On September 29, 2024, something unusual happened in our cosmic neighborhood. Earth captured a tiny asteroid named 2024 PT5, turning it into a temporary mini-moon. 



That's right... as of today, November 2, 2024, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth has two moons</a>.



Richard Binzel, an astronomer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), shed some light on these fleeting celestial companions.



"These happen more often than we think, but they're small and tough to spot," Binzel explained. "Only lately have our telescopes become powerful enough to catch them regularly."



Back in August, a team of astronomers from the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University</a> of Madrid detected the small space rock using a powerful telescope in Sutherland, South Africa.



They weren't the only ones keeping an eye on it. The asteroid was first noticed on August 7, 2024 by NASA's Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (<a href="https://atlas.fallingstar.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATLAS</a>) at Haleakala Observatory in Hawaii.



This discovery sparked excitement among astronomers, offering a chance to learn more about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-test-simulation-shows-earth-not-prepared-prevent-large-asteroid-strike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near-Earth objects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-2024-pt5">What exactly is 2024 PT5?</h2>



Earth occasionally captures small asteroids like 2024 PT5, placing them into temporary orbits around our planet. 



While most asteroids circle the sun on their regular paths, some venture close enough for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-global-electric-field-discovered-equally-important-gravity-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's gravity</a> to snatch them up for a brief visit.



These cosmic visitors only stay in Earth's orbit for a short time -- typically a few weeks or months -- before breaking free and resuming their solar journey.



Each mini-moon gives scientists a rare opportunity to examine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/27500-hidden-near-earth-asteroids-discovered-using-google-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near-Earth asteroids</a> up close, revealing valuable insights about our solar system's mechanics.



So, what makes this asteroid special, aside from the fact that new technology and the internet made it famous? 



William Blackmore, Planetarium Director and Astronomy Instructor at <a href="https://www.mhcc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mt. Hood Community College</a>, offered his thoughts.



"All mini-moons are unique in their own way," Blackmore explained. "This one isn't different from others except that it's the most recent.”



2024 PT5 will be around for about two more weeks, probably until mid-November.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-2024-pt5-to-our-moon">Comparing 2024 PT5 to our moon</h2>



Let's compare our moon to this new mini-moon: 2024 PT5 is only about 37 feet across, while our familiar moon stretches a massive 2,159 miles in diameter. That makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our moon</a> over 300,000 times wider than this tiny asteroid.



Knowing it’s up there is pretty exciting, even though we can't see it for ourselves without an invitation to a huge Earth telescope installation.



“These temporary captures are natural cosmic laboratories,” Binzel mentioned. “They help us understand the small bodies that come close to Earth and could be important for future space missions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-asteroid-2024-pt5-became-famous">How Asteroid 2024 PT5 became famous</h2>



Understanding how 2024 PT5 became Earth's temporary moon involves a bit of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-order-in-the-chaos-of-the-three-body-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orbital mechanics</a>. 



Blackmore explained, "It's moving along with us in our orbit around the sun. It's part of a group of asteroids called the Arjuna asteroids, which move at about the same pace as Earth."



He added an interesting analogy: "Imagine a skateboarder dropping into a skate park. They ride the curves, adding energy as they go. That's like the asteroid getting caught in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dart-mission-debris-will-create-a-human-made-meteor-shower/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's gravitational field</a>, riding the curve before moving on."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-spotting-mini-moons">Significance of spotting mini-moons</h2>



Spotting mini-moons is tough because they're incredibly small and faint. These tiny asteroids are often just a few dozen feet across, which means they don't reflect much sunlight. That makes them nearly invisible against the dark backdrop of space.



Plus, they're zipping around at high speeds and don't hang around for long, so by the time we point our telescopes their way, they might already be gone. 



It's like trying to catch a glimpse of a firefly from miles away -- you need the right conditions and equipment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-high-tech-telescopes">Modern high-tech telescopes</h2>



Astronomers find them by using powerful telescopes equipped with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gaia-reveals-moons-around-hundreds-of-asteroids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitive detectors and smart software</a>.



Projects like the ATLAS system scan the skies every night, searching for any objects that weren't there before. 



When they spot something moving in a way that suggests it's close to Earth, they alert other astronomers to help confirm the find. 



It's a collaborative effort, combining technology and teamwork to spot these elusive cosmic visitors.



Knowing more about these temporary moons helps us prepare for any potential asteroid threats and opens up possibilities for mining resources from near-Earth objects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-observing-2024-pt5">Challenges in observing 2024 PT5</h2>



For those eager to see this mini-moon, both experts warned that it would be extremely difficult. "You'd need a telescope with a diameter of at least 30 inches," Blackmore mentioned. "That's beyond what most amateur astronomers have."



Todd agreed, adding, "It won't be visible to the naked eye. Being 33 feet wide and so far away, you'd need a very large telescope."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While 2024 PT5 doesn't pose any threat to Earth, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-a-fifth-force-of-nature-asteroids-provide-new-clues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying it is crucial</a>. 



