On September 29, 2024, something unusual happened in our cosmic neighborhood. Earth captured a tiny asteroid named 2024 PT5, turning it into a temporary mini-moon. 



That's right... as of today, November 2, 2024, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth has two moons</a>.



Richard Binzel, an astronomer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), shed some light on these fleeting celestial companions.



"These happen more often than we think, but they're small and tough to spot," Binzel explained. "Only lately have our telescopes become powerful enough to catch them regularly."



Back in August, a team of astronomers from the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University</a> of Madrid detected the small space rock using a powerful telescope in Sutherland, South Africa.



They weren't the only ones keeping an eye on it. The asteroid was first noticed on August 7, 2024 by NASA's Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (<a href="https://atlas.fallingstar.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATLAS</a>) at Haleakala Observatory in Hawaii.



This discovery sparked excitement among astronomers, offering a chance to learn more about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-test-simulation-shows-earth-not-prepared-prevent-large-asteroid-strike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near-Earth objects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-2024-pt5">What exactly is 2024 PT5?</h2>



Earth occasionally captures small asteroids like 2024 PT5, placing them into temporary orbits around our planet. 



While most asteroids circle the sun on their regular paths, some venture close enough for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-global-electric-field-discovered-equally-important-gravity-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's gravity</a> to snatch them up for a brief visit.



These cosmic visitors only stay in Earth's orbit for a short time -- typically a few weeks or months -- before breaking free and resuming their solar journey.



Each mini-moon gives scientists a rare opportunity to examine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/27500-hidden-near-earth-asteroids-discovered-using-google-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near-Earth asteroids</a> up close, revealing valuable insights about our solar system's mechanics.



So, what makes this asteroid special, aside from the fact that new technology and the internet made it famous? 



William Blackmore, Planetarium Director and Astronomy Instructor at <a href="https://www.mhcc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mt. Hood Community College</a>, offered his thoughts.



"All mini-moons are unique in their own way," Blackmore explained. "This one isn't different from others except that it's the most recent.”



2024 PT5 will be around for about two more weeks, probably until mid-November.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-2024-pt5-to-our-moon">Comparing 2024 PT5 to our moon</h2>



Let's compare our moon to this new mini-moon: 2024 PT5 is only about 37 feet across, while our familiar moon stretches a massive 2,159 miles in diameter. That makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our moon</a> over 300,000 times wider than this tiny asteroid.



Knowing it’s up there is pretty exciting, even though we can't see it for ourselves without an invitation to a huge Earth telescope installation.



“These temporary captures are natural cosmic laboratories,” Binzel mentioned. “They help us understand the small bodies that come close to Earth and could be important for future space missions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-asteroid-2024-pt5-became-famous">How Asteroid 2024 PT5 became famous</h2>



Understanding how 2024 PT5 became Earth's temporary moon involves a bit of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-order-in-the-chaos-of-the-three-body-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orbital mechanics</a>. 



Blackmore explained, "It's moving along with us in our orbit around the sun. It's part of a group of asteroids called the Arjuna asteroids, which move at about the same pace as Earth."



He added an interesting analogy: "Imagine a skateboarder dropping into a skate park. They ride the curves, adding energy as they go. That's like the asteroid getting caught in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dart-mission-debris-will-create-a-human-made-meteor-shower/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's gravitational field</a>, riding the curve before moving on."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-spotting-mini-moons">Significance of spotting mini-moons</h2>



Spotting mini-moons is tough because they're incredibly small and faint. These tiny asteroids are often just a few dozen feet across, which means they don't reflect much sunlight. That makes them nearly invisible against the dark backdrop of space.



Plus, they're zipping around at high speeds and don't hang around for long, so by the time we point our telescopes their way, they might already be gone. 



It's like trying to catch a glimpse of a firefly from miles away -- you need the right conditions and equipment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-high-tech-telescopes">Modern high-tech telescopes</h2>



Astronomers find them by using powerful telescopes equipped with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gaia-reveals-moons-around-hundreds-of-asteroids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitive detectors and smart software</a>.



Projects like the ATLAS system scan the skies every night, searching for any objects that weren't there before. 



