A recent study by Princeton neuroscientists introduces a novel mathematical model that sheds light on how the brain integrates sensory cues - such as sights and sounds - when making decisions.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-025-01869-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>, could deepen our understanding of neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s and may also help improve artificial intelligence systems, such as digital assistants and self-driving cars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-sensory-information">Conflicting sensory information</h2>



Everyday decisions require the brain to juggle multiple sensory inputs. A commuter walking to work, for instance, might see a glowing crosswalk signal indicating it is safe to cross.&nbsp;



At the same time, they may hear the blaring siren of an ambulance approaching the intersection, forcing them to reassess their decision.



While scientists have long studied how the brain processes such competing signals, the precise mechanisms remain unclear.



One crucial region for decision-making is the prefrontal cortex, located just behind the eyes. This area is often regarded as the center of higher cognition. Previous studies have shown that neurons in the prefrontal cortex respond in complex ways during decision-making. 



For example, some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> may fire only when a green traffic light appears and a car is blocking the crosswalk. However, a comprehensive model explaining how these neurons collectively process sensory information to generate behavioral decisions has remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-model-to-explain-brain-circuitry">A new model to explain brain circuitry</h2>



Various mathematical models have been developed to explain how neural circuits link <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory information</a> to behavior, each with its limitations.&nbsp;



One commonly used approach involves recurrent neural networks - models with interconnected units designed to simulate decision-making. However, these models are often difficult to interpret due to the complexity of their connections.



In their latest study, postdoctoral researcher Christopher Langdon and assistant professor of neuroscience Tatiana Engel - both from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> - propose a new framework called the latent circuit model.



Instead of analyzing the entire brain network in overwhelming detail, Langdon and Engel suggest focusing on a few key neurons that act as “ringleaders” in decision-making, influencing the behavior of the entire network.&nbsp;



This approach, known as a low-dimensional mechanism, seeks to identify a small number of core processes that drive neural decision-making.



“The goal of the research was to understand if low-dimensional mechanisms were operating inside large recurrent neural networks,” Langdon said.



To test their hypothesis, the researchers applied the latent circuit model to a context-dependent decision-making task performed by humans, monkeys, and computer models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-decision-making-model-nbsp">Testing the decision-making model&nbsp;</h2>



In the experiment, participants were first shown a context cue - either a square or a triangle. Next, they saw a moving grid, which acted as the sensory cue.&nbsp;



Depending on the shape they were initially shown, participants had to focus on either the color (red vs. green) or the motion (left vs. right) of the grid to make their decision.



Using the latent circuit model, Langdon and Engel found that when motion was the relevant cue, neurons processing shape information suppressed those that processed color. The opposite occurred when color was the critical cue.



“It was very exciting to find an interpretable, concrete mechanism hiding inside a big network,” Langdon said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-decision-making-in-the-brain">Mapping decision-making in the brain</h2>



The latent circuit model allows researchers to predict how decision-making changes when specific neural connections are strengthened or removed. By testing these predictions, scientists can verify whether the underlying connectivity is truly necessary for the task.



Indeed, the study confirmed that task performance deteriorated in predictable ways when certain neural connections were disrupted.



“The cool thing about our new work is that we showed how you can translate all those things that you can do with a circuit onto a big network,” Langdon said.&nbsp;



“When you build a small neural circuit by hand, there’s lots of things you can do to convince yourself you understand it. You can play with connections and perturb nodes, and have some idea what should happen to behavior when you play with the circuit in this way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-neuroscience-and-ai">Implications for neuroscience and AI</h2>



With the human brain containing more neurons than there are stars in the Milky Way, understanding its complexity is a daunting challenge.&nbsp;



However, the latent circuit model opens new possibilities for studying how groups of interconnected neurons give rise to decision-making processes.



Disruptions in decision-making are a hallmark of numerous neurological and mental health disorders, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fruit-can-protect-you-from-late-life-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>, schizophrenia, and ADHD. By revealing the mathematical computations that drive decision-making, this model may help researchers understand these conditions more effectively.



Beyond neuroscience, these insights could also enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lawless-superintelligence-zero-evidence-ai-control-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a>. AI-driven systems, from digital assistants like Alexa to self-driving cars, rely on decision-making algorithms. Understanding how the human brain efficiently processes information could lead to more adaptable and intelligent AI systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



The next phase of research will involve applying the latent circuit model to other commonly studied decision-making tasks.



“A lot of the tightly controlled decision-making tasks that experimentalists study, I believe that they likely have relatively simple latent mechanisms,” Langdon said. “My hope is that we can start looking for these mechanisms now in those datasets.”



By refining this approach, neuroscientists aim to unlock more secrets of how the brain translates complex sensory inputs into clear, decisive actions.



