observed skeletal patterns could be the product of a guided natural mummification process. The manipulation of the bodies would have taken place over a long period of time, during which the bodies would gradually become desiccated to maintain their integrity, and simultaneously contracted by ropes or bandages to compress them into certain desired positions. When this process was finished, the bodies would have been easier to transport and buried while retaining their appearance and anatomic integrity.



These findings suggest that mortuary practices were very important in European Mesolithic communities, with hunter-gatherer populations paying significant attention in maintaining the integrity of dead bodies, following principles that were culturally regulated. Further research is needed to shed more light on the cultural and religious beliefs and habits of these prehistoric populations and their influence on ritual behavior.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Mummification processes in Europe are older than expected

A new study published in the European Journal of Archaeology...

Alcohol consumption has been linked to serious negative health outcomes in much research, but also to instances of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-linked-to-mental-health-issues/">health</a> benefit. In the latest research, to be presented at the American Heart Association’s <a href="https://professional.heart.org/en/meetings/epi-lifestyle">Epidemiology, Prevention, Lifestyle &amp; Cardiometabolic Health Conference 2022</a>, data from 312,400 adults in the UK indicates that moderate alcohol consumption, taken at mealtime, may reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.&nbsp;



“The effects of alcohol consumption on health have been described as a double-edged sword because of its apparent abilities to cut deeply in either direction – harmful or helpful, depending on how it is consumed,” said study author Dr. Hao Ma, a biostatistical analyst at the Tulane University Obesity Research Center in New Orleans. “Previous studies have focused on how much people drink and have had mixed results. Very few studies have focused on other drinking details, such as the timing of alcohol intake.”



In their analysis, the researchers used data from adults enrolled on the UK Biobank, who reported being regular drinkers of alcohol.&nbsp;The participants, all of whom enrolled between 2006 and 2010, were monitored over about 11 years. At the time of enrollment, none of them had diabetes, cardiovascular diseases or cancer. In this study researchers specifically examined the effect that moderate drinking may have on the development of new-onset type 2 diabetes among the study participants. The average age of participants was 56 years, slightly more than half of the adults were women, and 95% were white adults.



The negative health risks most commonly associated with alcohol consumption include motor vehicle accidents, violence, risky sexual behavior, high blood pressure, obesity, strokes, breast cancer, liver disease, depression, suicide, accidents, alcohol abuse and alcoholism. These health risks increase with increasing levels of consumption, and for some cancers and other health conditions, the risk increases even with less than one drink daily.



On the other hand, some research has found that moderate drinking seems to be good for the heart and circulatory system, raises HDL cholesterol levels and reduces the risks of blood clots and gallstones, although some of the results are inconclusive or contradictory.&nbsp;



“Clinical trials have also found that moderate drinking may have some health benefits, including on glucose metabolism,” said Dr. Ma. “However, it remains unclear whether glucose metabolism benefits translate into a reduction of type 2 diabetes. In our study, we sought to determine if the association between alcohol intake and risk of type 2 diabetes might differ by the timing of alcohol intake with respect to meals.”



The analysis of data from the 312,400 participants who were regular drinkers indicated that consuming alcohol, most notably wine, with meals is associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes. During the 11-year monitoring period, 8,600 of the adults in the study developed type 2 diabetes but those who consumed alcohol with meals had a 14 percent lower risk than those who consumed alcohol without eating food.



This benefit was only seen among people who drank alcohol during meals, although the exact mealtime was not specified in the dataset. In addition, lower risk of type 2 diabetes was most common among participants who drank wine, and not other types of alcoholic beverages. In fact, increased consumption of beer or liquor was associated with a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.



“The message from this study is that drinking moderate amounts of wine with meals may prevent type 2 diabetes if you do not have another health condition that may be negatively affected by moderate alcohol consumption, and in consultation with your doctor,” said Dr. Ma.



Despite the apparent lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes, the American Heart Association and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend that adults who do not drink alcohol should not start. Those who already consume alcohol should do so in moderation – this is defined as one glass of wine (150 ml) or equivalent per day for a woman and two glasses of wine (300 ml) or equivalent per day for a man, according to Ma.



