A recent study by Princeton neuroscientists introduces a novel mathematical model that sheds light on how the brain integrates sensory cues - such as sights and sounds - when making decisions.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-025-01869-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>, could deepen our understanding of neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s and may also help improve artificial intelligence systems, such as digital assistants and self-driving cars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-sensory-information">Conflicting sensory information</h2>



Everyday decisions require the brain to juggle multiple sensory inputs. A commuter walking to work, for instance, might see a glowing crosswalk signal indicating it is safe to cross.&nbsp;



At the same time, they may hear the blaring siren of an ambulance approaching the intersection, forcing them to reassess their decision.



While scientists have long studied how the brain processes such competing signals, the precise mechanisms remain unclear.



One crucial region for decision-making is the prefrontal cortex, located just behind the eyes. This area is often regarded as the center of higher cognition. Previous studies have shown that neurons in the prefrontal cortex respond in complex ways during decision-making. 



For example, some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> may fire only when a green traffic light appears and a car is blocking the crosswalk. However, a comprehensive model explaining how these neurons collectively process sensory information to generate behavioral decisions has remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-model-to-explain-brain-circuitry">A new model to explain brain circuitry</h2>



Various mathematical models have been developed to explain how neural circuits link <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory information</a> to behavior, each with its limitations.&nbsp;



One commonly used approach involves recurrent neural networks - models with interconnected units designed to simulate decision-making. However, these models are often difficult to interpret due to the complexity of their connections.



In their latest study, postdoctoral researcher Christopher Langdon and assistant professor of neuroscience Tatiana Engel - both from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> - propose a new framework called the latent circuit model.



Instead of analyzing the entire brain network in overwhelming detail, Langdon and Engel suggest focusing on a few key neurons that act as “ringleaders” in decision-making, influencing the behavior of the entire network.&nbsp;



This approach, known as a low-dimensional mechanism, seeks to identify a small number of core processes that drive neural decision-making.



“The goal of the research was to understand if low-dimensional mechanisms were operating inside large recurrent neural networks,” Langdon said.



To test their hypothesis, the researchers applied the latent circuit model to a context-dependent decision-making task performed by humans, monkeys, and computer models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-decision-making-model-nbsp">Testing the decision-making model&nbsp;</h2>



In the experiment, participants were first shown a context cue - either a square or a triangle. Next, they saw a moving grid, which acted as the sensory cue.&nbsp;



Depending on the shape they were initially shown, participants had to focus on either the color (red vs. green) or the motion (left vs. right) of the grid to make their decision.



Using the latent circuit model, Langdon and Engel found that when motion was the relevant cue, neurons processing shape information suppressed those that processed color. The opposite occurred when color was the critical cue.



“It was very exciting to find an interpretable, concrete mechanism hiding inside a big network,” Langdon said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-decision-making-in-the-brain">Mapping decision-making in the brain</h2>



The latent circuit model allows researchers to predict how decision-making changes when specific neural connections are strengthened or removed. By testing these predictions, scientists can verify whether the underlying connectivity is truly necessary for the task.



Indeed, the study confirmed that task performance deteriorated in predictable ways when certain neural connections were disrupted.



“The cool thing about our new work is that we showed how you can translate all those things that you can do with a circuit onto a big network,” Langdon said.&nbsp;



“When you build a small neural circuit by hand, there’s lots of things you can do to convince yourself you understand it. You can play with connections and perturb nodes, and have some idea what should happen to behavior when you play with the circuit in this way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-neuroscience-and-ai">Implications for neuroscience and AI</h2>



With the human brain containing more neurons than there are stars in the Milky Way, understanding its complexity is a daunting challenge.&nbsp;



However, the latent circuit model opens new possibilities for studying how groups of interconnected neurons give rise to decision-making processes.



Disruptions in decision-making are a hallmark of numerous neurological and mental health disorders, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fruit-can-protect-you-from-late-life-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>, schizophrenia, and ADHD. By revealing the mathematical computations that drive decision-making, this model may help researchers understand these conditions more effectively.



Beyond neuroscience, these insights could also enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lawless-superintelligence-zero-evidence-ai-control-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a>. AI-driven systems, from digital assistants like Alexa to self-driving cars, rely on decision-making algorithms. Understanding how the human brain efficiently processes information could lead to more adaptable and intelligent AI systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



The next phase of research will involve applying the latent circuit model to other commonly studied decision-making tasks.