When they spot something moving in a way that suggests it's close to Earth, they alert other astronomers to help confirm the find. 



It's a collaborative effort, combining technology and teamwork to spot these elusive cosmic visitors.



Knowing more about these temporary moons helps us prepare for any potential asteroid threats and opens up possibilities for mining resources from near-Earth objects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-observing-2024-pt5">Challenges in observing 2024 PT5</h2>



For those eager to see this mini-moon, both experts warned that it would be extremely difficult. "You'd need a telescope with a diameter of at least 30 inches," Blackmore mentioned. "That's beyond what most amateur astronomers have."



Todd agreed, adding, "It won't be visible to the naked eye. Being 33 feet wide and so far away, you'd need a very large telescope."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While 2024 PT5 doesn't pose any threat to Earth, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-a-fifth-force-of-nature-asteroids-provide-new-clues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying it is crucial</a>. 



"It's important to analyze how it moves and interacts with Earth's gravitational pull," Blackmore said. "This helps us refine our techniques for tracking objects that could cross our path again."



Todd highlighted the practical applications of this knowledge. 



"We need to understand how to intercept an asteroid at a distance and change its direction," he said. "This could be vital in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-dart-mission-proves-humanity-can-be-saved-from-asteroid-collision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preventing potential impacts</a> in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiration-for-future-space-missions">Inspiration for future space missions</h2>



Blackmore envisioned future missions that could take advantage of these temporary visitors. 



"It would be fascinating if we had missions ready to send small satellites or probes to these objects when they come close," he mused. "Imagine building a network of sensors or cameras traveling along with us, like space webcams."



Todd also saw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-named-psyche-is-worth-10000-quadrillion-for-whoever-can-extract-minerals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential in asteroid mining</a> and scientific discovery. 



"There might be materials on these asteroids that we can't find on Earth," he said. "They could solve problems in medicine or technology. But we need to weigh the benefits carefully."



To sum it all up, the brief visit of asteroid 2024 PT5 serves as a reminder of the dynamic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroids-were-formed-in-cold-regions-of-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature of our solar system</a>. 



While it won't be with us for long -- just a couple more weeks -- its presence offers valuable opportunities for learning and exploration.



As technology advances, we'll likely spot more of these mini-moons. Each one gives us a chance to understand our cosmic environment better and prepare for the future. 



So even though you'll never see it, you might want to spare a moment of your time and stop to appreciate 2024 PT5 while you still can.



The full study was published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad781f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal IOPscience</a>.



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Earth's second moon, a mini-moon, will drift away in a few days and never return

On September 29, 2024, something unusual happened in our cosmic neighborhood. Earth captured a tiny asteroid named 2024 PT5, turning it into a temporary mini-moon. That's right... as of today, November 2, 2024, Earth has two moons. Richard Binzel, an astronomer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), shed some light on these fleeting celestial companions. "These happen more often than we think, but they're small and tough to spot," Binzel explained. "Only lately have our telescopes become powerful enough to catch them regularly." Back in August,...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL094888">Geophysical Research Letters</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-will-force-millions-to-migrate/">warming</a> ocean waters related to climate change have caused a significant drop in Earth's brightness. 



According to observations gathered by the <a href="https://www.bbso.njit.edu/">Big Bear Solar Observatory</a> in Southern California, the Earth is now reflecting approximately half a watt less light per square meter compared to two decades ago, with most of the decrease occurring in the past three years.



By using decades of measurements of earthshine (the light reflected from the Earth which illuminates the Moon’s surface), together with satellite measurements, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.njit.edu/">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a> recently discovered a significant drop in Earth’s reflectance, or “albedo,” over the past two decades.&nbsp;



This 0.5 percent decrease in Earth’s brightness was quite unexpected, especially since it has mostly transpired in the past three years. “The albedo drop was such a surprise to us when we analyzed the last three years of data after 17 years of nearly flat albedo," said study lead author Philip Goode, a researcher at the New Jersey Institute of Technology.