According to Dr. Robert H. Eckel, who was not involved in the study, the relationship between alcohol consumption and new-onset type 2 diabetes remains controversial.



“These data suggest that it’s not the alcohol with meals but other ingredients in wine, perhaps antioxidants, that may be the factor in potentially reducing new-onset type 2 diabetes," said Dr. Eckel.



"While the type of wine, red versus white, needs to be defined, and validation of these findings and mechanisms of benefit are needed, the results suggest that if you are consuming alcohol with meals, wine may be a better choice."



The study suffers from the limitation that most of those participating were self-reported white adults and of European descent. It is unknown whether the findings can be generalized to other populations.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alcohol at mealtime reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes

Alcohol consumption has been linked to serious negative health outcomes...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, scientists have investigated how wild chimpanzee social networks are impacted by human-dominated landscapes. The researchers discovered that male and female chimpanzees react much differently to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-botanical-extract-extend-the-lifespan-of-humans/">human</a> presence.&nbsp;



"Wild animals are being forced to modify their behavior due to the risks of living alongside humans," said study lead author Zoe Satsias.



By observing chimpanzees in forests and human-dominated landscapes, the researchers determined that females tend to avoid human presence, particularly those with dependent offspring. This avoidance may be because the females are less likely to risk the danger associated with human presence. These risks include the humans themselves, dogs, livestock, snares, traps, and roads.&nbsp;



Males seem to feel much differently. In fact, Dr. Matt McLennan, who runs the Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, said that male chimpanzees seem unperturbed by the prospect of running into people, and are even willing to engage in confrontations with villagers.



The differences in behavior affect chimpanzee social structure. Dr. Kimberly Hockings is an expert in the Centre for Ecology and Conservation on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall. She explained that males and females were equally central in their social networks inside the forest - but in more risky croplands and village areas, the core of the social network was dominated exclusively by males.



This change in social structure could lead to devastating consequences for chimpanzee populations as human encroachment continues.



"The avoidance of certain areas by females – resulting in them being in the periphery of their social networks – could disrupt the spread of information and reduce social learning opportunities for younger chimpanzees, potentially suppressing the learning of new behaviors that could help them survive," said Dr. Hockings.



"Large animal species are most likely to survive human-induced rapid environmental change if they display high levels of behavioral flexibility," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Examining social responses in species that form closely bonded social groups and display high fission-fusion dynamics, such as chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, will help determine their resilience to dynamic human activities and the potential for sustainable human-wildlife interactions."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female chimpanzees try to avoid the dangers of humans

In a new study from the University of Exeter, scientists...

The potato is being increasingly incorporated into regular diets worldwide, even in Asian countries where rice has been the traditional staple food for millennia. However, unlike in the case of other major crop staples such as rice or wheat, efforts to breed new varieties of potatoes with higher yields have remained large unsuccessful.&nbsp;



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.mpipz.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research</a> is trying to solve this problem by implementing genome-assisted breeding of new potato varieties that will be more productive and resistant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ipcc-report-window-to-secure-a-liveable-future-is-rapidly-closing/">climate change</a>.



After shopping for potatoes on a market today, it is quite possible that the buyer will return home with a potato variety which was already available a century ago. This is not only testament to the enduring popularity of traditional potato varieties, but also highlights their lack of genetic variety. This can have dramatic consequences, such as the Irish famine of the 1840s, where for several years the only existent variety of potato crops was attacked by the newly emergent tuber blight and rotted in the ground.&nbsp;



The difficulty of breeding different potato varieties stems from this plant’s genetic peculiarity. Instead of inheriting one copy of every chromosome from both the father and the mother (as in the case of humans), potatoes inherit two copies of each chromosome from each parent, making them a tetraploid species.&nbsp;



This increased genetic complexity makes it highly challenging and time-consuming to generate new varieties with desired combinations of individual properties. Moreover, multiple copies of each chromosome also make the scientific reconstruction of the potato genome a highly challenging task.



The scientists from the Max Planck Institute have managed to overcome these longstanding problems and succeeded in generating the first full assembly of the potato genome through a simple and elegant trick. Rather than trying to differentiate the four – often very similar – chromosome copies from one another, the researchers sequenced the DNA of large numbers of individual pollen cells, which contain only two random copies of each chromosome. This helped them reduce the complexity of the problem and finally sequence the entire potato genome.



