Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Men who use their smartphone in the evening or at bedtime may have lower sex drive and reduced <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-fertility/">fertility</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://aasm.org/">American Academy of Sleep Medicine</a>. The researchers have identified a link between nighttime electronic media use and lower sperm quality.

"The last several decades have been characterized by the widespread usage of digital devices, especially smartphones. At the same time, there have been reports of male fertility decline. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between evening exposure to the light-emitting screens of digital media devices and sperm quality," wrote the researchers.

The preliminary results of the study show that greater exposure to light-emitting media devices at night is associated with a decline in sperm quality, including sperm concentration, motility, and the ability of sperm to "swim" properly. 

Among men who reported more screen time in the evening or at bedtime, the sperm quality measures were all lower and the percentage of immobile sperm was higher. 

Study lead author Dr. Amit Green is an expert in the Sleep and Fatigue Institute at the Assuta Medical Center in Tel-Aviv. 

"Smartphone and tablet use in the evening and after bedtime was correlated with decline in sperm quality. Furthermore, smartphone use in the evening, tablet use after bedtime, and television use in the evening were all correlated with the decline of sperm concentration," said Dr. Green.

"To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report these types of correlations between sperm quality and exposure time to short-wavelength light emitted from digital media, especially smartphones and tablets, in the evening and after bedtime."

The investigation was focused on semen samples from 116 men between the ages of 21 and 59 years who were undergoing fertility evaluation. The participants completed questionnaires about their electronic media use and sleep habits.

The researchers also discovered a positive association between longer sleep duration and sperm quality, as well as a link between poorer sperm quality and sleep deprivation.

The research is published in an online supplement of the journal SLEEP and will be presented at <a href="https://www.sleepmeeting.org/">Virtual SLEEP 2020</a>, the annual meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Smartphone use at night lowers sperm quality

Men who use their smartphone in the evening or at...

In a recent study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">CU Boulder</a>, researchers have found that exposure to air <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/babies-exposed-to-air-pollution-have-impaired-breathing-by-childhood/">pollution</a> has a detrimental effect on gut bacteria. Changes to the gut microbiome can increase the risk of obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases.

Trillions of cells, bacteria, viruses, and other material present in the digestive tract make up the human gut microbiome. A growing collection of studies shows that the contents of the gut microbiome have a powerful influence on the body's ability to defend itself against a range of illnesses. 

The current study is the first to link air pollution to changes in gut microbial communities. Ozone was found to cause the most profound effects. Young adults exposed to higher concentrations of ozone had less microbial diversity and elevated levels of microbes associated with obesity and disease.

Study senior author Tanya Alderete is an assistant professor of Integrative Physiology. She noted that previous studies have linked smog with Type 2 diabetes, weight gain, and inflammatory bowel diseases.

“We know from previous research that air pollutants can have a whole host of adverse health effects,” said Professor Alderete. “The takeaway from this paper is that some of those effects might be due to changes in the gut.”

Prior to this study, Professor Alderete determined that pollution can impair the body’s ability to regulate blood sugar and raises the risk for obesity. 

To investigate the potential impacts of pollution in the gut, the researchers used advanced genetic testing techniques to analyze stool samples collected from 101 young adults in Southern California. The experts also used data from air-monitoring stations near the participants' homes to calculate their exposure to ozone, fine particle pollution, and nitrous oxide in the previous year.

The analysis revealed that ozone had the greatest effect on the gut microbiome. Ozone pollution accounted for 11 percent of the variation seen among the participants, which is larger than the impacts associated with gender, ethnicity, or even diet. 

Higher exposure to ozone pollution was linked to substantially less diverse gut bacterial communities. “This is important since lower diversity has been linked with obesity and Type 2 diabetes,” said Professor Alderete.

Individuals who had been exposed to higher levels of ozone in the past year were also found to have more of a bacterial species called Bacteroides caecimuris, which is known to promote obesity.

Overall, the researchers identified 128 bacterial species that are influenced by ozone pollution. Some of these species may affect insulin and inflammation levels, for example.