"It's important to analyze how it moves and interacts with Earth's gravitational pull," Blackmore said. "This helps us refine our techniques for tracking objects that could cross our path again."



Todd highlighted the practical applications of this knowledge. 



"We need to understand how to intercept an asteroid at a distance and change its direction," he said. "This could be vital in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-dart-mission-proves-humanity-can-be-saved-from-asteroid-collision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preventing potential impacts</a> in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiration-for-future-space-missions">Inspiration for future space missions</h2>



Blackmore envisioned future missions that could take advantage of these temporary visitors. 



"It would be fascinating if we had missions ready to send small satellites or probes to these objects when they come close," he mused. "Imagine building a network of sensors or cameras traveling along with us, like space webcams."



Todd also saw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-named-psyche-is-worth-10000-quadrillion-for-whoever-can-extract-minerals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential in asteroid mining</a> and scientific discovery. 



"There might be materials on these asteroids that we can't find on Earth," he said. "They could solve problems in medicine or technology. But we need to weigh the benefits carefully."



To sum it all up, the brief visit of asteroid 2024 PT5 serves as a reminder of the dynamic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroids-were-formed-in-cold-regions-of-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature of our solar system</a>. 



While it won't be with us for long -- just a couple more weeks -- its presence offers valuable opportunities for learning and exploration.



As technology advances, we'll likely spot more of these mini-moons. Each one gives us a chance to understand our cosmic environment better and prepare for the future. 



So even though you'll never see it, you might want to spare a moment of your time and stop to appreciate 2024 PT5 while you still can.



The full study was published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad781f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal IOPscience</a>.



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Earth's second moon, a mini-moon, will drift away in a few days and never return

On September 29, 2024, something unusual happened in our cosmic neighborhood. Earth captured a tiny asteroid named 2024 PT5, turning it into a temporary mini-moon. That's right... as of today, November 2, 2024, Earth has two moons. Richard Binzel, an astronomer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), shed some light on these fleeting celestial companions. "These happen more often than we think, but they're small and tough to spot," Binzel explained. "Only lately have our telescopes become powerful enough to catch them regularly." Back in August,...

Young,Father,Kiss,His,Baby,During,Drinking,Milk

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abg1530">Science Advances</a> has found that sniffing a chemical compound with no perceived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-odors-repellent-crops/">odor</a> that is emanated by mammalian bodies – hexadecanal (HEX) – triggers aggression in women, while blocking it in men. 



Since this chemical is found in abundance on the heads of newborn babies, the ways it modulates aggression might have played a crucial evolutionary role, by stopping males from injuring or killing infants, while helping females protect them.



“Hexadecanal, or HEX, in short, is a volatile molecule with no perceived odor that is emitted from the human body,” said study lead author Dr. Eva Mishor, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/">Weizmann Institute of Science&nbsp;</a>in Rehovot, Israel.&nbsp;



“We found that HEX has no perceptible odor, but that when you sniff it, it affects the way you behave toward others – specifically, your aggressive responses to others.”



According to Dr. Mishor, a part of the brain called the angular gyrus - which she describes as “a hub of the social brain” – is activated by exposure to HEX in both females and males. Amazingly through, Mishor and her colleagues have found that HEX affected females and males differently, provoking aggression in the former, while reliably blocking it in the latter.



An evolutionary explanation emerged when the scientists found that HEX is among the most abundant molecules in the “aromatic bouquet found on a baby’s head.”&nbsp;



“Babies cannot communicate through language, so chemical communication is very important for them,” said study co-author Noam Sobel, a professor of Neuroscience at the Weizmann Institute. “As a baby, it is in your interest to make your mum more aggressive and reduce aggressiveness in your dad.”



“Male aggression translates many times into aggression toward newborns – infanticide is a very real phenomenon in the animal kingdom,” Dr. Mishor explained.&nbsp;“Meanwhile, female aggression usually translates into defending offspring.”&nbsp;



“HEX, it would seem, affects men in that there was more social regulation, their aggression was kept in check and it served as a "cool down" signal for them, while in women the regulation decreased and it can be thought of as a "set free" signal,” she concluded.



This study is an important step forward in understanding how mammal social behavior is modulated by smell.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A chemical that triggers aggression in women, blocks it in men

A new study published in the journal Science Advances has...

Rare Earth elements (RREs) are vital for building technological equipment, including computers, cell phones, microphones, wind turbines, electric vehicles, radars, sonars, LED lights, rechargeable batteries, and conductors. However, refining them after mining is quite costly, and has a negative impact on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthier-american-diets-could-greatly-benefit-the-environment/">environment</a>. 



A new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> describes the principle for engineering a bacterium (Gluconobacter oxidans) which can offer a sustainable alternative to environmentally harmful thermochemical extraction and refinement methods.