“A lot of the tightly controlled decision-making tasks that experimentalists study, I believe that they likely have relatively simple latent mechanisms,” Langdon said. “My hope is that we can start looking for these mechanisms now in those datasets.”



By refining this approach, neuroscientists aim to unlock more secrets of how the brain translates complex sensory inputs into clear, decisive actions.



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Key neurons act as 'ringleaders' to guide decision-making

A recent study by Princeton neuroscientists introduces a novel mathematical model that sheds light on how the brain integrates sensory cues - such as sights and sounds - when making decisions.&nbsp; The findings, published in the journal Nature Neuroscience, could deepen our understanding of neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s and may also help improve artificial intelligence systems, such as digital assistants and self-driving cars. Conflicting sensory information Everyday decisions require the brain to juggle multiple sensory inputs. A commuter walking to work, for instance, might see a glowing...

Although women tend to live longer than men, they typically have higher rates of illness. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> (UGA) has found that these problems can be improved by a better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthier-diets-can-reduce-depression-in-young-men/">diet</a> containing pigmented carotenoids such as kale, spinach, yams, watermelon, bell peppers, carrots, tomatoes, and oranges. These brightly-colored fruits and vegetables are crucial for preventing visual and cognitive degeneration.



“The idea is that men get a lot of the diseases that tend to kill you, but women get those diseases less often or later so they persevere but with illnesses that are debilitating,” explained study co-author Billy R. Hammond, a professor of Behavioral and Brain Sciences at UGA. “For example, of all of the existing cases of macular degeneration and dementia in the world, two-thirds are women. These diseases that women suffer for years are the very ones most amenable to prevention through lifestyle.”



Professor Hammond and his colleagues studied several degenerative conditions that women seem to experience at much higher rates than men, ranging from autoimmune diseases to dementia. “If you take all the autoimmune diseases collectively, women account for nearly 80 percent. So, because of this vulnerability, linked directly to biology, women need extra preventive care,” he added.



One of the reasons for women’s vulnerability to such diseases is related to the way they store vitamins and minerals in their bodies. Since women have, on average, more body fat than men, they can better store in their bodies dietary vitamins and minerals. However, there are less of these vitamins available for their retina and brain, thus putting them at more risk for degenerative problems.



Since pigmented carotenoids such as lutein or zeaxanthin act as powerful antioxidants in humans, they can help improve central nervous system degeneration. “Men and women eat about the same amount of these carotenoids, but the requirements for women are much higher,” said Professor Hammond.



“The recommendations should be different, but there are, generally, not any recommendations for men or women for dietary components that are not directly linked to deficiency disease (like vitamin C and scurvy). Part of the idea for the article is that recommendations need to be changed so that women are aware that they have these vulnerabilities that they have to proactively address, so they don’t have these problems later in life.”



Although these carotenoids are also available via dietary supplements, getting them through food is a much better strategy.&nbsp;



“Components of diet influence the brain, from things like personality to even our concept of self.&nbsp;I don’t think people quite realize what a profound effect diet has on basically who they are, their mood, even their propensity to anger. And now of course this is extended to the microbiome and the bacteria that make up your gut - all of these components work together to create the building blocks that compose our brain and the neurotransmitters that mediate its use,” Professor Hammond concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2022.2084125">Nutritional Neuroscience</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Women can live longer and better with a healthy diet

Although women tend to live longer than men, they typically...

Outer,Space,Planet,Earth,Mars,Meteorite,Comet,Asteroid,Astrology,Solar

It is impossible to know the geological history of the formation of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-habitability-of-a-planet-is-affected-by-the-location-of-its-land/">planet</a>, because it has been destroyed by the subsequent tectonic movement and evolution of the Earth’s surface. Or perhaps it is not entirely impossible… 



There are very rare clues about this process that may be obtained from pieces of other planets that have arrived on Earth’s surface in the form of meteorites. In particular, Mars may provide an indication of the early evolutionary path of our planet. More than 4.5 billion years ago, Mars may have had a crust similar to that found on early Earth, and the information about this crust may be hiding in the very oldest Martian meteorite currently known to have landed on Earth.&nbsp;



But first, scientists had to identify where exactly the 4.48-billion-year-old meteorite, nicknamed Black Beauty, came from on the surface of Mars. The study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31444-8">Nature Communications</a>, details the methods that the international team used to identify that this piece of Martian rock originated from one of the oldest regions of the surface of Mars.