The net sunlight reaching our planet is affected by the Sun’s brightness and the Earth’s reflectivity. According to the scientists, since the recent changes in the Earth’s albedo did not correlate with changes in the Sun’s brightness, they must have been caused by something on the Earth.&nbsp;



Using satellite measurements made as part of NASA's <a href="https://ceres.larc.nasa.gov/">Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System</a> (CERES) project, Professor Goode and his colleagues have identified a significant reduction of bright, reflective low-lying clouds over the eastern Pacific Ocean. This phenomenon appeared to be caused by increases in the ocean’s surface temperatures related to climate change.



In recent years, scientists have hoped that a warmer Earth might lead to more clouds and thus higher albedo, which would subsequently help moderating the warming and balancing the climate. However, the new findings show that the opposite might actually be true. The Earth’s dimming could in fact cause additional solar energy to be captured in the planet’s atmosphere and oceans, and may thus increase global warming and exacerbate climate change.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists find an unexpected drop in Earth’s brightness

A new study published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters...

While sleeping, we react to two different types of stimuli. Quantitative information, such as loud noises, require no special <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mind-diet-slows-cognitive-decline/">cognitive</a> processing to wake us up. However, qualitative or salient information, like subtle smells or auditory cues, requires additional subconscious processing.&nbsp;



By studying sleep patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-isolation-causes-flies-to-eat-too-much-and-sleep-too-little/">fruit flies</a>, researchers from the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> (ICL) have managed for the first time to determine which parts of the brain are involved in salient subconscious processing. While tracking such processing in humans is more difficult due to the complexity of our brains, for fruit flies their entire “connectome” (their neuronal maps) has been defined, making it easier to study their neuronal patterns during sleep.&nbsp;



“Sleep puts you in a vulnerable position, such as being at risk of predation. Therefore, animals, including humans, need to be able to respond to potential threats so that they wake up and act. If it’s a sound, like a loud bang, the processing our brains need to do is relatively simple,” explained lead study author Dr. Alice French, a researcher in the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/life-sciences">Department of Life Sciences</a> at ICL.



“However, to actively decode the sounds and smells around us that may or may not be relevant to us, different parts of the brain must remain alert. Now, in fruit flies, who share more in common with us than you might think, we have discovered one region of the sleeping brain stays awake to process smells.”



The research team tested the response to dozens of odors in well-fed and rested fruit flies, by placing them in tubes and monitoring them with an automatic system able to release odors when detecting that the flies were asleep. They discovered that aversive odors woke the flies up more often than attractive ones. By tracking the neurons involved with fluorescent markers, the scientists managed to map the brain regions responsible for salient processing during sleep.



Moreover, they also tested whether the flies’ response to salient information was fixed or “plastic,” that is, whether it would be different under different circumstances. They found that sleep-deprived or drunk flies were less responsive to odors, while starved flies where more responsive to odors specifically related to foods.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to lead researcher Dr. Giorgio Gilestro, a senior lecturer at ICL, although fruit flies have relatively simple brains, even in their case different species have different patterns of sleep and wakefulness. “Investigating how different animals balance their needs can help us determine the ultimate function of sleep,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03954-w">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts identify brain areas that remain alert during sleep

While sleeping, we react to two different types of stimuli....

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animals</a>. They’re small, common rodents that live in underground burrows made of sandy soils. In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www3.nd.edu/~ammidnat/">The American Midland Naturalist</a>, researchers have made a surprising discovery about pocket gophers - they glow under ultraviolet light.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research was inspired by flying squirrels and opossums, which were already known to glow under ultraviolet light. 



"A bunch of people, myself included, were curious about other animals," said study lead author PhD candidate J.T. Pynne. "We tested it on the flying squirrels we had, and sure enough, it worked. So, I said, 'Well, what else do we have?'"&nbsp;



While a student at <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">UGA</a> Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, Pynne focused his research on pocket gophers, so it was natural for him to test their biofluorescence too.



"And it turned out, pocket gophers, flying squirrels and opossums were the only animal specimens that fluoresced. And I'm thinking, of course my strange little animals do this," said Pynne.



Other known animals that glow under UV light are the platypus, spiders, some birds and more. "We have known for a long time that arthropods fluoresced. Any time I catch a scorpion or a spider or a millipede and I have my black light, they're bright blue," said Pynne.



