Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Rising levels of nitrous oxide will accelerate global warming. A steady increase in nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions could sabotage the climate targets of the Paris Agreement, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a>. Nitrous oxide, a powerful heat-trapping greenhouse gas that is 300 times more potent than <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/studying-carbon-cycling-in-one-of-the-driest-places-on-earth/">carbon</a> dioxide (CO2), can persist in the atmosphere for more than 100 years.

The increasing use of nitrogen fertilizers in food production is one of the primary drivers of rising N2O emissions. The goal of the current study was to produce the most comprehensive assessment to date of all global sources and sinks of N2O. 

The comprehensive analysis revealed that N2O emissions are growing faster than any emissions scenario by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has accounted for. This finding is consistent with greenhouse gas scenarios that will drive average global temperatures to well above 3°C from pre-industrial levels. The Paris Agreement aims to limit warming to less than 1.5 or two degrees Celsius.

The research team, which included scientists from 48 research institutions in 14 countries, identified a shocking trend that could drastically accelerate the rate of global warming. Levels of atmospheric N2O are now 20 percent higher compared to pre-industrial levels, and the fastest growth is directly tied to human activities.

Study co-lead author Professor Hanqin Tian is the director of the International Center for Climate and Global Change Research at Auburn University's School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences.

"The dominant driver of the increase in atmospheric nitrous oxide comes from agriculture, and the growing demand for food and feed for animals will further increase global nitrous oxide emissions," said Professor Tian. "There is a conflict between the way we are feeding people and stabilizing the climate."

Concerns have been growing over the last four decades about chemical compounds like N2O that are known to destroy the ozone layer. Within those four decades, human-induced N2O emissions - dominated by the agricultural industry - increased by 30 percent to 7.3 teragrams of nitrogen per year.

"This study presents the most comprehensive and detailed picture to date, of N2O emissions and their impact on climate," said study co-lead author Dr. Parvadha Suntharalingam of UEA's School of Environmental Sciences.

"This new analysis identifies the factors driving the steadily increasing atmospheric levels of N2O, and highlights the urgent need to develop effective mitigation strategies if we are to limit global warming and meet climate goals."

The study found that the largest contributors to global N2O emissions are found in East Asia, South Asia, Africa, and South America. The highest growth rates were identified in emerging economies, such as Brazil and India, where crop production and livestock numbers have increased.

Meanwhile, N2O emissions in Europe have decreased in the agriculture and chemical industries. Agriculture in many Western European countries is shifting toward more efficient usage of fertilizer to reduce environmental impacts, and new policies have limited the use of nitrogen fertilizer.

"This new analysis calls for a full-scale rethink in the ways we use and abuse nitrogen fertilizers globally and urges us to adopt more sustainable practices in the way we produce food, including the reduction of food waste," said study co-lead author Dr. Josep "Pep" Canadell, who is the executive director of the Global Carbon Project."These findings underscore the urgency and opportunities to mitigate nitrous oxide emissions worldwide to avoid the worst of climate impacts."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rising levels of nitrous oxide will accelerate global warming

Rising levels of nitrous oxide will accelerate global warming. A...

More than 75 percent of threatened species lack adequate protection. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> has revealed that if governments fail to honor their commitments under the Convention on Biological Diversity, the consequences could be devastating.

A team of scientists led by Dr. Sean Maxwell and Professor James Watson reviewed national area-based <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/conservation-planning-in-the-amazon-should-be-redirected-to-freshwater-species/">conservation</a> efforts, including protected areas. 

The researchers found that 78 percent of known threatened species and more than half of all important ecosystems remain without adequate protection on both land and sea. Furthermore, seven of the world's most productive fisheries have no formal protected area coverage.

The global nature conservation treaty was established in 2010, when nearly every nation agreed that areas which are important for biodiversity and ecosystem services must cover at least 17 percent of land and 10 percent of ocean by 2020. 

"We reviewed progress toward this target by overlaying maps of protected areas on natural ecosystems, threatened species, carbon services on land and sea and fisheries productivity in the world's oceans," said Dr. Maxwell. 