“This meteorite recorded the first stage of the evolution of Mars and, by extension, of all terrestrial planets, including the Earth,” said Valerie Payré, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Astronomy and Planetary Science at <a href="https://nau.edu/">Northern Arizona University</a>. “As the Earth lost its old surface mainly due to plate tectonics, observing such settings in extremely ancient terrains on Mars is a rare window into the ancient Earth surface that we lost a long time ago.”



The meteorite, known officially as NWA (Northwest Africa) 7034 for where it was recovered, is composed of a variety of igneous, sedimentary, and impact melt clasts, including the most evolved and oldest igneous clasts and zircons, dated at 4.44–4.48 Ga (billion years), approximately the time of the formation of Mars. Although the scientists know details of its chemical composition, the source region of this unique meteorite on Mars has so far remained unknown. Given its antiquity, it is possible that it is a piece of the planet’s early crust and thus preserves insights into the geological history of the planet.&nbsp;



Previous research, using a crater-detection algorithm and high resolution images of the surface of Mars, had identified only 18 crater sites where asteroid strikes were powerful enough to have hurled NWA 7034 far enough off the Martian surface to enter space and begin its journey to Earth’s surface.&nbsp;



The current research, led by Anthony Lagain from Curtin University in Australia, used the geochemical and geophysical properties of the ancient meteorite, along with its geochronology, to identify which of these craters was the potential origin of this piece of Mars. They found only one candidate - the Karratha crater - which matched the meteorite’s unique combination of magnetic field intensity, high concentrations of potassium and thorium, and dating details. Furthermore, the experts deduced that when the asteroid that formed this crater struck the surface of Mars, it ejected other debris, including NWA 7034, that was lying on the surface as the result of a much earlier collision that had formed the older crater named Khujirt.&nbsp;



Both these craters are found in the region known as Terra Cimmeria-Sirenum, a highland region covering about 10 percent of the planet, where there are high concentrations of the elements potassium and thorium, and a high magnetic field intensity. It is one of the most ancient regions of Mars, considered to represent a block of ancient crust, and this makes it possible that the Black Beauty is actually a piece of the very early geological history of the planet.&nbsp;



“For the first time, we know the geological context of the only brecciated Martian sample available on Earth, 10 years before the NASA’s Mars Sample Return mission is set to send back samples collected by the Perseverance rover currently exploring the Jezero crater,” said Lagain, a research fellow in the School of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Curtin. “This research paved the way to locate the ejection site of other Martian meteorites, in order to create the most exhaustive view of the Red Planet’s geological history.”



Payré studies the nature and formation of Mars’ crust to determine if Earth and Mars share a common past that includes both a continent-like and ocean-like crust. She uses orbital observations captured in this region to investigate whether traces of volcanism similar those found on Iceland exist on Mars.



“As of today, Mars’ crust complexity is not understood, and knowing about the origin of these amazing ancient fragments could lead future rover and spatial missions to explore the Terra Sirenum-Cimmeria region that hides the truth of Mars’ evolution, and perhaps the Earth’s,” said Payré.&nbsp;



"This work paves the road to locate the ejection site of other Martian meteorites that will provide the most exhaustive view of the geological history of Mars and will answer one of the most intriguing questions: why Mars, now dry and cold, evolved so differently from Earth, a flourishing planet for life.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Martian meteorite holds clues about Earth's origins

It is impossible to know the geological history of the...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.stir.ac.uk/">University of Stirling</a> has revealed that several rare plants native to Scottish mountains could soon become extinct due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-debate-is-over-humans-caused-climate-change/">climate change</a>, if no urgent measures are taken to protect them. Since plants found on the slopes of the Ben Lawers mountain range in Scotland - including the snow pearlwort, the drooping saxifrage, or the mountain sandwort – require a cool climate to thrive, the recent increase in global temperatures has led them to shift their range to higher ground. Moreover, some of these species, such as the snow pearlwort, have declined by over 66 percent since the mid-1990s, and may soon become extinct.&nbsp;



“Our research signals a rapid loss of biodiversity happening right now which means that, if it’s allowed to continue on this accelerated trajectory, due to climate change, we will see the extinction of species like these,” said study lead author Sarah Watts, a doctoral researcher in Ecology at the University of Stirling.



“What we are seeing here is range contraction – where species that grow in cold places, in the north and at high altitude, are moving further north and higher up the mountain. But at some point, they’ll have no further to go and will disappear. For example, drooping saxifrage is now only found 50 meters from the top of Ben Lawers.”



Moreover, global rises in temperature caused by climate change has also led to lowland species colonizing upland regions and outcompeting these rare mountain plants, significantly reducing the area they can grow and thrive in.