“Ozone is likely changing the environment of your gut to favor some bacteria over others, and that can have health consequences." Professor Alderete is currently expanding the research to include a larger group of participants in the Denver area. She hopes the findings will ultimately encourage policymakers to move parks, playgrounds, and housing developments away from busy roads and high pollution areas, and to invest in improving air quality.

“A lot of work still needs to be done, but this adds to a growing body of literature showing that human exposure to air pollution can have lasting, harmful effects on human health.”

The research also involved experts from UNC Charlotte, USC, and UC San Diego.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environment-international">Environment International</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Air pollution linked to detrimental changes in gut bacteria

In a recent study from CU Boulder, researchers have found...

The results of a new study from the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> indicate that napping can be extremely bad for your health. The researchers discovered that people who get six or more hours of sleep, but still take long naps, have a much greater risk of premature death and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/getting-a-flu-shot-may-protect-you-from-dangerous-heart-complications/">heart</a> disease. 

"Daytime napping is common all over the world and is generally considered a healthy habit," said study co-author Dr. Zhe Pan of Guangzhou Medical University. "A common view is that napping improves performance and counteracts the negative consequences of 'sleep debt.' Our study challenges these widely held opinions."

Previous research on the health risks of napping produced contradictory results, and these studies failed to account for the duration of nighttime sleep. The current investigation was focused on more than 300,000 participants from 20 studies. Among these individuals, 40 percent took naps. 

The analysis revealed that napping for more than one hour was associated with a 30-percent greater risk of death from any cause and a 34-percent greater risk of developing cardiovascular disease. When the researchers factored in nighttime sleep habits, long naps were linked with an elevated risk of death among those who slept more than six hours per night.

Individuals who napped for any amount of time had a 19-percent higher chance of death, and the connection was more pronounced in women and older adults. 

Short naps with a duration of less than one hour did not increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. In fact, the results suggest that shorter naps less than 45 minutes may improve heart health in people who do not get sufficient sleep at night. 

Dr. Pan said the reasons why napping affects the body are still uncertain, but some studies have suggested that extra sleep in the daytime is associated with higher levels of inflammation, which is risky for heart health and longevity. 

"If you want to take a siesta, our study indicates it's safest to keep it under an hour. For those of us not in the habit of a daytime slumber, there is no convincing evidence to start," said Dr. Pan.

The research was presented at the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/The-ESC/Press-Office/Press-releases/ESC-Congress-2020-The-Digital-Experience">ESC Congress 2020 The Digital Experience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Long naps increase the risk of premature death and heart disease

The results of a new study from the European Society...

Sleep quality may have a powerful influence on our eating habits, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html">University of Bern</a>. The researchers found that the activation of neurons in the hypothalamus during REM sleep plays a key role in how much <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/seafood-will-help-feed-earths-future-population-of-10-billion/">food</a> we eat during waking hours.

Rapid eye movement sleep is the deepest phase of sleep, characterized by vivid dreams and increased breathing and heart rate. REM sleep is also accompanied by very high electrical signaling in the brain, but the function of this activity is a mystery. 

Brain regions that show strong activation during REM sleep are areas involved in the regulation of memory and emotion. Another region that shows high activity is the lateral hypothalamus, which controls appetite, food consumption, and addiction.

A research team led by Dr. Antoine Adamantidis set out to investigate how neural activation associated with REM sleep influences our daily behavior. The experts focused their study on neurons in the hypothalamus using a mouse model.

The researchers discovered that when they suppressed neural activity in the hypothalamus during REM sleep, the mice ate substantially lower amounts of food. "This suggests that REM sleep is necessary to stabilize food intake," explained Dr. Adamantidis. 

The experts recognized that a specific pattern of neural behavior in the hypothalamus which signals eating during the day was also present when the animals were engaged in REM sleep. The team used an advanced technique to shut down this brain activity, and found that eating behavior was modified to where the animals consumed less food.

"We were surprised how strongly and persistently our intervention affected the neural activity in the lateral hypothalamus and the behavior of the mice," said study first author Lukas Oesch. "The modification in the activity patterns was still measurable after four days of regular sleep." 