“We’re trying to come up with an environmentally friendly, low-temperature, low-pressure method for getting rare earth elements out of a rock,” said study senior author Buz Barstow, an assistant professor of Biological and Environmental Engineering at Cornell University.



In order to meet United States’ annual needs for REEs, 78.8 million tons of raw ore are required to extract 22,000 pounds of elements. While the United States used to refine its own rare elements half a century ago, in the past decades the refinement of REEs takes place abroad, particularly in China.



“The majority of rare Earth element production and extraction is in the hands of foreign nations,” explained study co-author Esteban Gazel, an associate professor of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at Cornell University. “So for the security of our country and way of life, we need to get back on track to controlling that resource.”



While previous methods of extraction relied on dissolving rocks with the help of hot sulphuric acid and using organic solvents to separate individual elements, Professor Barstow and his team discovered that the bacterium G. oxydans can be used to perform this process much more efficiently.



G. oxydans employs an acid called biolixiviant that can dissolve rock and pull phosphates from REEs. The scientists started manipulating the bacterium’s genes so that it extracts the elements in a more efficient manner.



For this, they used a technology called Knockout Sudoku, which allowed them to disable the 2,733 genes in G. oxydans’ genome one by one. The researchers curated mutant bacteria, each with a specific gene knocked out, in order to identify which genes play roles in extracting elements out of rock, and thus devise a more efficient and sustainable extraction method.



“I am incredibly optimistic. We have a process here that is going to be more efficient than anything that was done before,” Professor Gazel concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-27047-4">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria can help sustainably extract rare Earth elements

Rare Earth elements (RREs) are vital for building technological equipment,...

According to a new <a href="https://www.gov.br/inpe/pt-br/assuntos/ultimas-noticias/divulgacao-de-dados-prodes.pdf">report</a> by Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research (<a href="https://www.gov.br/inpe/pt-br">INPE</a>), deforestation in the Amazon rainforest has hit its highest level in over 15 years, increasing by 22 percent in the last year alone. INPE’s Prodes monitoring system has shown that 5,110 square miles of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fires-are-transforming-the-amazon-rainforest-into-savanna/">rainforest</a> was destroyed from August 2002 to July 2021.&nbsp;



These findings undermine Brazil’s attempts to increase their environmental credibility at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cop26-deal-failure-or-historic-achievement/">COP26</a> climate change summit earlier this month, when they promised to end and reverse deforestation by as early as 2030.&nbsp;



The Amazon rainforest is home to over three million species of plants and animals, as well as one million indigenous people. Furthermore, it has long acted as a vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sink</a> that helped mitigate global warming.



During the past decade, the rainforest lost over 3,860 square miles to deforestation each year, with the annual average leaping up to 4,400 square miles since 2019. The total extent of deforestation over the past three years covers an area larger than the US state of Maryland.



“It is a shame. It is a crime,” said Márcio Astrini, the executive secretary of the environmental non-profit group Climate Observatory. “We are seeing the Amazon rainforest being destroyed by a government which made environmental destruction its public policy.”



Due to deforestation, huge areas of the Amazon rainforest are now producing more carbon than they absorb. Through a combination of fires and logging, many regions recently switched from being carbon sinks to being carbon emitters, particularly in the south-eastern Amazonia, thus fueling global warming, and producing more frequent and intense extreme weather events.



Although Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro recently declared that 90 percent of the Amazon remain pristine and that international attacks on Brazil for deforestation are unfounded and unfair, the recent data appears to paint a much grimmer picture.



“This is the real Brazil that the Bolsonaro government tries to hide with fantastical speeches and actions of greenwashing abroad,”&nbsp;said Mauricio Voivodic, the executive director of the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/">World Wildlife Fund</a>, in a statement following the release of the Prodes data.



“The reality shows that the Bolsonaro government accelerated the path of Amazon destruction,” he concluded.



If measures to stop and reverse deforestation in the Amazon are not urgently taken, this vital region - as well as our entire planet- will have much to suffer.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest hits new records

According to a new report by Brazil’s National Institute for...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-media-use-affects-children-in-different-ways/">children</a> start being capable of appreciating humor from one month of age, and even begin producing their own jokes from about four months of age.  



By surveying 671 infants in four countries (Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and United States) between the ages of one and 47 months, researchers aimed to identify when humor emerges and how it develops in the first years of life.&nbsp;



“Our results highlight that humor is a complex, developing process in the first four years of life,” explained lead author&nbsp;Dr. Elena Hoicka, an associate professor at University of Bristol's <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/education/">School of Education</a>.



“Given its universality and importance in so many aspects of children's and adults' lives, it is important that we develop tools to determine how humor first develops so that we can further understand not only the emergence of humor itself, but how humor may help young children function cognitively, socially, and in terms of mental health.”