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Key neurons act as 'ringleaders' to guide decision-making

A recent study by Princeton neuroscientists introduces a novel mathematical model that sheds light on how the brain integrates sensory cues - such as sights and sounds - when making decisions.&nbsp; The findings, published in the journal Nature Neuroscience, could deepen our understanding of neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s and may also help improve artificial intelligence systems, such as digital assistants and self-driving cars. Conflicting sensory information Everyday decisions require the brain to juggle multiple sensory inputs. A commuter walking to work, for instance, might see a glowing...

In a new study from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (NIGPAS) and Columbia University, researchers set out to explain how dinosaurs lived through the Triassic extinction event, which killed many other animals. The results of the study suggest that feathers played a major role in helping the dinosaurs survive by giving them the insulation they needed to endure freezing temperatures. 



Approximately 202 million years ago, the Triassic-Jurassic Extinction wiped out the large reptiles that ruled the planet. During the same time period, dinosaurs not only survived, but thrived and rose to dominance. The experts report that dinosaurs were well-adapted to the cold in a way that other species were not.&nbsp;



“Dinosaurs were there during the Triassic under the radar all the time. The key to their eventual dominance&nbsp; was very simple. They were fundamentally cold-adapted animals. When it got cold everywhere, they were ready, and other animals weren’t," explained Paul Olsen, a geologist at Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.&nbsp;



The researchers found physical evidence of dinosaur footprints from the Junggar Basin in northwestern China. This region was located well above the Arctic Circle. The footprints indicated that dinosaurs were present along the shoreline.



In addition, the analysis of deep lake deposits produced a large number of pebbles up to about 1.5 centimeters in diameter which turned out to be ice-rafted debris (IRD). This type of debris is created when ice abuts a coastal landmass and incorporates bits of underlying rock as it freezes.&nbsp;



The researchers said the pebbles were likely picked up during winter, when lake waters froze along pebbly shorelines. In warmer weather, chunks of ice carried the pebbles offshore and eventually dropped them.&nbsp;



The discovery of IRD confirmed the theory that dinosaurs were capable of living in freezing conditions. "This shows that these areas froze regularly and the dinosaurs did just fine," said study co-author Dennis Kent.



Using a "phylogenetic bracket analysis," the experts concluded that dinosaurs were primitively insulated with feathers. The insulation from these feathers allowed the creatures to adapt to cold polar conditions.



After the Triassic extinction event, dinosaurs rapidly increased in size, expanded their range, and nearly doubled their overall population. They were the most dominant animals in Earth for the next 135 million years.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Feathers were the secret of dinosaur success

In a new study from the Chinese Academy of Sciences...

According to a new report by the <a href="http://www.ipbes.net/">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services&nbsp;</a>(IPBES), billions of people globally – most of them living in developing countries - depend on over 50,000 wild species for food, materials, medicine, energy, and many other vital contributions to human well-being that these animals, plants, fungi, and algae provide. However, the accelerating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-biodiversity-crisis-will-take-millions-of-years-to-recover-from/">biodiversity crisis&nbsp;</a>could soon push many of these species toward extinction, thus threatening the people who rely on them too. In order to avoid this situation, a large international team of experts has offered insights and tools for establishing more sustainable use of wild species around the world.



“With about 50,000 wild species used through different practices, including more than 10,000&nbsp;wild species harvested directly for human food, rural people in developing countries are most at risk from unsustainable use, with lack of complementary alternatives often forcing them to further exploit wild species already at risk,” said Dr. Jean-Marc Fromentin, a researcher at IPBES who co-chaired the Assessment Report.&nbsp;



“70 precent of the world’s poor are directly dependent on wild species,” added Dr. Marla Emery, another co-chair of the report and research geographer at the <a href="https://www.nina.no/english/home">Norwegian Institute for Nature Research</a>. “One in five people rely on wild plants, algae and fungi for their food and income; 2.4 billion rely on fuel wood for cooking; and about 90 percent of the 120 million people working in capture fisheries are supported by small-scale fishing. But the regular use of wild species is extremely important not only in the Global South. From the fish that we eat, to medicines, cosmetics, decoration and recreation, wild species’ use is much more prevalent than most people realize.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to the scientists, drivers of biodiversity loss include land- and seascape changes, pollution, invasive species, climate change, and increases in illegal use and trade. In order to protect these vital species, the experts propose a variety of actions for the five categories of “practices” in the use of wild species that they identified (fishing, logging, gathering, terrestrial animal harvesting, and non-extractive practices).&nbsp;



In the case of fishing, for example, such actions would include reducing illegal and unregulated fishing, supporting small-scale fisheries, adapting to changes in oceanic productivity due to climate change, proactively creating transboundary institutions, suppressing harmful financial subsidies, and fixing current inefficiencies. In logging practices, sustainable actions such as the management and certification of forests for multiple uses, technological innovations to reduce waste in manufacturing wood products, and political initiatives to recognize the rights of local communities are all essential for safeguarding the world’s forests.