The findings show that quality of sleep is just as important as quantity of sleep for our well-being. The study highlights the fact that sleep quality plays a major role in maintaining healthy eating behavior. 

"This is of particular relevance in our society where not only sleep quantity decreases but where sleep quality is dramatically affected by shift work, late night screen exposure or social jet-lag in adolescents", explained Dr. Adamantidis.

The newly identified link between neural activity during REM sleep and waking behavior may ultimately lead to the development of new ways to treat eating disorders and addiction. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

REM sleep affects our eating habits

Sleep quality may have a powerful influence on our eating...

Children may shed the coronavirus long after their symptoms clear up, according to study conducted in South Korea. The researchers also found that children can remain contagious for weeks, even when they never developed symptoms of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/any-mask-is-better-than-no-mask-to-slow-spread-of-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> infection.

In an editorial commentary, Dr. Meghan Delaney and Dr. Roberta L. DeBias of <a href="https://childrensnational.org/">Children's National Hospital</a> said that many questions remain about the significance of the pediatric population as vectors for COVID-19.

The commentary was written in response to a study focused on 91 pediatric patients at 22 hospitals throughout South Korea. "Unlike in the American health system, those who test positive for COVID-19 in South Korea stay at the hospital until they clear their infections even if they aren't symptomatic," said Dr. DeBiasi.

About 22 percent of the patients observed for the study had been identified through contact tracing and never developed symptoms, while 20 percent were initially asymptomatic but developed symptoms later. Nearly 60 percent of the young patients were symptomatic at their initial test. 

Over the course of the investigation, the hospitals tested the children every three days on average, which provided researchers with a picture of how long viral shedding continues over time.

The study showed that the duration of COVID-19 symptoms varies widely, ranging from three days to nearly three weeks. 

Great variation was also found in how long children continued to shed the virus and were potentially infectious. While the virus was detectable through testing for an average of two-and-a-half weeks across all patients, many of the children were still shedding virus at three weeks.

The study provides important insight on COVID-19 in children, as communities continue to develop public health strategies to control the spread of the disease.

The experts said the study adds important knowledge to what is known about how children are affected by the disease, including the duration of viral shedding and the large number of children who could be asymptomatic.

Another important finding is that children - a group widely believed to develop a mild version of the disease that quickly passes - can remain contagious for weeks. 

However, the doctors say, despite these important findings, the study raises several questions such as the reliability of testing. A "positive" or "negative" on testing platforms may not necessarily represent a transmittable infection. Some positives could be false, while some negatives reflect low levels of virus that could still be infectious.

Drs. DeBiasi and Dr. Delaney pointed out that the study only tested for viral shedding from the respiratory tract even though multiple studies have detected the virus in other bodily fluids, including stool. The role that sources other than the respiratory tract may play in the spread of COVID-19 is unknown.

According to the experts, each of these findings and additional questions should be addressed and continually refined to help get COVID-19 under control.

"Each of these pieces of information that we, our collaborators and other scientists around the world are working to gather, is critical for developing policies that will slow the rate of viral transmission in our community," said Dr. DeBiasi.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics">JAMA Pediatrics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Children can spread COVID-19 for weeks, even when they have no symptoms

Children may shed the coronavirus long after their symptoms clear...

If the world fails to properly address <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-climate-and-land-use-could-lead-to-catastrophic-levels-of-soil-erosion/">climate change</a> and limit global warming, the likelihood of hurricanes in the Caribbean will increase exponentially. On the other hand, achieving ambitious climate targets would cut the risk of Caribbean hurricanes by up to half, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>.

The researchers simulated future climate under three scenarios: present day conditions, global warming of 1.5 degrees Celsius, or global warming of 2 degrees Celsius.

The analysis revealed that the Caribbean is shockingly vulnerable to climate change. The simulations showed that extreme hurricanes will become five times more likely as a result of global warming.