“In the context of the interacting climate change and biodiversity crises, this research has worrying global implications,” said study senior author Alistair Jump, a professor of Plant Ecology at the University of Stirling. “It shows that low-latitude, arctic-alpine plant populations already situated at maximum local elevations are effectively on the elevator to extinction. We face their loss from our mountains because there is no higher ground left for them to retreat to as temperatures continue to rise.”



According to the researchers, a solution to safeguard these endangered plant species is to move them to other sites, such as more suitable mountain habitats or even botanical gardens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320722001732?via%3Dihub">Biological Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Rare plants are facing extinction in the Scottish mountains

A new study led by the University of Stirling has...

High heat coupled with low water conditions caused by global warming can weaken the resistance of pine trees to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-water-is-driving-eelgrass-wasting-disease/">disease</a>. A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> is the first to analyze host and pathogen genes in climate change conditions



The study was focused on Austrian pine trees, which are native to southern Europe, and can also be found in Canada and the United States. The researchers examined the effects of climate change by testing the trees after they were infected by two fungi that kill the pines over time.



“We decided to study the effects of the combined stresses of higher temperatures and lower water availability because that’s what trees will experience in the future,” said senior author Professor Enrico Bonello.



“Within three days of infection under climate-change conditions, the tree was pulled in two different directions: It was deprived of carbon by both reduced photosynthesis and enhanced acquisition of the carbon by the fungi. When we’re talking about carbon, we’re talking about sugars, food and reserves for all other metabolic processes in the trees, including growth and defense.”



The world’s forests provide carbon sequestration, a major mitigator of climate change. Experts say this natural service could be enhanced by ensuring the protection, management and restoration of forests.&nbsp;



In a 2021 <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2021.716582/full">study</a> of U.S. forest plots, scientists estimated recent disease and insect disturbances lowered carbon sequestration rates by 28 percent and 69 percent, compared to undisturbed forests.



“This is another reason to combat global warming induced by human activities – another piece of evidence that what we are doing to the planet has so many implications,” said Professor Bonello.



The researchers exposed Austrian pines to two sets of conditions. First, they used a control setting, where daily temperatures ranged from 59 to 82.4 degrees Fahrenheit. To mimic climate change, the trees were exposed to daily temperatures of 68 to 91.4 degrees Fahrenheit. The hotter conditions reduced the amount of water in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



Once the trees had adjusted to these conditions, they were inoculated with one of two strains of the pathogenic fungus. The fungi are largely dormant, waiting for the best opportunity to kill host cells and feed on the dead plant material when their host is weakened. The fungi have also begun damaging Scots pines in Scandinavia.



“The hypothesis is that the warming and lower water availability in those areas is making trees more susceptible to a pathogen that would normally sit in the background,” explained Professor Bonello.



Three days after infection, the team collected plant and pathogen tissue that was used for an RNA sequencing analysis to identify gene activation in the trees and both strains of the fungi.



A fundamental change was found in the pine trees exposed to climate-change conditions. Their capacity to carry out photosynthesis decreased, leaving fewer resources to invest in their own food supply, growth and defense against disease.



At the same time, both strains of the fungus ramped up their carbon utilization machinery, and they became significantly more pathogenic.



“Essentially, climate change conditions led the host to starvation, which is compounded by the fact that the fungi became more aggressive, grew faster and killed more host tissue faster,” Bonello said. “These were early responses, but it gives us an idea of what’s happening in the system.”



The research offers insights into how much damage global warming may do to one of the planet’s main carbon sinks.



“Pathogen and pest invasions are already having an effect on carbon sequestration,” said Professor Bonello. “If you make it even worse with climate change, carbon sequestration will be affected negatively because trees will die in ever larger numbers. Trees that might otherwise survive adverse environmental conditions for a while, and recover if conditions become better or intermittent, may be killed by pathogens in the meantime.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2022.872584/full">Frontiers in Forests and Global Change</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heat makes pine trees more susceptible to disease

High heat coupled with low water conditions caused by global...

By analyzing stress hormones in elephants that lost their mothers, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> has found that young, orphaned elephants appear to physically benefit from the support of other young elephants. The study revealed that elephants with more similarly aged “friends” in their group had lower stress levels than their more solitary conspecifics. Thus, “social support” appears to be crucial in reducing the stress caused by the loss of a mother in these highly intelligent and social animals.