"We found some welcome progress - particularly in the marine realm - since global environmental targets were agreed. But terrestrial protected area expansion needed to be double what it was in the past decade in order to achieve 17 percent coverage for land and freshwater environments."

"There are also alarming shortfalls in ecological representation and management effectiveness, and measurable biodiversity outcomes persist in area-based conservation efforts."

The researchers also investigated how effective protected area management has been based on the 2010 targets.

"We know that adequately funding protected areas are one of our best tools for reducing threats to biodiversity," said Dr Maxwell. "Yet the current financial shortfall for area-based conservation likely exceeds the multi-billion dollar mark, and as much as 90 per cent have inadequate or below optimum on-site staff capacity."

Professor Watson said the next round of conservation targets, which were meant to be set this year, is fundamental to the future of global biodiversity.

"It is obvious that governments have dramatically underinvested in protected areas and been weak in legally protecting them," said Professor Watson.

"For biodiversity to have any chance to survive climate change, nations must invest more resources in consolidating area-based conservation efforts and ensuring biodiversity conservation is a far stronger part of managed land and seas.

"There are significant opportunities to better recognise and support conservation by indigenous peoples, local communities and private actors, and we now need to embrace new models for land stewardship that rewards good behaviour by farmers, developers and miners."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

More than 75 percent of threatened species lack adequate protection

More than 75 percent of threatened species lack adequate protection....

An eco-friendly shift in American diets could reduce the environmental impacts of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/experts-work-to-take-threatened-species-off-the-seafood-menu/">food</a> production and consumption by up to 38 percent, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.uic.edu/">University of Illinois Chicago</a> Institute for Environmental Science and Policy.

"What we eat has an impact on the environment through the land used to grow food, net greenhouse gases released by producing food, and water use," said study lead author Joe Bozeman. "By following guidelines developed with human health and the environment in mind, we can help reduce the environmental impact of food production."

The research was focused on what dietary changes would be necessary among Americans in order to adhere to the healthy targets set by the EAT-Lancet Commission, which represent the first-ever global dietary guidelines. 

The EAT-Lancet recommendations were established in 2019 to help reduce the environmental degradation that will be caused by food production for an estimated global population of 10 billion people by the year 2050.

In a previous study, the researchers analyzed data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's What We Eat in America Food Commodity Intake Database and from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The team also collected information on the environmental impact of specific foods. 

The study revealed that meat and refined sugar are among foods with the highest negative impact, while vegetables, fish and nuts have much lower impacts.

"We found that shifting to increased vegetable and nuts intake while decreasing red meat and added sugars consumption would help Americans meet EAT-Lancet criteria and reduce environmental degradation between 28% and 38% compared to current levels," said Bozeman. "At the same time, health outcomes would improve, so following these global recommendations would result in a win-win for the environment and human health."

According to Bozeman, different populations would have to make different changes based on their current dietary patterns. For example, black people could meet the EAT-Lancet targets by eating more vegetables and nuts while consuming less red meat, chicken, and added sugars. White people would need to shift their consumption to include less red meat and added sugars, but more nuts.

The findings show that meeting all criteria would significantly decrease environmental degradation in land, greenhouse gases and water.

"Our results provide foundational information that can inform the development of culturally-tailored dietary intervention strategies that consider the implications for human and environmental health," said study co-author Professor Sparkle Springfield.

"However, there is still a need to address the structural and social determinants of diet outcomes, particularly in African American and Latinx populations, in order to promote health equity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://home.liebertpub.com/publications/environmental-justice/259/overview">Environmental Justice</a>.

---
<ol>
 	<li>By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer</li>
</ol>

Shift in American diets could greatly benefit the environment

An eco-friendly shift in American diets could reduce the environmental...

Brain fog in recovered COVID-19 patients may be PTSD. Patients who have lingering "brain fog" and other neurological symptoms after <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/virus-that-causes-covid-19-silences-pain-in-the-body/">COVID-19</a> may be suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a>. This phenomenon was previously observed during past coronavirus outbreaks such as SARS and MERS.

After recovering from COVID-19, some people report lingering headaches, anxiety, fatigue, sleeplessness, and difficulty concentrating. While it may seem that the virus is causing permanent brain damage, the researchers said that this is not necessarily the case.