"Hurricane research has previously focused on the United States, so we wanted to look at the Caribbean region, which has fewer resources to recover. The findings are alarming and illustrate the urgent need to tackle global warming to reduce the likelihood of extreme rainfall events and their catastrophic consequences, particularly for poorer countries which take many years to recover," said study lead author Emily Vosper.

The climate scenarios used for the analysis are based on the targets of the Paris Agreement, a global framework to tackle climate change. The goal of the campaign is to limit future warming to 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with an optimal limit of 1.5°C.

The team designed a computer model that accounted for several important factors, including land features and large-scale winds, to produce realistic results.

The study revealed that extreme hurricanes, which currently strike the Caribbean about once every 100 years, will become more frequent under either of the Paris Agreement scenarios. For example, a 100-year storm affecting the Bahamas would be 4.5 times as likely under the 2°C Paris Agreement scenario compared to the present day. 

Compared to warming of 2°C,  warming of 1.5°C could reduce intense Caribbean hurricanes by as much as half in the Eastern regions.

"We expected extreme hurricanes to be more prevalent in the 2°C global warming scenario, but the scale of the projected increases was surprising and should serve as a stark warning to countries across the globe underscoring the importance of keeping climate change under control," said Vosper.

"Our findings show that the impacts of a 2°C warming above pre-industrial levels are set to disproportionately affect the Caribbean. By focusing efforts to stabilize global warming to the more ambitious 1.5°C goal, we could dramatically reduce the likelihood of extreme hurricane rainfall events in the area, particularly in the Eastern Caribbean region."

Even in the wealthiest Caribbean countries, it takes at least six years to rebuild after a major hurricane.

"Resources to mitigate damage are limited, so our findings could help highlight the hotspots in greatest danger and need. An integrated climate risk approach is needed to fully understand the threat of future hurricanes to Caribbean populations," said Vosper.

"Further studies could therefore incorporate factors that directly affect the health and well-being of local populations - such as storm surge, flood and landslide modelling - into the rainfall results to quantify such threats and feed into adaptation and resilience planning."

"Reducing the likelihood of extreme hurricanes should be the overriding priority. Our research clearly illustrates how vital it is to keep striving to meet the lower global warming temperature target, and the collective responsibility all countries, cities, communities, governments and individuals share to make that happen." 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

The future of Caribbean hurricanes depends on the extent of global warming

If the world fails to properly address climate change and...

The results of a new study from <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University</a> indicate that Earth was always wet and did not need distant comets or <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chicxulub-asteroid-struck-at-deadliest-possible-angle/">asteroids</a> to deliver the elements necessary for water to appear. The research suggests that water came from materials that were available in the solar system when our planet formed.

An international team of  researchers discovered that a type of meteorite called an enstatite chondrite contains enough hydrogen to deliver at least three times the amount of water held in Earth's oceans.

Enstatite chondrites are composed of material from the inner solar system, which is essentially the same material that Earth was formed from.

"Our discovery shows that the Earth's building blocks might have significantly contributed to the Earth's water," said study lead author Laurette Piani. "Hydrogen-bearing material was present in the inner solar system at the time of the rocky planet formation, even though the temperatures were too high for water to condense."

While it was too hot for water to condense when the building blocks of Earth came together, the meteorites indicate that water did not come from a distant source.

"The most interesting part of the discovery for me is that enstatite chondrites, which were believed to be almost 'dry,' contain an unexpectedly high abundance of water," said study co-author Lionel Vacher, who prepared some of the enstatite chondrites in this study for water analysis while completing his PhD at Universite de Lorraine. 

At Washington University, Vacher is working on understanding the composition of water in various types of meteorites. 

Enstatite chondrites are rare, but their isotopic similarity to Earth make them particularly interesting to scientists. These meteorites have similar oxygen, titanium, and calcium isotopes as Earth, and the current reveals that their hydrogen and nitrogen isotopes are also similar. 

"If enstatite chondrites were effectively the building blocks of our planet -- as strongly suggested by their similar isotopic compositions -- this result implies that these types of chondrites supplied enough water to Earth to explain the origin of Earth's water, which is amazing!" said Vacher.