&nbsp;“If you’re out in the field, watching elephants, you can just tell that family life is everything,” said study lead author Jenna Parker, an ecologist at Colorado State University. “Calves are rarely more than maybe ten meters from their mother until they’re about eight or nine years old. And if some of the elephants go off, you’ll hear them calling to one another. They want to know where each other are all the time.”



Between 2009 and 2013, there was a marked increase in poaching for ivory in the two reserves in Kenya where this study took place, leaving a large number of young elephants orphaned. “I wanted to follow that up and look at what happens physiologically for these orphans,” Dr. Parker said.



Together with her colleagues, Dr. Parker followed groups of African elephants for over a year and analyzed their fecal samples to measure stress hormone levels. By carefully monitoring 25 young orphaned elephants that had lost their mothers between one and 19 years earlier, the researchers found that those with more similarly aged companions had significantly lower stress hormones than others.



These findings are similar to previous research done on humans which discovered that orphaned children who had a strong level of social support from family and peers were less likely to develop post-traumatic stress disorder after losing their parents. “And what we seem to find in elephants is that those with their family and social support maintain more normal stress hormone levels in the long term,” Dr. Parker said. “I just think it’s really cool that such a social animal has evolved so separately from humans, and that we still seem to converge on how important social ties are.”



According to the scientists, this study could inform future conservation efforts of these endangered animals. By better understanding their social structure – characterized by strong elephant-to-elephant support in the face of loss – conservationists could devise better initiatives to help these animals adapt to the myriad threats that they face.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03574-8">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Social support can lower stress levels in orphaned elephants

By analyzing stress hormones in elephants that lost their mothers,...

Researchers in the College of Health and Life Sciences at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/">Aston University</a> have discovered a link between fruit consumption, savory food consumption, and mental health.&nbsp;The results suggest that people who regularly eat fruit have a lower risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthier-diets-can-reduce-depression-in-young-men/">depression</a>.



The study, published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/frequency-of-fruit-consumption-and-savoury-snacking-predict-psychological-health-selective-mediation-via-cognitive-failures/B6A4BDD48E1A39C133DF454860A53239">British Journal of Nutrition</a>, was focused on 428 adults from the United Kingdom. The participants reported their consumption of fruit, vegetables, sweet and savory food snacks, as well as their mental health.&nbsp;



Once they accounted for general health, age, and exercise, the researchers discovered that frequent fruit consumption could lead to less depression and better mental health and well-being.&nbsp;



The experts also discovered that those who frequently consumed savory, nutrient-poor foods, such as potato chips, were more likely to experience mental lapses such as forgetting names or where their keys are. These episodes led to more incidences of stress, depression, and anxiety.



The researchers determined that it's not the amount of fruit consumed that leads to better mental health, but the frequency. The experts also found no link between memory lapses and fruits, vegetables, or sweet snacks. They believe this indicates there is something unique about nutrient-poor savory snacks that cause mental lapses.&nbsp;



"Other studies have found an association between fruit and vegetables and mental health, but few have looked at fruit and vegetables separately – and even fewer evaluate both frequency and quantity of intake," said study lead author and PhD student Nicola-Jayne Tuck.



"Both fruit and vegetables are rich in antioxidants, fiber, and essential micronutrients which promote optimal brain function, but these nutrients can be lost during cooking. As we are more likely to eat fruit raw, this could potentially explain its stronger influence on our psychological health."



According to Tuck, it is possible that changing what we snack on could be a really simple and easy way to improve our mental well-being.&nbsp;



"Conversely, it is also possible that the forthcoming restriction of processed snack foods at checkouts, due to come in this October, could not only improve the country's physical health, but mental health too.”



"Overall, it's definitely worth trying to get into the habit of reaching for the fruit bowl."



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eating fruit is a simple way to improve your mental health

Researchers in the College of Health and Life Sciences at...

The world's coastal glaciers are disappearing faster than ever, but the causes of the large-scale retreat are challenging to pinpoint due to natural fluctuations. Since researchers have been unable to conclude what is causing rapid glacier retreat, the last Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report determined that they could not say whether the melting is due to natural conditions or human-caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-boost-wine-production-in-the-uk/">climate change</a>. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ig.utexas.edu/">University of Texas Institute for Geophysics</a> (UTIG) and Georgia Tech sought to unravel the mystery of coastal glacier disappearance and uncover how much of the retreat is due to human-induced climate change.&nbsp;



The researchers developed a method that can treat glacial melting as an individual event, like a wildfire. The newly published study can account for differences between glaciers and natural climate fluxes while testing the effect of global warming. "And that's the first time anyone's done that," explained study co-author and UTIG glaciologist Ginny Catania.