The experts argued that, in most future scenarios that enable the sustainable use of wild species, transformative changes share several characteristics, such as the integration of plural value systems, changes in social values and cultural norms, equitable distribution of costs and benefits, and effective institutions and systems of governance.



“The sustainable use of wild species is vital for all people, in all communities – and this Report will help decision-makers around the world choose policies and actions that better support people and nature,” concluded Dr. Anne Lariguaderie, the Executive Secretary of IPBES.



A detailed summary for policymakers of the Assessment Report can be found <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/6810036#.YsxIqb1BzIU">here</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Billions of people depend on wild plant and animal species

According to a new report by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform...

Pocket gophers are a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-small-mammals-in-the-uk-tested-plastic-positive/">mammals</a> known to live solitary, underground lives, feeding on roots in North and Central American grasslands. A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> has found that these animals keep up with their energy demands by “farming” roots that grow into their tunnels, which supply 20 to 60 percent of the gophers’ daily calories.



“Southeastern pocket gophers are the first non-human mammalian farmers,” said study senior author Francis Putz, a professor of Biology at the University of Florida. “Farming is known among species of ants, beetles, and termites, but not other mammals.”



The scientists discovered that gophers don’t just eat roots that happen to grow in the paths of new tunnels that they excavate. Instead, by spreading their own waste products as fertilizers, they provide conditions favoring root growth and then harvest or crop those roots. Although whether such activities qualify as farming is still a matter of debate, Professor Putz argues that they should be considered similar to behaviors seen in humans.



“It really depends on how ‘farming’ is defined,” he explained. “If farming requires that crops be planted, then gophers don’t qualify. But this seems like a far too narrow definition for anyone with a more horticultural perspective in which crops are carefully managed - such as fruit trees in forests - but not necessarily planted. With this perspective, the origins of agriculture included Mesopotamian annual cereal and pulse crop cultivation as well as maize cultivation in the Americas, but many cultures around the world developed agriculture based on perennial crops, many of which they didn’t plant but did tend.”



According to the scientists, root cropping may explain why gophers build and maintain such extensive tunnel systems, which are comparable to rows of crops. “Pocket gophers are great examples of ecosystem engineers that turn over soil thereby aerating it and bringing nutrients back to the surface,” said Professor Putz. “They eat only roots, some of which they grow themselves, and seldom interfere with human activities.”



Further research is needed to investigate how seasonal variation in the energetic contributions of roots growing into tunnels relate to gophers’ activity cycles, and how their underground activities affect vegetation at the surface.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.003">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Pocket gophers are underground farmers

Pocket gophers are a species of mammals known to live...

By investigating a cache of fossils containing the brain and nervous system of a 500-million-year-old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-marine-predator-could-float-motionless-in-the-water/">marine predator</a> from the Burgess Shale (a fossil deposit in the Canadian Rocky Mountains) called Stanleycaris, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.rom.on.ca/en">Royal Ontario Museum</a> (ROM) has managed to shed more light on the evolution of the arthropod brain, vision, and head structure.



Stanleycaris belongs to an ancient, extinct offshoot of the arthropod evolutionary tree called Radiodonta, which was distantly related to modern insects and spiders. With large compound eyes, a fierce circular mouth lined with teeth, frontal claws with an impressive array of spines, and a flexible, segmented body with several swimming flaps along its sides, Stanleycaris was most likely a feared marine predator that fed upon a large variety of sea-bottom dwellers.



The fossils discovered in the Burgess Shale contained extremely well-preserved remains of this prehistoric animal’s brain and nervous system. “While fossilized brains from the Cambrian Period aren’t new, this discovery stands out for the astonishing quality of preservation and the large number of specimens,” said study lead author Joseph Moysiuk, a doctoral student in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto</a>. “We can even make out fine details such as visual processing centers serving the large eyes and traces of nerves entering the appendages. The details are so clear it’s as if we were looking at an animal that died yesterday.”



The fossils revealed that the brain of Stanleycaris consisted of two segments, the protocerebrum and the deutocerebrum, which were connected with the eyes and frontal claws, respectively. “We conclude that a two-segmented head and brain has deep roots in the arthropod lineage and that its evolution likely preceded the three-segmented brain that characterizes all living members of this diverse animal phylum,”&nbsp;Moysiuk explained.