Finding all of these glowing animals naturally leads to the question - why do they glow? Unfortunately, there is no clear answer from scientists yet. For some like Pynne, it’s simply an interesting way to explore the natural world - go out on a dark night with a UV flashlight and see what glows out there. 



"Although unknown, the adaptive significance of biofluorescence in pocket gophers is likely similar to that documented in terrestrial and arboreal species previously, including communication or predator evasion," wrote the study authors.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pocket gophers glow under UV light

Pocket gophers aren’t exotic animals. They’re small, common rodents that...

In a fascinating study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>, researchers have discovered that baby birds can learn sounds from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/screen-time-is-a-top-concern-among-parents-during-pandemic/">parents</a> before they have even hatched. The birds were found to exhibit physical responses (fluctuating heartbeats) to their parents' calls from inside of the egg.



The experts used non-invasive techniques to study prenatal auditory learning in the embryos of three vocal learning species, including the superb fairy-wren, the red-winged fairy-wren and Darwin's small ground finch.&nbsp;The researchers also analyzed the embryos of two vocal non-learning species - the little penguin and Japanese quail.



"Vocal production learning is only believed to occur in seven lineages of birds and mammals, including humans," said study co-author Sonia Kleindorfer. "This research will hopefully inspire more study into the remarkable capacity of animals to learn sound."&nbsp;



"By moving the time window for sound learning to the prenatal stage, this research direction opens pathways to measure neurobiological downstream effects of early auditory experience on behavior and information processing."



The researchers used fluctuations in heart rate to measure the vocal learning concepts in embryo behavior and response to sound within the egg. This embryonic stage occurs well before baby birds hatch and start making complex calls or songs - which normally takes several months or even years after birth to accomplish.  



"By studying the capacity for sound learning in embryos, we are paving the way to new inroads into evolutionary and developmental timescales," explained study first author Diane Colombelli-Négrel.



"Long before actual vocalization, we found that these tiny songbirds were also discriminating towards non-specific sounds and capable of 'non-associative' - not from parents - sounds, building on the complexity of vocal learning in songbirds." 



According to Kleindorfer, there are many forms of vocal learning but vocal production learning by far stands out as a hallmark achievement in seven orders - primates, songbirds, parrots, hummingbirds, cetaceans, pinnipeds and bats. Among primates, however, only humans can do it.



"As a result of the rarity of vocal production learning, animals have been grouped into so-called 'vocal learners' - those that learn to imitate a vocalization from a vocal tutor - and 'vocal non-learners' - animals that produce vocalizations without imitating a vocal tutor," said Kleindorfer.



Patrick Abbot is a program director in the Division of Integrative Organismal Systems at the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, which funded the research.



"By showing that pre-hatch auditory learning may be common in birds, this project adds to our growing recognition of the importance of the sound environment and paves the way for new avenues of research on the neuroethology, development and evolution of vocal perception learning in vertebrates," said Abbot.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Baby birds can learn sounds before they've even hatched

In a fascinating study led by Flinders University, researchers have...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> have recently discovered that the melting of polar ice from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-in-the-north-pacific-linked-to-unusual-ozone-hole/">Arctic</a>, Antarctica, and Greenland is not only causing sea levels to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-at-an-alarming-rate/">rise</a>, but is also warping the Earth’s crust. According to the scientists, the effects of this phenomenon can be felt thousands of miles away.&nbsp;



When ice sheets build up, their weight is causing the crust beneath the ice to sink in order to compensate. As the ice melts, and this weight is removed, the crust rises up again in a process called “isostatic rebound.” The vertical shifting of the crust as the weight of the ice is removed can also further accelerate ice loss through a positive feedback effect.&nbsp;



“Think of a wooden board floating on top of a tub of water. When you push the board down, you would have the water beneath moving down. If you pick it up, you’ll see the water moving vertically to fill that space,” explained lead study author Sophie Coulson, a researcher in the <a href="https://www.lanl.gov/org/ddste/aldsc/theoretical/fluid-dynamics-solid-mechanics/index.php">Fluid Dynamics and Solid Mechanics Group</a> at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.