To test their model, the research team conducted thousands of simulations of the past 150 years with and without global warming. Not surprisingly, the results showed that global warming caused an increased likelihood of glacial melting.&nbsp;



When they ran the simulations without human-caused climate change, they found that the current glacial retreat would be impossible without the effects of a changing climate.&nbsp;



For example, the coastal glaciers of Greenland have been retreating at different rates since 2000, with almost all of them (200) in varying stages of retreat. The researchers believe this level of retreat would not have been attainable without man-made climate change.&nbsp;



"This study gives us a toolbox to determine the role of humans in the loss of ice from Greenland and Antarctica, to say with confidence that it's not just coincidence," said Georgia Tech glaciologist and study co-author Alex Robel.



The researchers hope that their conclusions will influence future policy. According to John Christian, a postdoctoral researcher at UT Austin and Georgia Tech, the methodology proposes in the study is a road map toward making confident statements about what the human role is in glacier retreat. "Those statements can then be communicated to the public and policymakers, and help in their decision making."



This study is published in n the journal <a href="https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/16/2725/2022/">The Cryosphere.</a>&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coastal glacier retreat linked to human-caused climate change

The world's coastal glaciers are disappearing faster than ever, but...

Climate change poses a number of threats to plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-different-types-of-animals-see/">animals</a>, and many species may disappear altogether. This is only expected to worsen due to human impacts such as altering land use for agriculture.&nbsp;



The habitats and preferred climate conditions of species have been drastically impacted. When there is a divergence between the climatic conditions suitable for a particular species and its abundance and distribution through time, this is known as climate decoupling.&nbsp;



For example, the grasshopper sparrow lives in grasslands across North America. However, because grasslands continue to be degraded, this has hindered the species from fully adjusting to changing climatic conditions. Climate decoupling and habitat loss may explain the high rates of grasshopper sparrow abundance declines and local extinctions.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">iDiv</a>, Leipzig University and MLU used the best available evidence on bird population changes through time from the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS).



The study revealed that at least 30 out of 114 species (26 percent) of North American birds have become less adjusted to their climate over the last 30 years. This means that their distributions and abundances were increasingly decoupled from climate over time.&nbsp;



This can happen for various reasons, depending on the species. Some species might remain where they historically lived, while others might be limited by climate-independent resources and habitats. On the other hand, some species might be declining due to global changes, unable to adjust to the changing climate.&nbsp;



“One of the most surprising results of our analysis was that the overall trend of climate decoupling showed no signs of slowing down,” said lead author Dr. Duarte Viana. “This suggests a possible feedback between climate decoupling and declining populations that might emerge in the face of a multitude of current global changes."



The researchers showed that climate decoupling was more prevalent among habitat specialists than generalists. This is because specialists may have greater difficulty finding a suitable habitat and climate conditions in increasingly modified landscapes.



“We also found that climate decoupling was more prominent among species that were considered threatened and that were declining in population sizes,” said study senior author Dr. Jonathan Chase, head of the Biodiversity Synthesis research group at iDiv and MLU.&nbsp;



“There are many known factors that are contributing to the population declines of many species of birds, but our study adds a new facet to our understanding of the potential causes of some of these changes – that species are less likely to be living in their optimal climate conditions as the world changes around them. This, like the proverbial canary in the coal mine, might be something we humans should pay attention to as we will likely soon find ourselves similarly living in places outside of our optimal climate ranges.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate decoupling is an increasing threat to birds

Climate change poses a number of threats to plants and...

Heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-found-in-drinking-water-near-u-s-military-bases/">drinking</a> and dependence on alcohol are known to cause cognitive impairment, including memory loss and problems with verbal fluency, verbal learning, processing speed, attention and problem solving. However, the effects of moderate drinking on brain function have not been investigated. Considering that most people who consume alcohol probably fall into this category, such a study is well overdue.&nbsp;



A team led by Anya Topiwala of the University of Oxford recently explored the relationship between alcohol consumption and cognitive function in more than 20,000 participants from the UK Biobank. Not only did participants report their own alcohol consumption, they also undertook various cognitive tests that assessed executive function, fluid intelligence and reaction time.



The researchers went a step further and measured the levels of iron present in the participants’ brains and livers, in an attempt to establish whether iron levels represent a potential pathway to alcohol-related cognitive deficits. Iron is involved in many fundamental biological processes in the brain including oxygen transportation, DNA synthesis, mitochondrial respiration, myelin synthesis, and neurotransmitter synthesis and metabolism. But high levels of this element have also been found in the brains of people with neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.