Study co-author Dr. Andrew Levine is a clinical professor and neuropsychologist in the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA.

"The idea is to raise awareness among neuropsychologists that PTSD is something you might want to consider when evaluating persistent cognitive and emotional difficulties among COVID- 19 survivors," said Dr. Levine.

"When we see someone for neuropsychological testing, we expect them to be at their best, relatively speaking. If we identify a psychiatric illness during our evaluation, and if we believe that condition's symptoms are interfering with their ability to perform at their best, we would want that treated first, and then retest them once it's under control."

If the symptoms are being caused by a psychiatric condition such as PTSD to any degree, treatment will help to provide a clearer picture of any underlying issues.

Study co-author Erin Kaseda is a graduate student at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science in Chicago.

"Once they have treatment, and hopefully have some remission of their psychiatric symptoms, if the cognitive complaints and the deficits on neuropsychological tests are still there, then that's more evidence that something else is going on," said Kaseda.

"It's going to be important for clinicians across the board to be keeping up with the literature that's coming out, to make sure they have the most up to date information as these survivors are starting to present for neuropsychological testing."

Kaseda began research on this topic while working with patients who had mild traumatic brain injuries. "When these symptoms persist for months or years after the original injury, it's much more likely to be due to the presence of a psychiatric disorder."

For their investigation, the experts reviewed data on survivors of previous coronaviruses, which were responsible for outbreaks of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). The data showed that survivors of these outbreaks had heightened risk for PTSD. 

Among COVID-19 patients, the symptoms of PTSD may arise in response to the invasive measures that are often required for treatment. For example, intubation and ventilation can be traumatic for some people. In other cases, delirium causes patients with COVID-19 to suffer frightening hallucinations that persist after recovery.

Experts are still working to understand the direct neurological effects of COVID-19. "Treatment options (for COVID) are still quite a way's out, because it's still an evolving situation," said Kaseda.

"We don't actually know anything yet from survivors of COVID-19. Until we have that data, it's very hard to say what actual percentage of patients are going to have cognitive complaints because of direct effects of the virus, because of medical intervention, or because of psychiatric concerns."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ntcn20/current">The Clinical Neuropsychologist</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain fog in recovered COVID-19 patients may be PTSD

Brain fog in recovered COVID-19 patients may be PTSD. Patients...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> has found that birds are changing their breeding patterns to keep pace with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-fires-are-changing-and-the-climate-impacts-could-be-devastating/">climate</a> change. The experts report that these types of behavioral shifts come along with hidden dangers, including the threat of starvation. 

The study was focused on 30 years of data on weather, food availability, and breeding among Tree Swallows in Ithaca,  NewYork. The researchers discovered that the birds are breeding earlier alongside first signs of spring with potentially drastic consequences. When chicks hatch earlier, they are faced with an increased risk of bad weather, food shortages, and mortality.

The experts concluded that the timing of when to breed and when food is available is becoming decoupled for some animals, which highlights serious complications in how organisms respond to climate change.

Study first author Ryan Shipley is a postdoctoral researcher at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior.

"Simply moving dates earlier to track climate change isn't necessarily risk free. Riskier conditions earlier in the year can expose animals to unintended consequences when responding to bouts of unusually warm spring weather," said Shipley.

Some previous studies have emphasized the importance of animals adjusting their life cycles to keep pace with rising temperatures and earlier spring arrivals. However, the current study notes that breeding earlier may place animals at a greater risk of exposure to inclement weather events that tend to occur more frequently earlier in the year. 

The analysis showed that Tree Swallows have been advancing breeding by 3 days per decade over the last 30 years. This has put offspring at a greater risk of exposure to bad weather, and these conditions also reduce the availability of the insects that the birds rely on for food.

"Our results raise the possibility that animals relying on food resources that can rapidly change in abundance due to the weather may be particularly at risk to climate change," said Shipley.

The findings may help to solve the mystery of why aerial insectivorous birds, including swallows, swifts, flycatchers, and nightjars, are declining faster than other groups in much of North America and Europe.

"For birds that feed on flying insects, one day is feast, the next is famine. This means during unusually warm springs, parents are betting current conditions that prompt earlier egg laying are indicative of similar good conditions for rearing hatched young 3 weeks in the future," said Shipley.