With this information, researchers can now identify more easily the genetic variants responsible for desirable or undesirable traits, and incorporate or exclude them during breeding. Improvements in potato breeding could have an enormous impact on delivering food security in the decades to come.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists are breeding more resilient potatoes

The potato is being increasingly incorporated into regular diets worldwide,...

A new study led by the University of Miami’s <a href="https://www.rsmas.miami.edu/">Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science</a> has found that a stressful temperature treatment in the laboratory for 90 days can make corals more tolerant to increased water temperatures.



Since global warming is the greatest threat that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/">coral reefs</a> currently face, these findings can offer restoration scientists new approaches to increase the success rate of planting new, more resilient coral onto degraded reefs as climate change continues to increase water temperatures.



While previous “stress-hardening” experiments have exposed corals to short-term higher temperatures, this new study assessed the effect of a long-term, variable treatment, where temperatures were increased to a stressful level for a brief period of time, twice per day.



“This ‘training’ regime is akin to an athlete preparing for a race,” said study lead author Allyson DeMerlis, a Ph.D. candidate at the UM Rosenstiel School. “We were able to demonstrate that this temperature treatment can boost the corals’ stamina to heat stress.”



DeMerlis and her colleagues collected fragments from six distinct genetic individuals of Caribbean staghorn coral from the UM Rosenstiel School’s <a href="https://rescueareef.rsmas.miami.edu/">Rescue a Reef</a> coral nursery and randomly assigned them to three groups: field control, laboratory control, and variable temperature treatment. 



While the laboratory control corals were kept at a constant 28 degrees Celsius for a period of three months, the variable temperature treatment corals were exposed twice per day to fluctuating temperatures between 28 and 31 degrees Celsius.



The scientists measured bleaching progression and the number of days that corals endured thermal stress before bleaching. They found that the variable temperature treatment significantly improved tolerance to thermal stress. Moreover, untreated corals were more prone to succumb to disease-like signs of tissue loss.



These results prove the benefits of using such methods to increase corals’ thermal endurance, and could be applied in the field by restoration practicians in order to identify locations where their nurseries and outplanting sites could be exposed to higher, fluctuating temperatures.



“We have unfortunately reached the point where active intervention and restoration are necessary to ensure that valuable coral reefs are able to persist for generations to come,” said study senior author Ian Enochs, a coral scientist at the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA).&nbsp;“We want to increase the efficiency and efficacy of these efforts, and ultimately ensure that the corals that are placed back out on a reef have the greatest chance of enduring the stressful conditions they will face in the future.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our findings bring a glimmer of hope to the uncertain future of corals, as we identified a treatment in which we can enhance their tolerance to heat stress,” concluded DeMerlis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-022-02232-z">Coral Reefs</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Corals can be trained to endure heat stress

A new study led by the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel...

Fossils of the dinosaur group known as Stegosauria have been discovered on all continents except Antarctica and Australia, but more than half of the 14 different species unearthed thus far have been found in China. These iconic herbivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">dinosaurs</a> with small heads and impressive armored plates and sharp spikes on their bodies roamed the planet during the Middle and Late Jurassic period, about 170 to 145 million years ago.&nbsp;



Stegosaurian fossil finds are rare, and the skeletons are always incomplete, making it difficult to work out how many different species there are, and what evolutionary relationships exist between them.&nbsp;



A team from the Chongqing Bureau of Geological and Mineral Resource Exploration and Development in China, and London’s Natural History Museum, have now identified and named a new species, Bashanosaurus primitivus. The remains of the new stegosaur were excavated from a deposit in Chongqing, China. Its scientific name, “Bashan,” refers to the ancient name for the area of Chongqing in China where it was found.