In the largest study to date of moderate alcohol consumption and iron accumulation, the researchers recruited 20,965 participants who had completed their UK Biobank questionnaires and had undergone MRI imaging of the brain. Approximately 7,000 of these also underwent scanning of the liver, with both types of scans being used to identify levels of iron in the cells.&nbsp; The mean age of participants was 55 years, and 48.6 percent were female. Although 2.7 percent classed themselves as non-drinkers, average intake was around 18 units per week, which translates to about 7½ cans of beer or 6 large glasses of wine.&nbsp;



This level of alcohol consumption, classed as moderate, was higher than current UK low-risk guidelines (&lt;14 units per week), but within low-risk guidelines at the time for men (not more than 21 units per week, pre-2016). Despite this, the researchers found links between level of alcohol consumption, presence of elevated iron concentrations in certain brain areas, and deterioration in cognitive function.



The team found that alcohol consumption of above seven units per week was associated with markers of higher iron in several brain nuclei, including the bilateral putamen, caudate and substantia nigra. These basal ganglia, and the substantia nigra in the mesencephalon, are associated with the control of motor movements, procedural learning, eye movement, cognition, emotion and other functions.&nbsp;



The significantly higher levels of iron accumulated in these brain areas had also been identified in previous research on people with Alcohol Use Disorder, also known as alcohol addiction, but in the present study the result was seen in people who were only moderate users of alcohol.



In addition, higher alcohol consumption was associated with increased levels of iron in the liver, which is considered a good indicator of the levels of iron in the body in general, and the researchers found that iron levels were also the best indicators of alcohol-related liver damage. Alcohol suppresses the production of hepcidin, an important hormone in the liver that regulates iron balance. As a result, alcohol consumption leads to increased absorption of iron from digested food and can be expected to result in imbalances in iron levels in body organs such as the brain.



High iron levels in some brain regions were also associated with worse outcomes on cognitive tests, such as trail-making tests that assess executive function, and fluid intelligence tests that assess reason and logic. Reaction times were also slower in cases where certain brain regions were shown to have higher levels of iron.



There are some limitations to this large study of moderate alcohol consumption and iron accumulation. Drinking was self-reported and could have been underestimated, by participants. In addition, MRI-derived measures are indirect representations of brain iron, and could conflate other brain changes observed with alcohol consumption and that have changes in iron levels.



In conclusion, Topiwala states, “In the largest study to date, we found drinking greater than 7 units of alcohol weekly associated with iron accumulation in the brain. Higher brain iron in turn linked to poorer cognitive performance. Iron accumulation in the brain could thus underlie alcohol-related cognitive decline.”



Given the prevalence of moderate drinking in today’s world, even small links between alcohol and reduced brain function could have substantial impacts across whole populations. Thus, these results support the introduction of interventions to reduce alcohol consumption in the general population.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/">PLoS Medicine</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A single glass of wine a night could lead to cognitive decline

Heavy drinking and dependence on alcohol are known to cause...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-glaciers-are-melting-at-highest-rate-in-5500-years/">Glaciers</a> in tropical mountain ranges are experiencing climate change similar to those in the polar regions of Antarctica and the Northern Hemisphere. An international team of scientists is the first to show that the effects of greenhouse gases are impacting tropical glaciers in the Southern Hemisphere at the same pace as ice sheets in the north.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Much of what scientists have known about glacial changes came from records of ice growth and decay that occurred in the Northern Hemisphere. For the current study, the researchers analyzed sediments from Lake Junín - located high in the Peruvian Andes - to create a record of glacial changes stretching back 700,000 years.



“As we try to understand how climate works across the globe, we need more than just records that are influenced by and biased toward the Northern Hemisphere,” said Professor Robert Hatfield of the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>.



The land-based lake record collected by the team matches the duration of ice core records from Antarctica. It also represents the longest time frame ever collected from the Southern Hemisphere.



“What makes our findings unique is that we were able to get a continuous and independently dated record of tropical Alpine glaciation for the first time,” said Professor Hatfield. “The key takeaway was that the tropics follow the same beat and same rhythm to what’s going on in the Northern Hemisphere.”



Glacier changes in both regions occurred simultaneously, despite variations in solar radiation. This suggests that the rise in atmospheric greenhouse gasses associated with changes in the volume of the ice sheets of the north is impacting the entire planet.