"Considerable attention has been given to potential widespread decline of insect populations and this might be hitting insectivorous birds particularly hard. But we show a mechanism that doesn't require change in insect abundance - just availability over a short time, like a few days."

Professor Maren Vitousek said that long-term studies like these are essential to understand how and why species are affected by climate change. "They can also provide valuable insights into how organisms function, interact and evolve in complex ecological networks."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds that try to keep pace with climate change face hidden dangers

A new study led by Cornell University has found that...

Scientists from leading research institutions across the United States are urging that experts unite to deliver a clear message to the public about how viruses like <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/many-types-of-mammals-could-be-infected-by-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> spread in the air. In an open letter published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>, the team emphasizes that the scientific community must clarify the terminology used related to aerosols and droplets.

The letter states that public health officials should make a clear distinction between droplets ejected by coughing or sneezing,  which have inspired the social distancing standard of six feet, and aerosols that can carry the virus over much greater distances. Virus-containing aerosols that are smaller than 100 microns can remain airborne in a confined space for hours at a time. These aerosols also accumulate in poorly ventilated air, leading to virus transmission.

Kimberly Prather is the director of the Center for Aerosol Impacts on Chemistry of the Environment based at Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego. Prather, who led the team of experts, said that the attention must be shifted to focus on protecting the public against airborne transmission.

"Viruses in aerosols can remain suspended in air for many seconds to hours, like smoke, and be inhaled," wrote the experts. "They are highly concentrated near an infected person, so they can infect people most easily in close proximity. But aerosols containing infectious virus can also travel more than [two meters] and accumulate in poorly ventilated indoor air, leading to superspreading events."

In addition to wearing a mask, social distancing and hygiene efforts, the researchers are urging public health officials to express the importance of moving activities outdoors, using ventilation and filtration to keep indoor air as safe as possible, and improving protection for high risk workers.

"The goal of this letter is to make it clear that the SARS-Cov-2 virus travels in the air and people can become infected via inhalation," said Prather. "It is important to acknowledge this pathway so efforts can focus on cleaning the air and providing guidance on how to avoid risky indoor settings."

Co-author Linsey Marr is a professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Virginia Tech and an expert on airborne transmission of viruses.

"It is important for people to wear masks at all times in public buildings and confined spaces, not only when we can't maintain social distance," said Marr. "This isn't just an academic question, but a point that will help reduce transmission if public health officials offer clear and forceful guidance about this."

The letter is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Viruses can linger for hours in areas with poor ventilation

Scientists from leading research institutions across the United States are...

Dozens of mammals could be susceptible to COVID-19, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>. The experts identified 26 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/animals-have-a-biological-switch-that-prepares-them-for-seasonal-changes/">animals</a> that are regularly in contact with people and are also vulnerable to infection. 

The study used computer modeling to investigate how the virus may infect the ACE2 protein receptor in 215 animal species. The researchers wanted to know how these receptors are different from those in humans, and how these differences may reduce the stability of binding between the virus protein and host protein. 

The researchers found that binding could be just as strong in some animals, including sheep, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutan, and bonobo - many of which are endangered in the wild.

"We wanted to look beyond just the animals that had been studied experimentally, to see which animals might be at risk of infection, and would warrant further investigation and possible monitoring," said study lead author Professor Christine Orengo.

"The animals we identified may be at risk of outbreaks that could threaten endangered species or harm the livelihoods of farmers. The animals might also act as reservoirs of the virus, with the potential to re-infect humans later on, as has been documented on mink farms."

To gain a better understanding of how COVID-19 risks differ across various species, the researchers conducted more detailed structural analyses for certain animals. They also compared the findings to existing research to set thresholds that predict which animals are at risk of infection and which ones are likely not. 

While the study revealed that most birds, fish, and reptiles are not at risk, it showed that the majority of the mammals examined have the potential to develop a COVID-19 infection.

"The details of host infection and severity of response are more complex than just the interactions of the spike protein with ACE2, so our research is continuing to explore interactions involving other host virus proteins," said Professor Orengo.