The new species has some unique features that led the paleontologists to place it in a brand new genus. It has a smaller head and less developed shoulder blades, as well as armored plates that are narrower and have thicker bases than other stegosaurians discovered thus far. In addition, the bony point at the end of the Bashanosaurus shoulder blade is small and less well developed than in other stegosaurians, while a bony projection of the thighbone is positioned below the middle of the shaft, and the bases of the armor plates curve outwards and are thicker than the plates on the backs of its later relatives.&nbsp;



Interestingly, it does share some features with the very earliest armored dinosaurs, which date from 20 million years earlier, indicating that it may indeed be an early representative of the Stegosauria. The evolutionary history of this group is not well understood, so the addition of a new species contributes important and valuable knowledge.&nbsp;



“All these features are clues to the stegosaurs’ place on the dinosaur family tree,” said Dr. Dai Hui, who led the research. “Bashanosaurus&nbsp;can be distinguished from&nbsp;other Middle Jurassic stegosaurs, and clearly represents a new species.”



The fossilized remains of the new stegosaurian, which included bones from the back, shoulder, thigh, feet, and ribs, as well as several armor plates, have been dated to the Bajocian stage of the Middle Jurassic period, around 168 million years ago. This is much earlier than most known stegosaurians and can thus cast light on the early evolution of the group.&nbsp;



“Our analysis of the family tree indicates that it is one of the earliest-diverging stegosaurs along with the Chongqing Lizard (Chungkingosaurus) and Huyangosaurus. These were all unearthed from Middle to Late Jurassic Shaximiao Formation in China, suggesting that stegosaurs might have originated in Asia,” said Dr. Hui.



Well-known Stegosauria include&nbsp;Huayangosaurus&nbsp;(one of the most primitive members of the group),&nbsp;Gigantspinosaurus, notable for its enormous shoulder spines, and&nbsp;Miragaia, known&nbsp;for its extremely long neck. However, the fragmentary fossil material has hindered attempts to understand how the stegosaurians evolved and what the evolutionary relationships are between species.



With the discovery of this new species, however, the relationships have become clearer.&nbsp;Bashanosaurus primitivus&nbsp;has several primitive features that are similar to those of the earliest stegosaurians like&nbsp;Huayangosaurus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Gigantspinosaurus,&nbsp;as well as to early representatives of the armored dinosaurs. These features include longer tail vertebrae, a shoulder blade that is narrower and flares out, and features of the back vertebrae that are similar to the early armored dinosaur, Scelidosaurus, which lived during the Early Jurassic period.



“The discovery of this stegosaur from the Middle Jurassic of China adds to an increasing body of evidence that the group evolved in the early Middle Jurassic, or perhaps even in the Early Jurassic, and as such represent some of the earliest known bird-hipped dinosaurs,” said study co-author Dr. Susannah Maidment.



“China seems to have been a hotspot for stegosaur diversity, with numerous species now known from the Middle Jurassic right the way through until the end of the Early Cretaceous period.”



Image Credit: Banana Art Studio



The study is published in the <a href="https://vertpaleo.org/journal-of-vertebrate-paleontology/">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossil from China may be the world’s oldest stegosaur

Fossils of the dinosaur group known as Stegosauria have been...

After noticing an increase in the number of disposal masks littering rocky pools, an international team of researchers became interested in learning how masks and their chemicals are affecting marine life. It is already known that polypropylene, a type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-interior-has-accumulated-missing-plastics/">plastic</a> found in masks, has detrimental effects on aquatic animals.&nbsp;



The researchers observed the behavior of three small crustaceans - blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), sea snails (Littorina littorea), and copepods - in the presence of masks and compared this to their normal behavior.&nbsp;



When put into a simulated rocky environment with mask fragments, scientists noticed that mussels were 40 percent more likely to cluster together, a behavior typically observed when confronted with a threat which is also used to measure stress in the species. The experts believe mussels are using their osphradium (a sensory organ) to detect the chemicals released by the masks and aggregate together as a result.&nbsp;



Marine snails were also affected. Although they did not avoid the mask or the mask fragments, they did exhibit stress when they crawled on them and preferred not to crawl over them. Furthermore, the chemicals from the masks seemed to make them less alert, which means they might be more likely to suffer predation.&nbsp;



The study also suggests that copepod reproduction is affected by mask chemicals. Male copepods found it more challenging to detect female pheromones, which meant they were less likely to find females and mate with them.