To collect the data, geologists launched a massive drilling mission at the lake in 2015, funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> and International Continental Scientific Drilling Program. 100 meters of sediment from the lake’s basin was collected. With the sediment recovered, researchers spent the next few years developing a solid age model.



Study co-author Christine Y. Chen of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory analyzed the uranium and thorium content of the sediments to determine how much time was represented by the sediment core.



“Scientists have known for nearly a century that rising greenhouse gases will affect the climate in every corner of the world, but we’ve been less certain about how rapidly changes in ice volume at the poles will propagate to the rest of the world.” Chen said.&nbsp;



“The high-altitude mountains in the tropics are essentially as far away from the poles one can get. We’ve now shown that ice in both regions have been growing and decaying synchronously with one another for nearly a million years, which further highlights the interconnectedness of our planet.”



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical glaciers are losing ice at the same rate as the poles

Glaciers in tropical mountain ranges are experiencing climate change similar...

Anna's,Hummingbird,Adult,Male,Hovering,And,Feeding.,Santa,Cruz,,California,

Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fleas-adapt-to-life-with-deadly-carnivorous-plants/">plant</a> and animal species are seeking refuge in higher elevations to escape the stress of rising temperatures.&nbsp; In a study funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, experts have discovered that hummingbirds will not be able to adjust to life at higher altitudes, and this is primarily due to lower oxygen availability.



"Many species have not tracked their thermal niches upslope as predicted by climate change, potentially because higher elevations are associated with abiotic challenges beyond temperature. To better predict whether organisms can continue to move upslope with rising temperatures, we need to understand their physiological performance when subjected to novel high-elevation conditions," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Here, we captured Anna's hummingbirds - a species expanding their elevational distribution in concordance with rising temperatures - from across their current elevational distribution and tested their physiological response to novel abiotic conditions."



After the birds had time to adjust to a high-altitude habitat, the researchers measured their metabolic rates. The results showed found that these rates had dropped by nearly 40 percent compared to the rates measured in the birds' natural habitat.



"Overall, these results suggest low air pressure and oxygen availability may reduce hovering performance in hummingbirds when exposed to the challenge of high-elevation conditions," said study lead author Austin Spence of the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>.



According to the experts, the birds also spent more time in a torpid state at higher altitudes regardless of the elevation of their original habitat. "Whether they're from a warm or cool spot, they use torpor when its super-cold," said Spence.



Hummingbirds from higher elevations do not have enlarged lungs to compensate for a lack of oxygen, but their hearts are larger and can circulate more oxygen.



"Our results suggest lower oxygen availability and low air pressure may be difficult challenges to overcome for hummingbirds," said Spence.&nbsp;



"Future studies should investigate how chronic exposure and acclimatization to novel conditions, as opposed to acute experiments, may result in alternative outcomes that help organisms better respond to abiotic challenges associated with climate-induced range shifts," concluded the researchers.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor

Hummingbirds will not be able to retreat to high altitudes

Many plant and animal species are seeking refuge in higher...

In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0270207">PLoS ONE</a>, researchers have investigated how COVID-19 restrictions changed behavior patterns, and how these patterns continue to change. The study focused on the U.K., where activities and social events were restricted near the start of the COVID-19 pandemic to slow the spread of the virus.&nbsp;



A lot of research has already looked at how COVID-19 restrictions changed human behavior. The new study is unique in looking at how behavior in the U.K. changed over time as restrictions continued to evolve.&nbsp;&nbsp;



To understand their research topic better, the scientists conducted six different online surveys to track changes in behavior patterns among 203 respondents. The surveys asked participants about different activities they engaged in during various phases of the pandemic, and whether they did these activities in person or online.&nbsp;



An analysis of the results showed that the biggest changes were the investment of time in social and cultural activities and travel. The surveys also confirmed that most individuals shifted from more in-person activities to more online events. Furthermore, although all pandemic restrictions were removed on July 19, 2021, many of these behavioral shifts still remain in place.&nbsp;



“This longitudinal study determines the frequency and way of people doing activities from Spring 2020 to Summer 2021 during different phases of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK," said study co-author Lan Li of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>.



"The findings provide an invaluable insight into understanding how people in the UK changed their lifestyle, including what activities they do, and how they accessed those activities in light of the COVID-19 pandemic and related public health policy implemented to address the pandemic.”



The scientists hope that their work will help inform policy makers on the impact of their restrictions for future decision making.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic restrictions had a lasting effect on behavior patterns

In a new study published in the journal PLoS ONE,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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