The researchers asked the children’s parents to fill in a 20-question survey called the Early Humor Survey (EHS). They discovered that children under one year of age appreciated physical, visual, and auditory forms of humor, including hide and reveal games (such as peekaboo), tickling, funny faces, funny voices and noises, and several other forms of bodily humor, such as adults putting a cup on their heads or sticking their heads through their legs.



Although children seemed to have a basic grasp of humor from as early as one month of age (appearing to have fun from tickling, for example), according to Dr. Hoicka, “when humor really takes off is three months.”



“Fourteen out of 16 three-month-olds reported humor appreciation, including funny voices, taboo topics (e.g., poo, burps), tickling, peekaboo, and funny bodily actions (e.g., kicking legs in the air).”&nbsp;



By 11 months of age, most of the children were able to exhibit humorous behavior themselves in order to get reactions from others, and by the time they were two years old, they were capable of language-based humor, including mislabeling, and playing with concepts and nonsense words. Around three years of age, children started playing with social rules (for instance, saying words they knew to be naughty), and began understanding tricks and puns.



According to Dr. Hoicka, these findings have the potential “to be used as a diagnostic tool in early development in terms of developmental differences, and to help inform early years educators.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2Fs13428-021-01704-4">Behavior Research Methods</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Children appreciate humor very early in life

A new study led by the University of Bristol has...

Grandmothers are important caregivers in many societies and can enrich the lives of their grandchildren with their love, kindness and knowledge. In modern societies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dads-who-spend-more-time-with-their-kids-have-different-brain-structures/">caregiving</a> by engaged grandmothers has been associated with better outcomes for their grandchildren in terms of academic, social, behavioral and physical health parameters. 



The brain functioning of healthy, older people has seldom been investigated, with more attention being paid to elucidating the neural problems related to dementia and other aging disorders. However, in a recent study scientists have, for the first time, scanned grandmothers’ brains while they looked at photos of their young grandchildren, in order to understand how brain activity may relate to the benefits that they bring to their families.&nbsp;



A total of 50 grandmothers with grandchildren between 3 and 12 years of age participated in the study. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to identify the areas of the brain that became active when they viewed pictures of a grandchild, an unknown child, the same-sex parent and an unknown adult.&nbsp;



In addition, the participating grandmothers completed questionnaires about their involvement as grandmothers, and provided details such as how much time they spent with their grandchildren, the activities they shared and how much affection they felt for them.



The results showed that viewing grandchild pictures activated areas involved with emotional empathy (insula and secondary somatosensory cortex) and movement (motor cortex and supplementary motor area) in the brains of the grandmothers.



“What really jumps out in the data is the activation in areas of the brain associated with emotional empathy,” said study lead author James Rilling, <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory</a> professor of Anthropology. “That suggests that grandmothers are geared toward feeling what their grandchildren are feeling when they interact with them. If their grandchild is smiling, they’re feeling the child’s joy. And if their grandchild is crying, they’re feeling the child’s pain and distress.”



This was in contrast to the grandmothers’ neural responses to their adult child. When viewing images of their adult child, grandmothers showed stronger activation in areas of the brain associated with cognitive empathy (temporo-parietal junction and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex), indicating that they were trying to understand what their child was thinking or feeling, but from a cognitive (intellectual) rather than an emotional perspective.&nbsp;



“Young children have likely evolved traits to be able to manipulate not just the maternal brain, but the grand maternal brain,” said Professor Rilling. “An adult child doesn’t have the same cute ‘factor,’ so they may not illicit the same emotional response.”



“I can relate to this research personally because I spent a lot of time interacting with both of my grandmothers,” said study co-author Minwoo Lee. “I still remember warmly the moments I had with them. They were always so welcoming and happy to see me. As a child, I didn’t really understand why.”



“Here, we’re highlighting the brain functions of grandmothers that may play an important role in our social lives and development. It’s an important aspect of the human experience that has been largely left out of the field of neuroscience.”



Researchers in Professor Rilling’s lab focus on the neural basis of human social cognition and behavior. Although neural correlates of maternal behavior have been well studied by other neuroscientists, the Emory team has done novel research on the neuroscience of fatherhood, in addition to this new study on neural correlates of grandmaternal caregiving.



“We often assume that fathers are the most important caregivers next to mothers, but that’s not always true,” said Rilling. “In some cases, grandmothers are the primary helper.”



When compared with the brain activity shown by fathers who viewed photos of their children, grandmothers showed stronger activity in the brain regions involved with emotional empathy and motivation.&nbsp;



Grandmothers are important caregivers in many societies and previous research has shown that their involvement with the family may bring tangible evolutionary benefits. For example, a study of the traditional Hadza people of Tanzania, showed that foraging by grandmothers improved the nutritional status of their grandchildren. Another study of traditional communities showed that the presence of grandmothers decreases their daughters’ interbirth intervals and increases the number of grandchildren.



The neural evidence derived in this current study appears to support the hypothesis that that there is a global caregiving system in the brain, and that grandmothers are part of this system.&nbsp;



“Our results add to the evidence that there does seem to be a global parenting caregiving system in the brain, and that grandmothers’ responses to their grandchildren maps onto it,” said Professor Rilling.