The findings of this study may have wider implications. The species observed for this study are keystone species, which means that other members of the ecosystem heavily depend on them. A decline in populations of keystone species could have devastating consequences for other members of their community, including human consumers.&nbsp;



“We’re seeing more and more masks in rocky pools,” said Laurent Seuront, a marine ecologist at the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. “This could cascade up the food chain and up to us.”



The research will be presented by Seuront at the <a href="https://osm2022.secure-platform.com/">2022 Ocean Sciences Meeting</a>, which will be held online. The meeting brings together researchers from the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a>, the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography, and The Oceanography Society.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disposable masks are increasingly impacting marine animals

After noticing an increase in the number of disposal masks...

It’s been long hypothesized that Stonehenge was a solar calendar of sorts. Specific alignments of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-may-be-the-original-source-of-earths-water/">Sun</a> with different stones is suggestive. Now, a new analysis of the famous stone ring reveals exactly how it may have functioned.&nbsp;



“The clear solstitial alignment of Stonehenge has prompted people to suggest that the site included some kind of calendar since the antiquarian William Stukeley,” said Professor Timothy Darvill of Bournemouth University. “Now, discoveries brought the issue into sharper focus and indicate the site was a calendar based on a tropical solar year of 365.25 days.”



According to Darvill’s analysis the calendar was based on what seems to us to be an unusual ten day week. Special stones seem to mark the beginning of each of the twelve months denoted by the circle.&nbsp;



“The proposed calendar works in a very straightforward way. Each of the 30 stones in the sarsen circle represents a day within a month, itself divided into three weeks each of 10 days,” said Professor Darvill.



Although seven day weeks seem natural to most of us, there is a precedence for ten day weeks. They were used in other parts of the world near the time that Stonehenge was built.&nbsp;



“Such a solar calendar was developed in the eastern Mediterranean in the centuries after 3000 BC and was adopted in Egypt as the Civil Calendar around 2700 and was widely used at the start of the Old Kingdom about 2600 BC,” explained Professor Darvill.



Although there isn’t solid evidence of travel between Stonehenge and the Mediterranean or Egypt yet, there is some evidence of distant travel from that time. The “Amesbury Archer,” a bronze age man whose burial was found nearby seems to have been born in the Alps and moved to Britain as a teenager.&nbsp;



Professor Darvill hopes that future research, possibly including DNA analysis will make a link between far flung cultures more clear. Still, his work has already furthered our understanding of Stonehenge.&nbsp;



“Finding a solar calendar represented in the architecture of Stonehenge opens up a whole new way of seeing the monument as a place for the living," said Darvill. "A place where the timing of ceremonies and festivals was connected to the very fabric of the universe and celestial movements in the heavens.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://antiquity.ac.uk/">Antiquity</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New analysis reveals that Stonehenge was a solar calendar

It’s been long hypothesized that Stonehenge was a solar calendar...

In response to the dire circumstances surrounding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-older-adults-develop-medical-conditions-after-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, countries pledged around $13 trillion in stimulus packages to help economic recovery. However, of this large sum of money that could have been used to restructure economies in a more visionary manner, only six percent of it was invested in projects that address climate change issues.&nbsp;



This is the finding of a <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> study, details of which are published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>. The authors analyzed over $13 trillion in COVID-19-related stimulus packages from 19 countries and the European Union, and found that the vast majority of recovery spending didn’t address climate issues at all. Moreover, three percent of the money went to support projects that are likely to increase greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“These economic recovery packages provided an opportunity for countries, including the United States, to really envision what they want their economies to look like going forward,” said co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.jhu.edu/ehe/faculty/scot-miller/">Scot Miller</a>, an assistant professor of environmental health and engineering at Johns Hopkins. “The pandemic could have been an opportunity to push countries toward greener economies and a lot of governments have failed to do so.”



The team of scientists analyzed each nation’s stimulus policy from the beginning of the pandemic in 2020 to well into 2021, identifying the percentage of funds allocated to projects that would lower greenhouse gas emissions, those that would increase them and those that would have no impact. The six percent of recovery funding that did support emission-reducing projects was invested in activities such as the development of electric vehicles and transit infrastructure, building energy efficient homes and offices, and carrying out research into renewable energy.&nbsp;



“Even though this was a public health crisis, in principle governments could have intervened in the economy in a way that changed everything, getting together to do something really big to meet the climate challenge,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://sais.jhu.edu/users/jnahm1">Jonas Nahm</a>, assistant professor of energy, resources, and environment at Johns Hopkins’ School of Advanced International Studies. “But the vast majority of the money spent has very tenuous relations to emissions so it was, overall, very disappointing.”