While this phenomenon of vertical rebound has long been understood by scientists, Dr. Coulson and her research team have recently found that the crust might also shift sideways due to ice melting caused by climate change.



By analyzing satellite data on polar ice loss from 2003 to 2018, the researchers have discovered that melting Arctic and Greenland glaciers caused the ground to shift horizontally in most of the Northern hemisphere. Moreover, in certain places, even far away from the melting ice, the crust was moving more horizontally than it was rebounding vertically.



According to Glenn Antony Milne, an Earth scientist from the <a href="https://www2.uottawa.ca/en">University of Ottawa</a>, this work&nbsp;“is important because it is the first to show that recent mass loss of ice sheets and glaciers causes 3D motion of the Earth’s surface that is greater in magnitude and spatial extent than previously identified.”



Understanding the factors that cause movements of the Earth’s crust is important for solving a wide range of science problems. “For example, to accurately observe tectonic motions and earthquake activity, we need to be able to separate out this motion generated by modern ice-mass loss,” explained Dr. Coulson.



The study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095477">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Melting polar ice is warping Earth’s crust

Researchers at Harvard University have recently discovered that the melting...

Ahead of <a href="https://ukcop26.org/">COP 26</a>, the UN <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-following-a-pattern-similar-to-earths-largest-mass-extinction/">climate</a> change conference, a collaborative group of Indigenous leaders, activists and scientists is calling upon world leaders to commit to saving the Amazon. In a <a href="https://www.globallandscapesforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Protect_Amazonia_EN.pdf">statement</a> the group urged great change in global economic systems.



“We, Indigenous peoples and local communities, have a deep spiritual connection to, and knowledge of, our territories and their management. Our knowledge is a treasure offered to enrich a new paradigm of human–nature interaction: Rethinking the economics of our societies, with their overconsumption that is destroying the ability of our generous planet to sustain life. Economic change is essential for preserving the socio-cultural and biological diversity of Amazonia and the future of life on Earth.”



The Amazon, they say, is a place like no other, a place containing not only an incredible diversity of different life forms but also sustaining a diversity of human cultures. Not only indigenous peoples, but also unique Afro-cultures descended from escaped slaves that found a way to live harmoniously in the forest.&nbsp;



The group points to these cultures as sustainable ways to preserve not only the Amazon itself but also to protect against global climate change and as lessons to the world on sustainability.&nbsp;



“Research leaves no doubt that Indigenous and local knowledge systems are strongly linked to reduced deforestation, sustainable management of natural resources and flexible adaptation to climate change," said Solange Bandiaky-Badji, Coordinator of the Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI).



"Global leaders must use this momentum around climate to amplify their support to secure rights for Indigenous Peoples, Afro-descendant Peoples and local communities - particularly their networks of women - as an essential pathway to preventing climate change as well as supporting local livelihoods.”



The call comes at a time when Brazil, which contains the majority of the Amazon ecosystem, is under the presidential leadership of Jair Bolsonaro - a president so dangerous that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/14/amazon-rainforest-will-collapse-if-bolsonaro-remains-president">some claim</a> the Amazon itself will collapse if he remains in power. This makes international pressure to protect the forest and its people all the more important.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Indigenous leaders call on the world to save the Amazon

Ahead of COP 26, the UN climate change conference, a...

A study from <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a> is shedding new light on the mystery of the timing of human migration into the Americas. While analyzing exposed outcrops of an ancient lake in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, the researchers discovered multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-mutation-may-explain-how-humans-lost-their-tails/">human</a> footprints that are 23,000 to 21,000 years old.&nbsp;



"Archaeologists and researchers in allied fields have long sought to understand human colonization of North America," wrote the researchers. "Questions remain about when and how people migrated, where they originated, and how their arrival affected the established fauna and landscape."



According to the study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, the footprints indicate that humans inhabited North America for approximately two millennia during the Last Glacial Maximum.&nbsp;



"These findings confirm the presence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum, adding evidence to the antiquity of human colonization of the Americas and providing a temporal range extension for the coexistence of early inhabitants and Pleistocene megafauna," explained the study authors.