In modern arthropods such as insects, the brain consists of three segments - the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. While the absence of one of these segments in Stanleycaris may not seem a fundamental game-changer, this discovery has in fact radical scientific implications. Since repeated copies of many arthropod organs can be found in their segmented bodies, clarifying how segments line up among different species is fundamental to understanding how these structures diversified during evolution. “These fossils are like a Rosetta Stone, helping to link traits in radiodonts and other early fossil arthropods with their counterparts in surviving groups,” said Moysiuk.



Moreover, the fact that this animal possessed a huge third eye&nbsp;at the front of its head shows that the earliest arthropods had already evolved a variety of complex visual systems like many of their modern counterparts, according to study senior author Jean-Bernard Caron, a curator of Invertebrate Paleontology at ROM. “Since most radiodonts are only known from scattered bits and pieces, this discovery is a crucial jump forward in understanding what they looked like and how they lived,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.027">Current Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Marine fossil sheds light on arthropod evolution

By investigating a cache of fossils containing the brain and...

Juicy,Home,Made,Burger,Served,With,Crispy,Fries.

Being overweight is known to increase the risk of many&nbsp;serious health conditions, including strokes, cancer, diabetes and hypertension. In addition, there is a less well known link between being overweight or obese, and developing brain diseases, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-may-protect-our-brains-against-dementia/">dementia</a>. Obesity puts severe strain on the cardiovascular system and can damage blood vessels, including those that supply the brain cells.



New research, led by neuroscientists from the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a>, has established a clear link between mice fed a high-fat diet over 30 weeks, resulting in diabetes, and a subsequent deterioration in their cognitive abilities. UniSA neuroscientist and biochemist&nbsp;<a href="https://people.unisa.edu.au/Larisa.Bobrovskaya">Associate Professor Larisa Bobrovskaya</a>&nbsp;says the research adds to the growing body of evidence linking chronic obesity and diabetes with Alzheimer’s disease, which is predicted to reach 100 million cases by 2050.



“Obesity and diabetes impair the central nervous system, exacerbating psychiatric disorders and cognitive decline. We demonstrated this in our study with mice,” explained Professor Bobrovskaya.



In the study, scientists from Australia and China used genetically modified mice that expressed a mutated form of tau protein in their brains. Tau proteins are essential in the normal functioning of the brain, but the accumulation of abnormal tau in the brain cells is associated with cognitive decline and diseases such as Alzheimer’s.&nbsp;



The researchers randomly assigned these mice to a standard diet or a high-fat diet for a period of 30 weeks. They began on the diet at the age of eight weeks and were monitored for various physiological, metabolic and behavioral attributes. Their food intake was measured weekly, body weight and fasting glucose levels were measured fortnightly, and a comprehensive behavioral test battery was performed to assess anxiety, depression and cognitive dysfunction.&nbsp;



Glucose and insulin tolerance tests were performed on the mice after 30 weeks and, at the conclusion of the dietary experiment, the researchers also investigated the differences in tau proteins in the brains of the mice.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/11011">Metabolic Brain Disease</a>, showed that the genetically modified Alzheimer’s mice on the high-fat diet gained a lot of weight, developed insulin resistance and exhibited abnormal behavior, such anxiety and depression. They also showed significant deterioration in their cognitive abilities. Mice with impaired cognitive function were also more likely to gain excessive weight due to poor metabolism caused by brain changes.



“Obese individuals have about a 55 percent increased risk of developing depression, and diabetes will double that risk,” said Professor Bobrovskaya.



More than 50 million people are thought to be living with Alzheimer’s disease but, despite decades of ground breaking studies and a huge global research effort, there is still no cure for this debilitating disease. What is clear is that being overweight or obese may place an additional burden on brain health and may well exacerbate the disease.&nbsp;



“Our findings underline the importance of addressing the global obesity epidemic. A combination of obesity, age and diabetes is very likely to lead to a decline in cognitive abilities, Alzheimer’s disease and other mental health disorders,” said Professor Bobrovskaya.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

High-fat diet linked to weight gain and cognitive decline

Being overweight is known to increase the risk of many&nbsp;serious...

Scientists have long pondered how the 16 billion neurons of the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prefrontal-cortex-treating-alcoholism/">cortex</a> integrate or bind the many different types of information they encode into a single coherent experience or memory. A main hypothesis is that such binding involves high-frequency oscillations or “ripples” which promote neural interactions, in a similar way that rhythm operates in music or dance. Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> has provided the first empirical evidence that such ripples actually occur.&nbsp;



“Think about the experience of petting your cat: its form, location, surroundings, color, feel, movement and sound, plus your own responding emotions and actions. They are all bound together in a coherent whole,” said study senior author Eric Halgren, a professor of Radiology at UC San Diego.



“These different aspects of the experience are encoded in locations distributed across the cortical surface of the brain, and the experience is sub-served by their spatiotemporal firing pattern. The mystery has been how activities in those different locations get connected.”