Although the study has some limitations, such as the fact that only mentally and physically healthy grandmothers who were involved with their grandchildren took part, it does invite further research. “It would be interesting to also look at the neuroscience of grandfathers and how the brain functions of grandparents may differ across cultures,” said Lee.



Professor Rilling interviewed all the participants personally. “It was fun. I wanted to get a sense of the rewards and challenges of being a grandmother.” He stated that the main challenge many of them reported was trying not to interfere when they disagreed with the parents over how their grandchildren should be raised and what values should be instilled in them.



“Many of them also said how nice it is not to be under as much time and financial pressure as they were when raising their children. They get to enjoy the experience of being a grandmother much more than they did being parents.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How a grandmother's brain reacts to the sight of her grandchildren

Grandmothers are important caregivers in many societies and can enrich...

Guinea,Pig,Friends

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0451-21.2021">eNeuro</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-process-speech-in-the-same-way-as-humans/">speech</a> sounds elicit similar neural responses and stimulate the same brain areas in humans, macaques, and guinea pigs. These findings may help better understand and diagnose auditory processing deficits.



The brain’s responses to sounds (“frequency following responses,” or FFRs) can be recorded by small electrodes placed on the scalp, and are generally used by clinicians to quickly asses infants’ hearing capacities in order to find out whether they may develop disorders such as dyslexia or autism.&nbsp;



If the infants’ brains produce electrical responses to sounds played through tiny headphones, their neural pathways connecting the ears to the high-level information processing areas of the brain are functional. However, until recently, this method lacked specificity.



“These tests can only tell us that something is off – but we don’t know what that ‘off’ is,” said study co-author Bharath Chandrasekaran, a professor of Auditory Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburg’s <a href="https://www.shrs.pitt.edu/">School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



“Understanding the source and mechanism of FFR generation would allow for the development of specific markers of speech impairments, which would be instrumental in improving clinical diagnostics of auditory processing deficits.”



Until recently, scientists thought that FFRs arise deep inside the brain stem. However, by combining electroencephalographic recordings from the scalp with recordings from electrodes placed inside the skull, the researchers found that FFRs are generated also in the auditory cortex of the brain, only a few centimeters away from the skull surface. Moreover, they appeared to be similar across mammals such as humans, monkeys, and guinea pigs.



“Recognizing the similarities between animal and human FFRs will allow us to study neural circuitry of sound processing in much greater detail,” said study lead author Nike Gnanateja Gurindapalli, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Pittsburgh. “These explorations will further pave the way for new models of auditory processing in both typical and impaired auditory systems, which can eventually be used to infer auditory deficits using simple and effective non-invasive tools in the clinic.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Since FFRs were traditionally thought to be passively generated outside the cortex, scientists did not typically account for a person’s attention and alertness during FFR recordings. This new discovery will change the way FFRs are collected and interpreted and will open pathways for the development of better biomarkers of auditory processing deficits, leading to faster, more accurate, and non-invasive diagnostics.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Speech sounds elicit similar brain responses in humans and guinea pigs

A new study published in the journal eNeuro has found...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> has found that exercise increases the body’s endocannabinoids (the cannabis-like substances that our bodies produce), which helps reduce inflammation and can thus have potential therapeutic applications for conditions such as arthritis, cancer, or heart disease.&nbsp;



The research team tested 78 people with arthritis, among whom 38 performed 15 minutes of muscle strengthening exercises every day for six weeks, while 40 did nothing. At the end of the study, participants who exercised had more gut microbes that produced anti-inflammatory substances called “short-chain fatty acids” or SCFAs, lower levels of cytokines (inflammatory substances modulating immune responses), and higher levels of endocannabinoids.



“Exercise is known to elicit a feeling of euphoria, referred to as a “runner’s high”, which recent studies indicate is the result of activation of the endocannabinoid system. The role of this system in modulating inflammation,&nbsp;muscle strength,&nbsp;and energy metabolism&nbsp;is now widely documented in humans and in other mammals,” explained the study authors.&nbsp;



The scientists found that the increase in endocannabinoids was strongly linked to changes in the gut microbiome and the anti-inflammatory substances produced by gut microbes. At least one third of the anti-inflammatory effects of the gut microbiome was caused by this significant increase in endocannabinoids.



“Our study clearly shows that exercise increases the body’s own cannabis-type substances which can have a positive impact on many conditions,” explained study first author Amrita Vijay, a research fellow in the University of Nottingham’s <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/medicine/">School of Medicine.</a>



“In this study we show that circulating levels of endocannabinoids are consistently associated with higher levels of SCFAs, with higher microbiome diversity and with lower levels of the pro-inflammatory genus&nbsp;Collinsella. We also show statistically that the anti-inflammatory effects of SCFAs are up to one third mediated by the endocannabinoid system,” the authors wrote.