The results of previous studies have suggested that humans arrived in the Americas around 13,000 years ago at the end of the last Ice Age. Other archaeological research placed humans on the continent several thousand years earlier - between 16,000 and 17,000 years ago.



“We’d been suspicious of the age for a while, and so now (that) we finally have that it’s really exciting,” study co-author David Bustos, the chief of natural and cultural resources at White Sands, told NBC News. “One of the neat things is that you can see mammoth prints in the layers a meter or so above the human footprints, so that just helps to confirm the whole story.”



For the investigation, the researchers used radiocarbon dating to analyze the age of hundreds of dried ditchgrass seeds found in layers above and below the footprints.



Study co-author Sally Reynolds is a paleontologist at Bournemouth University. She said the new findings suggest that humans co-existed with animals such as mammoths and giant sloths for longer than expected.&nbsp;



“It may well be that the humans were harvesting these megafauna as part of their killing and their hunting more sustainably in the earlier years, and potentially through time, as the populations grew, the balance of power shifted and the humans started perhaps overharvesting these megafauna," Reynolds explained in a <a href="https://youtu.be/5PxqOMKvibE">video</a>.&nbsp;



Study lead author Matthew R. Bennett and colleagues said that their analysis of the tracks indicates that most were made by teenagers and children.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans were in North America during Last Glacial Maximum

A study from AAAS is shedding new light on the...

Building on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-reading-technology-recreates-bird-song-from-brain-waves/">previous research</a> which used the bodies and brains of zebra finches as a proxy for humans, scientists say they can now predict a bird’s song by reading its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-support-can-protect-your-brain-health/">brain</a> signals. Silicone chips are implanted into the brains of small male zebra finches, common pet store birds. Using data from the chips, the scientists can predict bird calls.



“Our work sets the stage for this larger goal," explained study lead author and PhD candidate Daril Brown. "We’re studying birdsong in a way that will help us get one step closer to engineering a brain machine interface for vocalization and communication.”



“Our motivation for exploring local field potentials was that most of the complementary human work for speech prostheses development has focused on these types of signals," said Vikash Gilja, who led the collaborative research.



"In this paper, we show that there are many similarities in this type of signaling between the zebra finch and humans, as well as other primates. With these signals we can start to decode the brain’s intent to generate speech."



"These forms of variation are important for us to test hypothetical speech prostheses, because a human doesn’t just repeat one sentence over and over again."



"It’s exciting that we found parallels in the brain signals that are being recorded and documented in human physiology studies to our study in songbirds.”



As of now, the technology reveals the vocalization that a bird will make before it sings. According to researcher Timothy Gentner, this is a stepping stone to a bigger breakthrough.



"In the longer term, we want to use the detailed knowledge we are gaining from the songbird brain to develop a communication prosthesis that can improve the quality of life for humans suffering a variety of illnesses and disorders,”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/">PLos Computational Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists can predict bird calls based on brain signals

Building on previous research which used the bodies and brains...

Bats,Flying,On,Green,Background

Vampire bats are known to form long-term relationships by grooming each other and even sharing regurgitated blood meals while roosting in trees. These social bonds usually exist between related individuals but can also form between strangers in captive conditions. In these instances, cooperative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-disrupts-flight-calling-behavior-of-thrushes/">behavior</a> can persist for years after the bats are released back into the wild.



To find out whether these social bonds extend beyond the roost, scientists&nbsp;Simon Ripperger and Gerald Carter of <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> in the USA and the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> in Panama attached small proximity sensors to the backs of 50 female common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) to monitor their movements. The bats included 27 wild individuals and 23 that had been kept in captivity for two years before being released back into their original home roost on a cattle farm in Tolé, Panama.



The results showed that, although tagged bats did not usually leave the roost together, those that were socially bonded often met up while foraging far from the roost. Furthermore, females with many social partners at the roost also made contact with more partners while away foraging. 



The experts theorize that socially bonded bats may cooperate by sharing information about potential hosts, or the location of an open wound on which to feed, when they reunite during foraging trips. This would save time and reduce the effort required for a bat to find a host and prepare a wound site. 