Previous studies – focused mainly on rodents – have found that ripples in the hippocampus organize the replay of these spatiotemporal patterns during sleep, which is essential for making memories permanent. Now, by analyzing week-long recordings of the brain activity of 18 patients monitored to locate the origin of their epileptic seizures, Professor Hagan and his colleagues discovered that ripples also occur in all areas of the human cortex, both during sleep and wakefulness. The ripples were brief – about one-tenth of a second – and had a consistent narrow frequency close to 90 cycles per second. A typical such ripple event may involve up to 5,000 small modules that are distributed across the cortical surface, and are activated simultaneously.



“Remarkably, the ripples co-occurred and synchronized across all lobes and between both hemispheres, even at long distances,” said study lead author Charles Dickey, a doctoral student in Neurophysiology at UC San Diego. “Cortical neurons increased firing during ripples, at the ripple rhythm, potentially supporting interaction between distant locations.”



“There were more co-occurrences preceding successful memory recall. All of which suggests that distributed, cortical co-ripples promote the integration of different elements that may comprise a particular experiential memory.”



The scientists observed that cortical ripples were often coupled with hippocampal ripples and embedded in slower oscillations (one to 12 cycles per second). These slower ripples are controlled by the thalamus, a central structure that modulate neuronal firing and is crucial for memory consolidation.&nbsp;



“As our experience is organized hierarchically in time, so too are the rhythms that organize our cortical activities that create that experience,” Professor Halgren explained.



These findings could have major implications in better understanding psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, which is characterized by a high degree of mental fragmentation.&nbsp;



“Our findings and those of others indicate that a particular type of inhibitory interneuron is crucial for the generation of ripples, and these cells are known to be selectively affected by schizophrenia, as are high frequency oscillations. Perhaps we are a little closer to finding a mechanism for one aspect of this tragic disease,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2107797119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Brain ripples help us fully recall an experience

Scientists have long pondered how the 16 billion neurons of...

Carnivorous plants have evolved in many different taxa of plants, and in locations all around the world. They use a range of modifications to entrap <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-key-genes-that-drive-insect-migration/">insect</a> prey and then digest them, absorbing the nutrients from the insect bodies to supplement the minerals normally available in the soil. Although carnivorous plants have fascinated people for hundreds of years, the evolution of their ability to catch and digest live prey has remained obscure.



In new research, scientists from the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a>, along with collaborators from Washington University in St. Louis, have investigated the molecular basis of plant carnivory to establish how carnivorous plants developed prey-capture-associated behaviors, such as leaf movements and digestive enzyme secretion. &nbsp;



Previous research has indicated that many proteins involved in the digestion of live prey by carnivorous plants are related to those used by other flowering plants to defend themselves against pathogens and pests. In the current study, the experts investigated whether perhaps carnivorous sundew plants evolved the ability to capture and consume prey by repurposing molecular mechanisms used originally for similar defense purposes.&nbsp;



“If we can learn more about how plants such as these and others have adapted to respond to their unique environments, then perhaps we can alter these molecular pathways in the future, to develop plants that can survive in harsher conditions,” said study co-author Professor&nbsp;<a href="http://www.salk.edu/scientist/joanne-chory">Joanne Chory</a>.



Biologists believe that plants such as the spoon-leaved sundew (Drosera spatulata) likely adopted carnivory to survive in nutrient-poor conditions. However, sundews are difficult to cultivate and their DNA wasn’t sequenced until recently, so scientists could not examine how carnivory works in these plants at a cellular level.&nbsp;



“Carnivorous sundew plants are not model organisms,” said study co-author Carl Procko. “Less than a handful of labs in the world have previously been able to genetically modify them, so we’ve had to learn new techniques to closely examine them.”



In Venus flytraps (Dionaea muscipula), the closure response of the leaves has been related to the movement of calcium ions from sensory hairs into the leaf blade, in response to mechanical stimulation of the hair. For the current study, the researchers investigated how calcium molecules move dynamically within cells in the leaves of carnivorous sundew plants, in response to touch from live prey. They applied genetic tools to image the dynamic changes of calcium molecules in the leaves as insect prey landed on sundew leaves and were captured there by sticky secretions.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In non-carnivorous plants, calcium signaling plays many important roles, such as triggering the jasmonic acid defense pathway to repel unwanted insect pests. Jasmonic acid also responds to electrical activity, which is a critical element of prey capture in some carnivorous plants, including sundews.&nbsp;



The scientists wanted to know if this same defense pathway in non-carnivorous plants might also be required for the sundew’s carnivorous behavior. They found that changes in calcium levels within plant cells did lead to leaf movements that enabled the capture of prey. Fluctuations in calcium within the plant cell resulted in the activation of genes typically targeted by jasmonic acid, as the leaf bent inwards and trapped the insect in sticky digestive secretions.&nbsp;



The researchers further observed that sundew leaves bent less when they were given non-living prey and when their calcium channels were blocked. These findings demonstrate that calcium aids in insect prey-capture responses in sundews and, together with the work of others, supports the idea that jasmonic acid is involved in insect digestion.