“As interest in cannabidiol oil and other supplements increases, it is important to know that simple lifestyle interventions like exercise can modulate endocannabinoids,” Dr. Vijay concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19490976.2021.1997559">Gut Microbes</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise increases the body’s own cannabis-like substances

A new study led by the University of Nottingham has...

A new study carried out by researchers from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> looked at how partners in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-may-boost-relationship-satisfaction/">relationship</a> react to close proximity with each other. The scientists found that when older couples in particular are close to each other, a complex series of interactions occur to synchronize their heartbeats.&nbsp;



Study lead author Dr. Brian Ogolsky is an expert in the U of I Department of Human Development and Family Studies.



“Relationship researchers typically ask people how they're doing and assume they can recall properly and give meaningful answers," said Dr. Ogolsky.



"But as couples age and have been together for a long time, they laugh when we ask them how satisfied or how committed they are. When they have been married for 30 or 40 years, they feel that indicates commitment in itself,”



In an effort to collect more objective data on the nature of relationships, Dr. Ogolsky and colleagues used Fitbits to monitor heart rates as well as proximity monitors. Sensors were installed in the couples’ houses to monitor proximity and heart rate in real time.&nbsp;



“We were looking for more objective ways to measure relationship dynamics, and we know that being around other people has psychological benefits. So, physical proximity seemed like a strong candidate," explained Dr. Ogolsky.



"We’re not focusing on cause and effect, but on co-regulation, which happens when heart rates move in a synchronous pattern. That is, when the partners are close, their heart rate patterns indicate an interaction that is collectively meaningful in some way.”



The study was carried out with ten participating heterosexual couples aged 64 to 88 who had been together from 14 to 65 years. The researchers called the participants every morning to remind them to wear their Fitbits and tracking device and again at night for a survey on their well-being and relationship.&nbsp;



The scientists found that sometimes the wife’s heartbeat would lead the synchronization and sometimes the husbands would, in an intricate dance of relationship physiology dynamics. Interestingly, the dynamics in each couple changed on a regular basis, making predictions about a couple impossible beyond predictions for a particular day.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/spr">Journal of Social and Personal Relationships</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Older couples have synchronized heart rates

A new study carried out by researchers from the University...

Migraines are considered to be a major public health concern and affect an estimated 1 billion people worldwide. A migraine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excessive-caffeine-trigger-headaches/">headache</a> is usually characterized by throbbing pain on one side of the head that lasts from 4–72 hours before abating. The pain is often accompanied by sensitivity to light and sound, and can be totally debilitating while it lasts.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The condition is classified as episodic (fewer than 15 days a month) or chronic (15 or more migraine days a month, plus migraine features on at least 8 days of the month). Treatment usually involves the use of drugs and the identification of foods or substances that trigger a migraine. The aim of successful treatment is to reduce the frequency and duration of migraines by at least half.



In a case report published today in the <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">British Medical Journal</a>, authors relate the case of a sixty-year-old man who suffered severe and chronic migraine headaches for more than 12 years. He had tried all the commonly accepted forms of treatment: he took prescribed medication (Zolmitriptan and Topiramate); cut out potential trigger foods, including chocolate, cheese, nuts, caffeine, and dried fruit; and practiced yoga and meditation in a bid to blunt the severity and frequency of his headaches. Nothing had worked.



Shortly before his referral to the clinic, the man’s migraines had reached chronic status, occurring on 18–24 days of every month. He stated that the pain started suddenly and intensely in his forehead and temple on the left side, was throbbing in nature, and usually lasted 72 hours.&nbsp;He also experienced sensitivity to light and noise, nausea and vomiting during a migraine. On a scale of 0–10, he scored the pain severity as 10–12.&nbsp;



The authors of the case report advised the man to adopt the Low Inflammatory Foods Everyday (LIFE) diet, a nutrient dense, whole food, plant-based diet. This diet includes eating at least five ounces of raw or cooked dark green, leafy vegetables every day, drinking one 32-ounce daily green LIFE smoothie, and limiting intake of whole grains, starchy vegetables, oils, and animal protein, particularly dairy and red meat.



Previous studies have found that plant-based diets can reduce migraine pain and duration, as well as the need for pain relief medication. Although the exact causes and pathophysiology of migraines is not understood, it has been well established that inflammation and oxidative stress are contributing factors.&nbsp;



Dark green, leafy vegetables are rich in carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, which are phytonutrients proven to reduce systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. By adopting the LIFE diet, the man would be increasing his intake of these particular nutrients.



After two months on the LIFE diet, the man reported that the frequency of his migraine attacks had fallen to just one day a month; the length and severity of the attacks had also decreased. He was able to stop taking all his migraine medications.&nbsp;



After three months his migraines stopped completely, and they haven't returned in seven and a half years.