The findings mostly agree with experiments and known cases of infection, including those among domestic cats, dogs, mink, lions, and tigers.

"Unlike laboratory-based experiments, the computational analyses we devised can be run automatically and rapidly," said study first author Su Datt Lam. "Therefore, these methods could be applied easily to future virus outbreaks that, unfortunately, are becoming more common due to human encroachment into natural habitats."

"To protect animals, as well as to protect ourselves from the risk of one day catching COVID-19 from an infected animal, we need large-scale surveillance of animals, particularly pets and farm animals, to catch cases or clusters early on while they're still manageable," said study co-author Professor Joanne Santini.

"It may also be important to employ hygiene measures when dealing with animals, similar to the behaviors we've all been learning this year to reduce transmission, and for infected people to isolate from animals as well as from other people."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Many types of mammals could be infected by COVID-19

Dozens of mammals could be susceptible to COVID-19, according to...

A new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> suggests that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/acropora-corals-are-thriving-in-belize-yet-vanishing-from-nearby-reefs/">corals</a> rely on iron in their environment to survive the stress of rising temperatures. The researchers found that the combination of warmer water and low iron levels impairs the growth and function of the microalgae that live within coral cells.

Iron levels are already limited and could decline even more as ocean temperatures continue to rise, which means that the lack of iron will compound the impacts of climate change.

"Corals are the foundation for one of the most important ecosystems in the world," said study co-author Todd LaJeunesse. "They support significant amounts of biodiversity, protect our shorelines from storms, provide habitat for our fisheries, and boost our economies with their opportunities for tourism."

"Climate change affects not only the coral, but also their symbiotic microalgae and the partnership between them. In this study, we explored two aspects of climate change - warming waters and altered amounts of trace metals like iron - on the algae."

In a previous study, the Penn State team determined that the photosynthetic microalgae living within the cells of coral require high levels of iron to grow and function properly. These algae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's daily nutritional needs.

"In this study, we found that limiting the available iron lowered the heat tolerances of two species of microalgae, which potentially could have cascading effects on the coral and on the reef ecosystem," said study co-author and grad student Hannah Reich.

In the lab, the researchers investigated the simultaneous effects of high water temperatures and low iron levels on the growth of two species of microalgae, including one typically found in tropical waters and one from more temperate areas. Regardless of their native environment, both types of algae grew poorly at high temperatures with limited iron availability.

"High temperatures increase metabolic demands, which forces the microalgae to work harder to function properly," said Reich. "It also increases dependence on processes that require iron, like photosynthesis and assimilating other nutrients. We found that under high temperatures, the microalgae needed more than five times as much iron to reach typical, exponential growth rates."

Under the compounding pressures of low iron levels and hotter water, the algae became less efficient at photosynthesis, which likely contributed to a lack of growth. In addition, warmer temperatures affected the amounts of trace metals within the algae.

"These alterations could indicate differences in metal usage, likely affecting the biological functions in which they are used," said Reich. "Notably, with limited iron, the more tropical species grew better and had less compromised photosynthetic ability at high temperatures and a larger reserve of many trace metals."

"While it is important to understand how access to iron supplies can impact the ability of corals to respond to climate change stressors, there is still a dire need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions to combat the climate crisis."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15298817">Journal of Phycology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Low iron levels will make it hard for corals to endure global warming

A new study from Penn State suggests that corals rely...

The virus that causes <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-can-circulate-in-the-air-throughout-enclosed-spaces/">COVID-19</a> inhibits a pain signaling pathway in the body, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>. The discovery was made after researchers identified a second protein receptor, neuropilin, that is used by SARS-COV-2 to gain entry into cells.

Study co-author Dr. Rajesh Khanna is a professor in the College of Medicine at Tucson's Department of Pharmacology. He said the fact that SARS-COV-2 relieves pain may explain why nearly half of people who get COVID-19 experience few or no symptoms, even though they are able to spread the disease.

"It made a lot of sense to me that perhaps the reason for the unrelenting spread of COVID-19 is that in the early stages, you're walking around all fine as if nothing is wrong because your pain has been suppressed," said Dr. Khanna. "You have the virus, but you don't feel bad because you pain is gone. If we can prove that this pain relief is what is causing COVID-19 to spread further, that's of enormous value."