“It was fascinating to see how these plants respond to prey-associated mechanical stimulation, like touch,” said study co-author Ivan Radin. “The ability to sense and respond to mechanical forces is something most people don’t associate with plants, especially on this rapid timescale. Our work provides a beautiful visual of this fact.”



“The findings show that calcium is also involved and likely ramps up jasmonic acid responses, similar to how non-carnivorous plants respond defensively to mechanical stimulation from pests,” said Chory. “This provides further credence to the notion that carnivory in sundews may be an evolved defense pathway.”



In future, the researchers wish to apply similar genetic techniques to study other carnivorous plants that have been too difficult to examine until now. They hope to investigate the molecular basis of prey-capture mechanisms to understand better how carnivory evolved in distantly related species and to see if crops could benefit from adapting their existing environmental and insect response pathways to survive in challenging environments. &nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published today in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Carnivorous plants turned defense into highly successful offense

Carnivorous plants have evolved in many different taxa of plants,...

Some of the key building blocks of life - known as nitriles - have been detected at the heart of our Milky Way galaxy. They were spotted in a molecular cloud of gas and dust by a team of international researchers in Spain.



Nitriles are important building blocks for RNA, which is a DNA-like nucleic acid present in all living cells. The discovery suggests that nitriles are among the most abundant chemical families in the universe.&nbsp;



This supports the 'RNA World' theory of the origin of life, which suggests that nitriles and other building blocks for life could have originated in space and hitchhiked to Earth inside meteorites and comets during the Late Heavy Bombardment period, between 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago.



These building blocks could have come from molecular clouds. For example, the molecular cloud G+0.693-0.027 could evolve to become a stellar nursery in the future. The team of experts detected a range of nitriles which had never before been found in the cloud.



"Here we show that the chemistry that takes place in the interstellar medium is able to efficiently form multiple nitriles, which are key molecular precursors of the 'RNA World' scenario," said study lead author Dr. Víctor M. Rivilla.



"The chemical content of G+0.693-0.027 is similar to those of other star-forming regions in our galaxy, and also to that of solar system objects like comets."&nbsp;



'This means that its study can give us important insights about the chemical ingredients that were available in the nebula that give rise to our planetary system.'



"Thanks to our observations over the past few years, including the present results, we now know that nitriles are among the most abundant chemical families in the universe," said study co-author Dr. Miguel A Requena-Torres.



"We have found them in molecular clouds in the centre of our galaxy, protostars of different masses, meteorites and comets, and also in the atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn."



According to Dr. Izaskun Jiménez-Serra, a researcher at the Center for Astrobiology of the Spanish National Research Council, the team has so far detected several simple precursors of ribonucleotides, the building blocks of RNA. However, there are still missing molecules that are hard to detect.&nbsp;



"For example, we know that the origin of life on Earth probably also required other molecules such as lipids, responsible for the formation of the first cells," said Dr. Jiménez-Serra. "Therefore we should also focus on understanding how lipids could be formed from simpler precursors available in the interstellar medium."



The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspas.2022.876870/full">Frontiers</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Building blocks of life found at the heart of the Milky Way

Some of the key building blocks of life - known...

The term “fake news” has made its way into mainstream vocabulary. Though misinformation has always existed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goldilocks-amount-of-social-media-time-may-protect-teens/">social media</a> has played a major role in how information can be communicated and manipulated.&nbsp;The ways in which we respond is determined by our brains.&nbsp;



Dr. Andrea Grignolio from National Research Council (CNR, Italy), Dr. Ciara Greene from University College Dublin, and Dr. Maria Antonietta De Luca from the University of Cagliari will discuss the role that neuroscience can play in helping us better understand fake news on July 11, 2022 at the <a href="https://www.fens.org/">Federation of European Neuroscience Societies</a> (FENS) 2022 Forum.



The event aims to support further understanding of fake news development. The forum will also explore the behaviors associated with fake news and the brain areas and neurotransmitters associated with those behaviors.