Blood tests taken before the start of the LIFE diet showed that the man had normal levels of beta-carotene (53 µg/dl) but that after five months on the diet, the levels of this nutrient had risen to 175µg/dl due to the presence in his diet of leafy vegetables, such as spinach and kale. Apart from this dramatic increase in beta-carotene, his other blood chemistry remained stable.



The authors also report that the man’s allergy symptoms improved to the extent that he no longer needed to use seasonal medication.&nbsp;



The man was HIV positive, and HIV has been linked to a heightened risk of migraines, so the authors say it is possible that the man’s condition and antiretroviral drugs had contributed to his symptoms. It was clearly not possible for the man to stop taking the antiretroviral medications and so the authors of the study could not quantify the role of these factors in the man’s migraines. The authors acknowledge this as a limitation of the current study.&nbsp;



"This report suggests that a whole food plant-based diet may offer a safe, effective and permanent treatment for reversing chronic migraine," explained the researchers. “While this report describes one very adherent patient who had a remarkable response, the LIFE diet has reduced migraine frequency within 3 months in several additional patients (personal observation).”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Leafy greens may help relieve chronic migraine

Migraines are considered to be a major public health concern...

Dietary interventions such as intermittent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermittent-fasting-improves-health/">fasting</a> and caloric restriction are believed to delay age-related disease and boost longevity. Despite their popularity, it is not yet clear just how anti-aging diets may produce such remarkable health effects.&nbsp;



In a new study from <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a>, a team of experts led by Mitchell Lee set out to investigate anti-aging dietary interventions.&nbsp;Beyond separating fact from fiction, the researchers wanted to determine whether the interventions share the same life-extending mechanism.&nbsp;



In model organisms like mice, flies and yeast, dietary interventions appear to delay or reverse the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-anti-aging-drugs-using-ai-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular mechanisms of aging</a>. According to the study authors, it is not currently possible to know whether similar diets affect biological aging in people.



"We evaluated several of the most popular antiaging diets, including caloric restriction, intermittent fasting, fasting-mimicking diets, ketogenic diets, time-restricted feeding, protein restriction, and essential amino acid restriction," wrote the researchers.



"By characterizing these nutritional interventions in comparison with classical caloric restriction (CR), we gained numerous insights. Many studies fail to control for reduced caloric intake in the diet group, making their effects impossible to decouple from CR."



"Although often presented as uniformly beneficial, the effects of CR on life span are highly dependent on genotype and, in some cases, cause reduced survival. Despite their limitations, these studies have greatly improved our understanding of the cellular response to low nutrient availability."



"A picture is beginning to emerge of a complex network composed of multiple signaling pathways that converge on key molecular hubs; foremost among these is the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR)."



The experts explained that because mTOR and its components are well-studied drug targets, there continues to be considerable interest in pharmacologically targeting this network to increase longevity and health span.&nbsp;



"Human studies, both correlative and controlled, are consistent with health benefits conferred by a CR diet. However, it remains unresolved whether these benefits are a consequence of modulating the aging process itself or are simply the result of avoiding obesity," explained the researchers.



In conclusion, the researchers said that future studies should focus on a better understanding of the cellular and molecular mediators of anti-aging diets.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do anti-aging diets actually work?

Dietary interventions such as intermittent fasting and caloric restriction are...

We are all familiar with the experience of needing to sleep. This need becomes more pressing, the longer we stay awake. Humans need to sleep for around one-third of their lives, and yet we do not know why. What happens to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dads-who-spend-more-time-with-their-kids-have-different-brain-structures/">brains</a> while we are awake that causes us to become tired? What happens while we sleep that ultimately refreshes us and enables us to wake up and start a new day?



We are not alone in this either. Sleep is a universal phenomenon found in all organisms with a nervous system, including all vertebrates, and invertebrates such as flies, worms and jellyfish. Animals sleep even though they cannot forage or remain vigilant while resting, and even though they risk being discovered by predators. Throughout evolution, sleep has remained essential to these organisms but we do not know how it benefits the brain.&nbsp;



A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en">Bar-Ilan University</a> in Israel has helped to shed some light on this mystery. The research&nbsp;elucidates a molecular mechanism involved in the sleep patterns of zebrafish. The study was led by Professor Lior Appelbaum, of Bar-Ilan's Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, along with postdoctoral researcher Dr. David Zada.



In the light of research findings from other studies, the Bar-Ilan scientists hypothesized that DNA damage accumulates in neurons (nerve cells) during waking hours. This damage is caused by various factors, including UV light, normal neuronal activity, radiation, oxidative stress and enzymatic errors. Molecular repair systems within each cell correct the damage continuously, but cannot keep up with the damage that accumulates during times of wakefulness. This leads to a homeostatic pressure (tiredness) that builds up in the body.&nbsp;



The researchers tested their hypothesis in a series of experiments on zebrafish. These small, freshwater fish have been bred to be transparent, enabling the penetration of radiation. They have simple brains and sleep at night. The scientists used irradiation, pharmacology and optogenetics, to induce DNA damage in zebrafish and observed how this affected their sleep.&nbsp;



They found that, as DNA damage was increased, the need for rest also increased. The experiment suggested that at some point the accumulation of DNA damage reached a maximum threshold, and increased sleep (homeostatic) pressure to such an extent that the urge to rest was triggered and the fish went to sleep. During the period of sleep, DNA repair took place, which resulted in reduced DNA damage. The fish then awoke.