On September 10, the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/">CDC</a> released updated data on COVID-19 which estimates that 50 percent of transmission occurs prior to the onset of symptoms and 40 percent of infections are asymptomatic.

"This research raises the possibility that pain, as an early symptom of COVID-19, may be reduced by the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein as it silences the body's pain signaling pathways," said Dr. Michael D. Dake. "University of Arizona Health Sciences researchers at the Comprehensive Pain and Addiction Center are leveraging this unique finding to explore a novel class of therapeutics for pain as we continue to seek new ways to address the opioid epidemic."

Scientists established early on in the pandemic that the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein uses ACE2 receptors located on cell membranes to enter the body. In June, two studies identified a second receptor for the SARS-COV-2 spike protein called neuropilin-1, which is active in nerve cells.

"That caught our eye because for the last 15 years my lab has been studying a complex of proteins and pathways that relate to pain processing that are downstream of neuropilin," said Dr. Khanna, who is an expert in the UArizona Health Sciences Comprehensive Pain and Addiction Center. "So we stepped back and realized this could mean that maybe the spike protein is involved in some sort of pain processing."

There are different biological pathways that signal the body to feel pain, and one such pathway involves a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A). This protein plays an essential role in blood vessel growth but also has been linked to diseases such as cancer and rheumatoid arthritis.

The researchers explained that VEGF-A binds to the receptor neuropilin like a key in a lock, triggering a series of events that causes an excessive reaction in neurons and initiates pain transmission. Dr. Khanna and his team found that the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds to neuropilin in exactly the same location as VEGF-A.

Using mouse models, the experts conducted experients to investigate whether the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein acts on the VEGF-A/neuropilin pain pathway. The researchers used VEGF-A as a trigger to induce neuron excitability and pain transmission - then added the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.

"Spike completely reversed the VEGF-induced pain signaling," said Dr. Khanna. "It didn't matter if we used very high doses of spike or extremely low doses - it reversed the pain completely."

Dr. Khanna will continue to investigate  neuropilin's role in the spread of COVID-19 with UArizona Health Sciences immunologists and virologists. The experts are also exploring the potential for neuropilin to be used as a target for non-opioid pain relief. 

While conducting various trials, Dr. Khanna tested small molecule neuropilin inhibitors that are designed to suppress tumor growth in certain cancers. The small molecule inhibitors provided the same pain relief as the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein when binding to neuropilin receptors.

"We are moving forward with designing small molecules against neuropilin, particularly natural compounds, that could be important for pain relief," said Dr. Khanna. "We have a pandemic, and we have an opioid epidemic. They're colliding. Our findings have massive implications for both. SARS-CoV-2 is teaching us about viral spread, but COVID-19 has us also looking at neuropilin as a new non-opioid method to fight the opioid epidemic."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.lww.com/pain/pages/default.aspx">Pain</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Virus that causes COVID-19 silences pain in the body

The virus that causes COVID-19 inhibits a pain signaling pathway...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a> suggests that drinking coffee first thing in the morning on an empty stomach can interfere with the body's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/teenage-alcohol-consumption-metabolism/">metabolism</a>. The experts have found that coffee can limit your ability to tolerate the sugar in your breakfast.

A team of researchers in the University's Centre for Nutrition, Exercise &amp; Metabolism investigated the effects of disrupted sleep and morning coffee across a range of different metabolic markers. The results suggest that while one night of poor sleep has limited impact on our metabolism, a strong coffee the next morning may interfere with the body's control over blood glucose.

Keeping our blood sugar levels within a safe range is important for reducing the risk of chronic conditions such as diabetes and heart disease. According to the experts, the findings could have "far-reaching" health implications, especially considering the global popularity of coffee.

Coffee is currently the most popular drink in the world, with around two billion cups consumed every day. 

"We know that nearly half of us will wake in the morning and, before doing anything else, drink coffee - intuitively the more tired we feel, the stronger the coffee," said Professor James Betts. "This study is important and has far-reaching health implications as up until now we have had limited knowledge about what this is doing to our bodies, in particular for our metabolic and blood sugar control."