The team found that of green stimulus measures, only about 27 percent would directly reduce greenhouse emissions. The remaining approximately 72 percent would have only an indirect impact; these included projects like subsidies for biofuel producers in Brazil, or funding in Germany to aid the construction of electric vehicle charging stations.



South Korea and the European Union each devoted 30 percent of their stimulus money to funding green projects, while Brazil, Germany and Italy invested more than 20 percent. France spent ten percent of its recovery money on green projects, but the majority of countries, including the United States, Japan, Russia, and the United Kingdom, paid almost no attention to climate-related projects and spent less than five percent of their stimulus packages in this area.&nbsp;



Governments clearly did not prioritize climate protection over economic growth in the attempts to recover from the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. This is common during economic downturns, the authors say, yet stimulus spending during recessions offers an opportunity to combine climate and economic objectives. In the aftermath of the 2009 recession, for instance, 16% of global stimulus spending targeted emissions-reducing activities.



The trillions of dollars pledged by countries around the world to stimulate economic recovery were spent, instead, mainly on unconditional checks issued to individuals and businesses. They could have been invested in technology, infrastructure, and research and development to meet the climate goals of the Paris Agreement, creating jobs and economic recovery along the way.&nbsp; Signatories to the Agreement have 2030 deadlines to meet concerning interim emissions goals, and recovery funding could have been used to support their attempts to reach these targets.&nbsp;



“If there was ever an opportunity to tie economic recovery with these climate goals that are drawing closer by the day, this would have been the time to do it,” Miller said. “In the months and years ahead, we shouldn’t forget about climate and greenhouse gas emissions goals when devising economic recovery measures. These 2030 climate goals are coming faster and sooner than we think and we can’t put off thinking about climate change until the pandemic is over.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic stimulus funding could have been used to address climate crisis

In response to the dire circumstances surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic,...

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly common practice in conservation. DNA found in the environment has been used to detect endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-are-making-a-comeback-in-the-cayman-islands/">turtles</a> in Vietnam, and has also been used in demanding environments like the Amazon and Mt. Everest.&nbsp;



In an attempt to monitor whale and dolphin populations, many of which are endangered, researchers from three universities and the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) have turned to eDNA collected from water samples. This method can be used in concert with other monitoring methods, including acoustic surveys. It’s even possible that eDNA may one day be used to identify individual animals.&nbsp;



Whales and dolphins are increasingly in need of protection and careful monitoring. Plans by the Biden administration, the state of New York (where the study was carried out) and others to increase offshore wind administration pose potential threats to whales. This on top of threats from fishing gear, whaling, pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-whales-are-killed-by-ship-strikes-each-year/">strikes with ships</a>. 



Environmental DNA could be one more tool to help understand and protect whales and dolphins. WCS has already been working to develop guidelines for wind energy to make it as whale and dolphin friendly as possible.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 



“Determining how cetaceans and other threatened marine animals use coastal habitats is critical to their effective conservation," said study lead author Dr. Elizabeth Alter of California State University.



"By generating eDNA data in parallel with survey data, it will be possible to gain a clearer understanding of how this tool can be used in management and conservation contexts to monitor species of conservation concern over large marine ecosystems.”



Not only are whales and dolphins detectable with eDNA, so are some of their prey species, such as fish. Monitoring whales, dolphins, and smaller animals may provide a greater understanding of the state of various populations and the habitats that are suitable for them.&nbsp;



Study co-author Dr. Howard C. Rosenbaum is the director of WCS’s Ocean Giants Program and a senior scientist at the NY Aquarium.



“Innovation and application of new techniques, such as the possibility of using eDNA, that leads to having better information about distribution of whales, dolphins and their prey is so important today, especially where potential impacts in these habitats may be increasing human activities," said Dr. Rosenbaum.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Environmental DNA collected from water used to monitor whales

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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