By gradually reducing the time of darkness to which the fish were exposed each night and monitoring their sleep behavior, the researchers determined that zebrafish require a minimum of six hours of sleep per night in order to repair the DNA damage such that they could wake up. Surprisingly, after less than six hours of sleep, DNA damage was not adequately reduced, and the zebrafish continued to sleep, even though it was broad daylight.



In more detailed research, the scientists investigated the molecular mechanism whereby the brain tells the organism that it needs to sleep in order to allow repair of the damaged DNA. The protein PARP1, plays a role in the DNA damage repair system, and acts like an “antenna”, signaling to the brain that sleep is needed. PARP1 marks DNA damage sites in cells, and recruits all the relevant systems to repair DNA damage. These protein molecules accumulate at DNA break sites during times of wakefulness and they decrease gradually during times of sleep.&nbsp;



Through genetic and pharmacological manipulation, the overexpression of PARP1 revealed not only that increasing PARP1 promoted sleep, but also that it increased sleep-dependent repair. Conversely, knockdown or inhibition of PARP1 blocked the signal for DNA damage repair. As a result, the fish weren't fully aware that they were tired, didn't go to sleep, and no DNA damage repair took place.



To test the validity of the findings, the functioning of PARP1 was also tested in mice, in collaboration with Professor Yuval Nir from Tel Aviv University. Just as with zebrafish, the inhibition of PARP1 activity reduced the duration and quality of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. "PARP1 pathways are capable of signaling the brain that it needs to sleep in order for DNA repair to occur," says Prof. Appelbaum.



In a previous study, Professor Appelbaum and team determined that sleep increases chromosome dynamics, the movements and attachments of chromosomes that allow DNA repair to take place effectively. Adding the new understanding about the role of PARP1 to the puzzle, the researchers could state that PARP1 increases sleep and chromosome dynamics, which facilitates efficient repair of DNA damage that has been accumulated during waking hours. If the DNA maintenance process in neurons is not efficient enough during waking hours, then an “offline” sleep period with reduced input to the brain allows all residual damage to be repaired.



This new understanding of the "chain of events" that takes place in terms of the repair of DNA during sleep, may explain the link between sleep disturbances, aging and neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.&nbsp;Professor Appelbaum believes that future research will help to apply this mechanism to other animals, ranging from lower invertebrates to, eventually, humans.



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-cell/home">Molecular Cell</a>,



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study provides new insight into why we need sleep

We are all familiar with the experience of needing to...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university">Stockholm University</a> has found that global warming is reducing the capacity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-soils-contribute-to-climate-crisis-by-releasing-nitrous-oxide/">soil</a> to store carbon. This causes more carbon to be released into the atmosphere, further accelerating climate change.



By studying data on over 9,000 soil samples from around the globe, collected in the <a href="https://www.isric.org/">World Soil Information</a> database, the scientists found that carbon storage declines strongly as average temperatures increase: for every 10°C&nbsp;of increase in temperature, average carbon storage across all soils fell by over 25 percent.&nbsp;



“Because there is more carbon stored in soils than there is in the atmosphere and all the trees on the planet combined, releasing even a small percentage could have a significant impact on our climate,”&nbsp;said study lead author Iain Hartley, a professor of Terrestrial Ecosystem Science at the University of Exeter.



"Even bleak forecasts do not anticipate this level of warming, but we used this scale to give us confidence that the effects we observed were caused by temperature rather than other variables."



Professor Hartley and his colleagues also discovered that the amount of carbon that could be released depends on the soil type, with coarse-textured, low-clay soils losing three times more carbon than fine-textured, clay-rich soils.



“Our analysis identified the carbon stores in coarse-textured soils at high-latitudes (far from the Equator) as likely to be the most vulnerable to climate change,” explained Professor Hartley. "Such stores, therefore, may require particular attention given the high rates of warming taking place in cooler regions. In contrast, we found carbon stores in fine-textured soils in tropical areas to be less vulnerable to climate warming."



According to the researchers, this happens because finer soils offer more mineral surface area for carbon-based organic material to bond to, and thus reduces the ability of microorganisms to access and decompose it.



These findings will help identifying vulnerable carbon stocks and provide opportunities to improve Earth System Models that predict future climate change. “There is an opportunity to use the patterns we have observed to improve how models represent soils, and further reduce uncertainty in their projections," Professor Hartley concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27101-1">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warmer soils lose their capacity to store carbon

New research led by the University of Exeter and Stockholm...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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