"Only a few pristine enstatite chondrites exist: ones that were not altered on their asteroid nor on Earth," said Piani. "In our study we have carefully selected the enstatite chondrite meteorites and applied a special analytical procedure to avoid being biased by the input of terrestrial water."

"It was commonly assumed that these chondrites formed close to the sun. Enstatite chondrites were thus commonly considered 'dry,' and this frequently reasserted assumption has probably prevented any exhaustive analyses to be done for hydrogen."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Earth may have had water from the time it formed

The results of a new study from Washington University indicate...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a>, scientists are describing how gut bacteria may hold the key to healthier aging. The research links <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-produce-medically-valuable-chemicals/">microbes</a> in the digestive tract with dozens of health conditions including body mass index (BMI) and high blood pressure.

"Our study indicates that microbiota might have an important role in maintaining health and could help us develop novel treatments," said study co-author Dr. Hilde Groot.

Trillions of cells, bacteria, viruses, and other material present in the digestive tract make up the human gut microbiome. Previous studies have produced evidence that the contents of the gut microbiome are correlated with individual diseases.

The current study is the first to investigate the role of gut microbiota in multiple health conditions and diseases at the same time. Using genetic data as a proxy for microbiome composition, the investigation has revealed the staggering extent to which this content influences health and disease.

"Previous research has shown that the human gut microbiome composition could be partially explained by genetic variants. So, instead of directly measuring the make-up of the microbiome, we used genetic alterations to estimate its composition," said Dr. Groot.

The study was focused on more than 400,000 individuals in the UK Biobank with an average age of 57. The participants had undergone genotyping to identify their genetic make-up, and had been evaluated for specific characteristics such as BMI and blood pressure. 

The researchers identified eleven bacteria that were associated with a total of 28 health and disease outcomes. Higher levels of these bacteria could predict certain conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, high blood pressure, allergic diseases like asthma and eczema, high blood lipids, and BMI.

For example, higher levels of the genus Ruminococcus were linked with increased risk of high blood pressure. The researchers also identified bacteria associated with food and alcohol consumption.

"What we eat and drink is connected to microbiome content, so we studied the links with meat, caffeine, and alcohol. We observed a relationship between raised levels of Methanobacterium and drinking alcohol more often. It is important to stress that this is an association, not a causal relation, and more research is needed," said Dr. Groot.

One of the major strengths of the study was conducting a broad analysis among the same group of people. 

"Considering that the results were observed in one cohort, this cautiously supports the notion that microbiota and the substances they produce (called metabolites) provide links between numerous diseases and conditions."  

Dr. Groot said the findings may ultimately help to identify common pathways, but more research is needed to confirm the results.

"Follow-up studies are required to study causality before giving concrete advice to the public and health professionals. This study provides clues where to go."

The research was presented at <a href="https://www.escardio.org/The-ESC/Press-Office/Press-releases/ESC-Congress-2020-The-Digital-Experience">ESC Congress 2020 The Digital Experience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bacteria in the human gut may be key to healthy aging

In a new study from the European Society of Cardiology,...

The vast majority of people who own bulldogs, French bulldogs, and pugs say they would own these breeds again and would recommend them to prospective dog owners, according to a study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>. Such widespread loyalty to brachycephalic, or flat-faced, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dogs-improve-social-and-emotional-well-being-in-children/">dogs</a> suggests that the popularity of these breeds will persist despite some shocking health risks.

The demand for brachycephalic dogs has exploded in recent years, even though these breeds are strongly predisposed to a range of serious health conditions such as pneumonia, respiratory disease, heat stroke, eye disease, and spinal disease. Compared to other breeds with longer muzzles, bulldogs and pugs have shorter lifespans by about four years.

Some veterinarians consider these health concerns to be too risky to continue breeding flat-faced dogs. To make matters worse, owners of pets with chronic illnesses often experience psychological distress and have a lower quality of life.

Researchers led by Rowena Packer of the <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College</a> set out to investigate breed loyalty among brachycephalic dog owners to gain a better understanding of why the dogs are so popular. The team also wanted to know whether the popularity of bulldogs and pugs is likely to persist.