Studies have shown that unexpected information may be processed differently than information that we have already become familiar with. Fake news often involves attention-grabbing or shocking propositions that make it appealing and help it to spread quickly.&nbsp;



When we encounter novelty, a link is made to motivation since dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with anticipation and reward, increases.&nbsp;



The panel of experts at the event will consider recently published papers and peer review work to unpack the creation and spread of fake news. The following polarized events will be considered:



<ul><li>Ireland’s abortion referendum</li><li>Brexit</li><li>The Covid-19 pandemic</li></ul>



By looking at these divisive political issues, researchers were able to identify some interesting insights:



<ul><li>People are most susceptible to forming false memories for fake news that aligns with their beliefs, particularly if they have low cognitive ability</li><li>Individuals with better knowledge about a given subject matter showed better discrimination between true and false stories</li><li>Warnings about possible misinformation did not have any significant effect</li></ul>



While fake news can be focused on political topics, it is also used to manipulate subjects such as vaccines, GMOs, climate change, renewable energies and so-called alternative therapies for severe health issues. It is critical to understand this phenomenon and the detrimental effects that fake news can have on our individual beliefs, attitudes as well as societies at large.



The FENS Forum features a scientific programme covering all aspects of neuroscience, from basic to translational research. Over the course of five days, attendees will have unprecedented access to a range of symposia, technical workshops, plenary and special lectures like these as well as poster sessions and more.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why are some people fascinated by fake news?

The term “fake news” has made its way into mainstream...

Relax,Ferns,Leaves,Green,Foliage,Natural,Floral,Fern,Background,In

Seven new fern species from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-on-the-brink-of-collapse/">rainforests</a> of tropical America have been described by researchers at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en">University of Turku</a>. The species - six of the genus Danaea and one of the genus Dennstaedtia - were uncovered during ecological research. 



“The described species are no tiny or unnoticeable creatures. They range from 20cm to 2m tall, and some of them are very common locally,” explained study lead author Janina Keskiniva.



Species diversity in tropical rainforests is still relatively unknown. Every field trip to a new area can lead to the discovery of unknown species. Understanding how to identify these different species is key for ecological research.&nbsp;



“Information is also needed for setting conservation priorities, the survival of species depends on the conservation of their natural habitats. To prevent biodiversity loss, it is important to protect areas that have special habitats and unique species," said study co-author Hanna Tuomisto.



During field research, plant specimens are collected and stored for study. Researchers often assume that the specimens belong to an already known species. A thorough assessment of collected specimens allows researchers to identify new species hiding in plain sight.



“Most of the specimens we used to describe the new Danaea species were collected decades ago, some already in the 1800's. For all these years, the specimens have been curated in different herbaria. Now we could combine all that accumulated information from the herbaria with fresh insights from field studies made by us and our colleagues,” said Keskiniva.



In fact, the fern specimen that triggered describing the new Dennstaedtia species was collected 15 years ago by Gabriela Zuquim, a researcher at the University of Turku.&nbsp;



“The place where I collected this species has very different soils than most central Amazonian forests, so I am sure many more discoveries can be made there,” noted Zuquim.&nbsp;



"Our long-term goal has been to understand more about the biodiversity of Amazonian rainforests. We are especially interested in what factors determine which species grow where and why, and what are the drivers behind the evolution of new species. In the beginning, I was not interested in describing new species, but I soon realised that it is impossible to communicate about ecology and evolution if the species we are studying have no names," said Tuomisto.



Different soil conditions have a big impact on how species establish and evolve. The area in which the Dennstaedtia species was found is full of largely intact forests with very few people in the area. As a result, this particular species is doing well. However, not all of the newly described species are as lucky. One is already threatened by extinction due to deforestation.



Amazonia is the world’s largest tropical forest area, containing unique biodiversity. It also stores enormous amounts of carbon and regulates both rainfall patterns and global temperature. Conserving Amazonian biodiversity is critically important for the well-being of our planet.



The official scientific descriptions of the Danaea species have been published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/12225">Kew Bulletin</a>. The official scientific description of the Dennstaedtia species has been published in the journal <a href="https://acta.inpa.gov.br/">Acta Amazonica</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seven new tropical forest ferns found hiding in plain sight

Seven new fern species from the rainforests of tropical America...

Wastewater sequencing can provide dramatic new insights into levels and variants of SARS-CoV-2 in various communities, which can help scientist detect in advance Covid-19 surges, as well as the emergence of new coronavirus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-variants-may-emerge-from-immunocompromised-patients/">variants</a>. This is the conclusion of a new study led by the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> and <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/">Scripps Research</a>.



According to the experts, this method is a scalable, cheaper, and faster way for communities and regions to detect the coronavirus and take appropriate actions to curb its transmission.



“The coronavirus will continue to spread and evolve, which makes it imperative for public health that we detect new variants early enough to mitigate consequences,”&nbsp;said study co-senior author Rob Knight, a professor of Pediatrics, Bioengineering, and Computer Science at UC San Diego.