Vampire bats produce several distinct types of calls and the authors suggest that ‘downward sweeping’ social calls that are used to identify partners and ‘friends’ in the roost may also be used to recognize these individuals while out foraging.&nbsp;



The researchers add, “How far does ‘friendship’ go? We show that social bonds of vampire bats are not restricted to grooming and food sharing at the roost, but bonded individuals even hunt together, highlighting the complexity of their social relationships.”



The findings of this research are published in the open-access journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLoS Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vampire bats hunt for food with their friends

Vampire bats are known to form long-term relationships by grooming...

The Hell Creek Formation, a rock unit stretching across Montana, the Dakotas, and Wyoming, holds some of prehistory’s most enduring icons. Triceratops, duck billed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-already-in-trouble-before-extinction/">dinosaurs</a>, and Tyrannosaurus rex all roamed this region 66 million years ago. Now arid and dry, it was once a lush subtropical swampland, where some of the last dinosaurs lived out their days before the group’s extinction at the end of the Cretaceous.&nbsp;



Uncovering the diversity and ecology of Hell Creek attracts researchers near and far. This year, the <a href="https://www.burkemuseum.org/">UW Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture</a> has unearthed four dinosaur specimens, concluding a successful field season.&nbsp;



The four animals include an unidentified ostrich-like dinosaur, the shovel-billed Edmontosaurus, the three-horned Triceratops, and a possibly-new species of oviraptorid - a critter that would have somewhat resembled a modern cassowary, except with giant hand claws. While none of the specimens are complete, their discovery helps build a more complete picture of the Hell Creek ecosystem. To a paleontologist, every fossil holds potential research value.&nbsp;



The Triceratops earned the nickname “Flyby Trike,” as its bones were discovered by a nearby rancher who was flying his plane at the time. Though only thirty percent of the skull has been recovered, Flyby Trike can help researchers understand the life history of this charismatic fossil species. Dubbed a “grandparent trike” by lab manager Kelsi Abrams, it shows how this animal matured and entered senescence.&nbsp;



“The triangular bones along the frill, called ‘epi occipitals,’ are completely fused and almost unrecognizable on the specimen, as compared to the sharp, noticeable triangular shape seen in younger individuals," said Abrams. "In addition, the brow horn curves downwards as opposed to upwards, and this feature has been reported to be seen in older animals as well.”&nbsp;



Plant remains found among these larger vertebrates are also useful to scientists. “Plant fossil remains from this time period are crucial for our understanding of the wider ecosystem. Not only can plant material tell us what these dinosaurs were perhaps eating, but plants can more broadly tell us what their environment looked like,” said Paige Wilson, a UW graduate student.&nbsp;



“Each fossil that we collect helps us sharpen our views of the last dinosaur-dominated ecosystems and the first mammal-dominated ecosystems," said Gregory Wilson Mantilla, a Burke Museum curator.



The Hell Creek lies right below the K/Pg boundary, the demarcation between the extinction that heralded the end of the age of dinosaurs and the beginning of the age of mammals.



For now, these new finds are undergoing the laborious process of fossil preparation at the Burke Museum. As each scrap of dirt and rock falls off the bone, new data is waiting for paleontologists, both present and future, to examine.



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By <a href="mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Four new dinosaur specimens found at the Hell Creek Formation

The Hell Creek Formation, a rock unit stretching across Montana,...

The addition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-plants-could-replace-shots-as-vaccines/">plant</a> extracts to traditionally cured processed meats has recently been shown to reduce the levels of N-nitroso compounds (NOCs) in egested fecal matter in humans. This may mean that plant extracts, such as those from Japanese knotweed, could be used to replace the questionable chemical compounds traditionally used in the curing and processing of meats.



Red meat stimulates the production of NOCs in the colon, and this has been linked to increased risk of developing colorectal cancer. In addition, nitrites used in the curing or processing of meat are also a source of NOCs. Nitrites are commonly added to meat during processing to prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria, to avert rancidity, and to create the characteristic pink color of cured meats such as bacon and ham.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The safety of eating processed meat has been debated for years, with several reports from the World Cancer Research Fund stating that there is convincing evidence that its consumption is associated with cancer risk. The International Agency on Research on Cancer has classified processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1 carcinogen), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.