"Although dog breed popularity often follows a boom and bust pattern, our results are of real concern as they indicate that this 'brachy boom' is here to stay," wrote the study authors. "Owners are becoming hooked on the loving personalities of these sweet dogs, but also accepting and normalizing their shocking health issues."

The researchers surveyed more than 2,000 owners and found that 93 percent would choose to own their current breed again in the future. About 66 percent of the respondents said they would recommend a bulldog or pug to a potential first-time dog owner. Owners often said they would recommend their breed as a great companion dog or for households with children. 

"Five themes described why owners recommended against their breed: high prevalence of health problems, expense of ownership, ethical and welfare issues associated with breeding brachycephalic dogs, negative effects upon owner lifestyle, and negative behavioral attributes," wrote the study authors.

"Understanding how breed-loyalty develops, and whether it can be attenuated, will be key to controlling the current population boom in brachycephalic breeds in the long-term."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bulldogs are popular despite frightening health issues

The vast majority of people who own bulldogs, French bulldogs,...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> has revealed that the Arctic is warming at an even higher rate than expected. The researchers report that temperatures in the Arctic Ocean between Canada, Russia, and Europe are rising faster than <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-climate-and-land-use-could-lead-to-catastrophic-levels-of-soil-erosion/">climate</a> models have predicted.

Average temperatures have increased by one degree per decade over the last 40 years, according to the study. In the Barents Sea and around Norway's Svalbard archipelago, temperatures have risen by 1.5 degrees per decade.

"Our analyses of Arctic Ocean conditions demonstrate that we have been clearly underestimating the rate of temperature increases in the atmosphere nearest to the sea level, which has ultimately caused sea ice to disappear faster than we had anticipated," explained study co-author Professor Jens Hesselbjerg Christensen.

The research team compared current Arctic warming with historical climate fluctuations, such as those which occurred in Greenland during the ice age between 120,000 and 11,000 years ago.

"The abrupt rise in temperature now being experienced in the Arctic has only been observed during the last ice age. During that time, analyses of ice cores revealed that temperatures over the Greenland Ice Sheet increased several times, between 10 to 12 degrees, over a 40 to 100-year period," said Professor Hesselbjerg Christensen.

He noted that the significance of the steep rise in temperature is yet to be fully appreciated, and that much more focus on Arctic warming and climate change mitigation is needed. 

Prior to this study, climate models have predicted that Arctic temperatures would rise in a slow and stable manner, but this fails to account for abrupt shifts. The current research indicates that abrupt changes must be considered.

"We have looked at the climate models analyzed and assessed by the UN Climate Panel. Only those models based on the worst-case scenario, with the highest carbon dioxide emissions, come close to what our temperature measurements show over the past 40 years, from 1979 to today," said Professor Christensen.

"Changes are occurring so rapidly during the summer months that sea ice is likely to disappear faster than most climate models have ever predicted. We must continue to closely monitor temperature changes and incorporate the right climate processes into these models."

"Thus, successfully implementing the necessary reductions in greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Paris Agreement is essential in order to ensure a sea-ice packed Arctic year-round."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Arctic warming has been greatly underestimated

A new study from the University of Copenhagen has revealed...

Plants have the remarkable ability to protect themselves against pathogens, and a new study reveals previously unknown details of this phenomenon. An international team of researchers led by Professor Cyril Zipfel of the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> has identified the calcium channel that initiates stomatal closure when <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-life-cycles-of-bees-and-plants/">plants</a> encounter microbes.

While it was known that calcium floods the cells surrounding the pores and triggers them to close, the underlying mechanism was not clear. "The identity of the channels that mediate this rapid calcium movement was still unknown and has vexed researchers for a long time," said Professor Zipfel.

Using the model plant Arabidopsis, the scientists discovered that a protein called OSCA1.3 forms a channel which leaks calcium into the cells surrounding a plant's pores. The team also identified a known immune system protein that triggers the process.

The findings represent a major step toward understanding the defense mechanisms plants use to resist infection, which may ultimately lead to the development of crops that are resistant to pathogens. 