“Before wastewater sequencing, the only way to do this was through clinical testing, which is not feasible at large scale, especially in areas with limited resources, public participation, or the capacity to do sufficient testing and sequencing. We’ve shown that wastewater sequencing can successfully track regional infection dynamics with fewer limitations and biases than clinical testing to the benefit of almost any community.”&nbsp;



In the summer of 2020, Professor Knight and his colleagues began robotic sampling of wastewater on the UC San Diego campus, as part of the <a href="https://returntolearn.ucsd.edu/">Return to Learn</a>&nbsp;effort&nbsp;– an initiative aiming to bring student safely back on campus. This program has been a success, and managed to keep levels of coronavirus transmission on campus lower than in the surrounding communities.&nbsp;



In March 2021, wastewater surveillance went regional, with several samples collected each week from San Diego county’s main wastewater treatment plant at Point Loma. Later that year, working with county, state, and federal public health agencies, the scientists started to issue warnings when viral loads in regional wastewater exceeded certain levels, which usually signaled a corresponding spike in Covid-19 cases one or two weeks later.



“The idea is to put everybody on alert that a surge is coming, and act accordingly: Get vaccinated if you’re not vaccinated. Get boosted. Wear a mask. Think twice about attending large indoor gatherings,” said Professor Knight. “It’s a chance to avoid a surge that translates into more patients in hospitals and morgues.”



Moreover, study co-lead author Joshua Levy, a postdoctoral fellow at Scripps Research, developed a new library of “barcodes” to identify coronavirus variants based on short snippets of viral RNA that are unique to each variant, and created a new computational tool that could sift through the genetic information in wastewater to find these barcodes.



These methods turned out to be extremely useful for detecting new Covid-19 spikes in advance and clarifying which variants are the most dominant in specific regions. In the future, they could be employed to help public health authorities cope with a range of different pathogens, and better respond to possible outbreaks.



“We know that other pathogens, ranging from influenza to monkeypox, can be detected in wastewater. Working with county, state and national public health organizations to expand this system beyond SARS-CoV-2 will revolutionize our ability to respond not just to this pandemic, but to future ones,” Professor Knight concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05049-6">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Wastewater provides early detection of Covid-19 surges

Wastewater sequencing can provide dramatic new insights into levels and...

Over the last two decades, climate change has contributed to a significant growth in the UK vineyard area – with more than 800 vineyards at the moment - and award-winning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-spanish-wine-is-threatened-by-climate-change/">wine</a> production. Drawing on the latest climate projections, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) and <a href="https://www.vinescapes.com/">Vinescapes Ltd</a> has now charted the potential for the wine industry over the next 20 years, and found that climate change is likely to further increase the quantity and quality of wine production, with conditions projected to resemble those in some of the world’s most famous growing regions in France and Germany.



“We’ve seen viticulture in the UK expand nearly 400 percent from 761 to 3,800 hectares between 2004 and 2021,” said study co-author Stephen Dorling, a professor of Meteorology at UEA. “Over that period the warming climate has supported much more reliable yield and quality of the Pinot Noir and Chardonnay grape varieties – these varieties are blended in the production of champagne-style sparkling wine.”



“Warm, dry UK growing seasons like 2018, with lower than average disease problems in the vines, led to production of a record-breaking 15.6 million bottles and these growing conditions have already become and are projected to become more common.”



Professor Dorling and his colleagues used <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/approach/collaboration/ukcp">UK Climate Projections</a> scenarios to assess future variety and wine style suitability in the UK over the next two decades, together with the potential for viticulture investments, sector adaptation, and resilience. They found that regions in East Anglia, Lincolnshire, south-central England, northeast Wales, and coastal areas in southern Wales and southwest England will most likely have similar conditions to those in 2018 in 60 to 75 percent of the following 20 years, while large areas in southeastern and eastern England are projected to be suitable for still red Pinot Noir production.



“We have shown that in some areas of the UK the bumper vintage of 2018 will become the norm, and that Champagne region grape growing temperatures from 1999-2018 are projected to occur across an expanding area of England during 2021–2040,” said study lead author Alistair Nesbitt, a viticulture climatologist at Vinescapes Ltd. “In certain years, a few areas of the UK may see growing season climates similar to those that contributed to the very best recent vintages of Champagne, as well as support increased potential for Burgundy and Baden-style still red wines.”



However, the scientists warn that the rapidly changing UK climate requires the wine industry to remain agile and not get stuck to production that cannot adapt to the constantly changing growing conditions. Moreover, the unpredictability of the British weather – which led to massive losses for the wine industry in 2012, for instance - should also be taken into account when deciding what grape varieties to grow and in which regions.



“There are exciting times ahead for the UK wine sector, but our results have emphasized the challenge of establishing wine identities and brands, in particular those tightly associated with varieties and wine styles, in a rapidly changing climate,” concluded Professor Dorling.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://oeno-one.eu/article/view/5398">OENO One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Climate change may boost wine production in the UK

Over the last two decades, climate change has contributed to...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...