In a recent study, researchers from the PHYTOME project developed processed red meat products that included added natural substitutes of plant origin in order to limit the use of nitrite while still retaining microbial safety. The range of sausages and hams had a mixture of plant and fruit extracts added to them, including rosemary, green tea, and resveratrol extracted from Japanese knotweed.



“The ongoing worries about highly processed red meat have often focused on the role of nitrite, and its links with cancer. The PHYTOME project tackled the issue by creating processed red meat products that replace additives with plant-based alternatives," said Gunter Kuhnle, Professor of Nutrition and Food Science at the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>.



The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of consumption of processed red meat products with reduced levels of nitrite and with normal levels, but with the addition of phytochemicals in both cases. Apparent total nitroso compounds (ATNCs) were measured and the results were compared with the levels of ATNCs in the feces of people who ate minimally processed white meat.&nbsp;



The results, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.202001214">Molecular Nutrition and Food Research</a>, found that the ATNCs in participants’ feces were significantly lower after consumption of both the normal nitrate and reduced nitrate meats that had been treated with phytochemicals. In both cases, levels of nitroso compounds were similar to those found in people who had eaten the white meat.



“Our latest findings show that using natural additives in processed red meat reduces the creation of compounds in the body that are linked to cancer,” explained Professor Kuhnle.&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, the natural additives seemed to have some protective effects even when the red meat still contained nitrite. This suggests that natural additives could be used to reduce some of the potentially harmful effects of nitrite, even in foods where it is not possible to take out nitrite preservatives altogether.”



These results potentially cast a new perspective on the Japanese knotweed, a perennial plant that is commonly seen as an invasive species and a pest in North America and Europe. It contains a form of resveratrol most useful to the human body and is rapidly becoming the preferred source of this phytochemical.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Japanese knotweed could lower cancer risk of processed meat

The addition of plant extracts to traditionally cured processed meats...

It is a well known fact that climate change will heat up the Earth, but new research from the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has focused on exactly how fast global warming will affect the Northeast coast of the United States from Maine to Delaware.&nbsp;



The researchers concluded that the Northeast is heating faster than the majority of North America as a result of drastic changes in the atmosphere above the North Atlantic.&nbsp;



While investigating what global warming means for the Northeast, in particular, study lead author Ambarish Karmalka found evidence of the rapid rates of coastal warming in the Northeast and Atlantic in comparison to other regions.



“The key findings here are that the observed warming in coastal Northeast is exceptional,” explained Karmalkar. “Some of the biggest populations centers in the U.S. are suffering the greatest degree of warming, and that this warming is being driven both by equally rapid trends in the Atlantic Ocean and by changes in atmospheric circulation patterns.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Further problems are being caused by the decreasing speed of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). This is a belt of water that transports warm, salty water to the north from the tropics, which then sinks and cools. Deep water currents will form, transporting the cooled water back south, but this process is slowing due to global warming.&nbsp;



&nbsp;“One consequence of this conveyor belt slowdown is more heating of the ocean off the Northeastern coast, which helps to explain the spike in ocean temperatures in the Mid-Atlantic regions,” said Karmalkar.



An additional sign of rising temperatures in the Northeast is the link between the AMOC and the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). This is a weather phenomenon that governs the wind's strength and position when blowing from the US, over the Atlantic, and on to Europe.&nbsp;



The NAO influences storm tracks, the jet stream and seasonal temperatures in the Northeast, and is naturally variable in behaviour.



However, Karmalkar and study co-author Radley Horton from Columbia University show that the varying behavior of the NAO has recently settled into a pattern which has increased the influence of ocean air on the eastern seaboard climate.



As a result, warmer ocean air is being blown over the coastal Northeast and heating up land temperatures.&nbsp;



In addition to this discovery, the research is significant as it highlights the importance of high resolution climate models for understanding global warming.



“Our research implies that without improved high-resolution data, regional climate assessments, which inform our ability to plan for the future, may underemphasize warming in this populous region," said Karmalkar.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why is the Northeast coast a global warming hotspot?

It is a well known fact that climate change will...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...