Study co-author José Feijó is a professor of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics at the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a>.

"This is a major advance, because a substantial part of the world's food generated by agriculture is lost to pathogens, and we now know the molecular mechanism behind one of the first and most relevant signals for plant immune response to pathogens--the calcium burst after infection," said Professor Feijó.

"Finding the mechanism associated with this calcium channel allows further research into its regulation, which will improve our understanding of the way in which the channel activity modulates and, eventually, boosts the immune reaction of plants to pathogens."

Previous studies had shown that a protein called BIK1 was a necessary component of the immune calcium response in plants. Professor Zipfel's team searched for proteins that may be modified by exposure to BIK1, and noticed that a protein called OSCA1.3 transformed in a very specific way that suggested it could be a calcium channel for plants. OSCA1.3 is a part of a family of proteins that are known to exist as ion channels in many organisms, including humans, and it seems to be specifically activated upon detection of pathogens.

To confirm this theory, the Professor  team reached out to Feijó, who is well known for identifying and characterizing ion channels and signaling mechanisms in plants. Study co-author Erwan Michard, a visiting assistant research scientist in Professor Feijó's lab, conducted experiments which showed that BIK1 triggers OSCA1.3 to open up a calcium channel into a cell.

According to the study authors, BIK1 only activates when a plant gets infected with a pathogen, suggesting that OSCA1.3 opens a calcium channel to close stomata as a defensive response to pathogens.

"This is a perfect example of how a collaborative effort between labs with different expertise can bring about important conclusions that would be difficult on solo efforts," said Professor Feijó. "This fundamental knowledge is badly needed to inform ecology and agriculture on how the biome will react to the climatic changes that our planet is going through."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists discover how plants protect themselves from pathogens

Plants have the remarkable ability to protect themselves against pathogens,...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a>, experts have tested the effectiveness of various masks that are worn as face coverings to help stop the community spread of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-has-exposed-an-urgent-need-for-global-action-on-water-security/">COVID-19</a>.

"Fine droplets can pass through layers of masks and are carried away by the exhaled airflow unlike larger droplets that settle down due to gravity," wrote the researchers.

"Hence, it is important to quantitatively assess the maximum distance of travel of typical human coughs with and without different types of masks."

Study lead author Padmanabha Prasanna Simha is an expert at the Indian Space Research Organization.

"If a person can reduce the extent of how much they contaminate the environment by mitigating the spread, it's a far better situation for other healthy individuals who may enter places that have such contaminated areas," said Simha.

Density and temperature are closely related, and coughs tend to be warmer than their surrounding area. Based on this  knowledge, the researchers used a technique called schlieren imaging to visualize changes in density as various study participants coughed.

By analyzing the motion of the coughs over consecutive images, the team was able to estimate the velocity and spread of the projected droplets.

As expected, the study showed that N95 masks were the most effective at reducing the horizontal spread of a cough. This mask is known to filter at least 95 percent of airborne particles. 

The N95 mask reduced a cough's initial velocity by up to a factor of 10 and limited its spread to between 0.1 and 0.25 meters. 

While an uncovered cough can travel up to 3 meters, the researchers found that a simple disposable mask can bring this velocity down to 0.5 meters.

"Even if a mask does not filter out all the particles, if we can prevent clouds of such particles from traveling very far, it's better than not doing anything," said Simha. "In situations where sophisticated masks are not available, any mask is better than no mask at all for the general public in slowing the spread of infection."

On the other hand, some of the findings were concerning. For example, it is often advised to use an inner elbow to cover up a cough, but the testing showed that a bare arm cannot form the necessary seal against the nose without a long sleeve. As a result, droplets could leak through any openings and spread in many directions.

The researchers hope the findings will disprove the argument that regular cloth masks are ineffective, but they emphasize that masks must continue to be used cooperatively with social distancing.

"Adequate distancing is something that must not be ignored, since masks are not foolproof," said Simha.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/journal/phf">Physics of Fluids</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

"Any mask is better than no mask" to slow spread of COVID-19

In a new study from the American Institute of Physics,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...