"Put simply, our blood sugar control is impaired when the first thing our bodies come into contact with is coffee especially after a night of disrupted sleep. We might improve this by eating first and then drinking coffee later if we feel we still feel the need it. Knowing this can have important health benefits for us all."

The study was focused on 29 healthy men and women who were assigned three different overnight tasks in a random order. 

Under one condition, participants were instructed to get a normal night's sleep and were asked to consume a sugary drink upon waking in the morning. On a separate occasion, the volunteers had their sleep disrupted every hour for a few minutes at a time, followed by the same sugary drink.

Under the third condition, participants experienced the same sleep disruption followed by a strong black coffee 30 minutes before consuming a sugary drink.

For each trial, blood samples were collected from each volunteer following the glucose drink- which had about the same amount of calories as a typical breakfast. 

&nbsp;

The study revealed that one night of disrupted sleep did not worsen the participants' blood glucose responses at breakfast when compared to a normal night's sleep. However, strong black coffee consumed before breakfast substantially increased the blood glucose response to breakfast by around 50 percent.

While a growing collection of research has linked coffee to substantial health benefits, there are also previous studies which demonstrated that caffeine has the potential to cause insulin resistance. 

"These results show that one night of disrupted sleep alone did not worsen participants' blood glucose/insulin response to the sugary drink compared to a normal night of sleep which will be reassuring to many of us," said study lead author Harry Smith.

"However, starting a day after a poor night's sleep with a strong coffee did have a negative effect on glucose metabolism by around 50%.

"As such, individuals should try to balance the potential stimulating benefits of caffeinated coffee in the morning with the potential for higher blood glucose levels and it may be better to consume coffee following breakfast rather than before."

"There is a lot more we need to learn about the effects of sleep on our metabolism, such as how much sleep disruption is necessary to impair our metabolism and what some of the longer-term implications of this are, as well as how exercise, for instance, could help to counter some of this."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition">British Journal of Nutrition</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coffee before breakfast has a negative impact on metabolism

A new study from the University of Bath suggests that...

Scientists report an unprecedented rise in ocean temperatures. The world's oceans are facing an increasing threat from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-fires-are-changing-and-the-climate-impacts-could-be-devastating/">climate</a> change, according to research published by the <a href="https://taylorandfrancis.com/">Taylor &amp; Francis Group</a>. The latest Ocean State Report reveals that global warming is driving an unprecedented rise in ocean temperatures.

Based on data from the European Union's (EU) Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS), researchers have identified an overall trend of rising surface temperatures worldwide. Records from 1993 to 2018 show that the most profound effects can be found in the Arctic Ocean.

The report describes record high ocean temperatures across European waters in 2018 that led to extreme weather conditions - including a marine heat wave that lasted for several months. 

In the same year, the scientists detected a large mass of warm water in the northeast Pacific Ocean that was similar to "the Blob" in 2013, which drove up sea temperatures by as much as  in 2013. As ocean temperatures rose, toxic algae killed large numbers of marine animals including salmon, seals and millions of Pacific cod.

The study authors are calling for improved monitoring to provide better data and knowledge. They believe this will help countries progress toward the sustainable use of oceans which are an essential source of food, energy, and other resources.

"Changes to the ocean have impacted on these ecosystem services and stretched them to unsustainable limits," said Karina von Schuckmann and Pierre-Yves Le Traon, who edited the report.

"More than ever a long term, comprehensive and systematic monitoring, assessment and reporting of the ocean is required. This is to ensure a sustainable science-based management of the ocean for societal benefit."

The researchers pointed out that there are other major climate-related threats to the world's oceans, including acidification, sea level rise, loss of oxygen, and sea ice retreat.

The Ocean State Report reaffirms the same message from recent EU and global assessments on the state of oceans that "we are not doing well."

"Human society has always been dependent on the seas. Failure to reach good environmental status for our seas and oceans is not an option, wrote the study authors. 

The research is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjoo20">Journal of Operational Oceanography</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists report an unprecedented rise in ocean temperatures

Scientists report an unprecedented rise in ocean temperatures. The world's...

Due to the impacts of climate change, 31 million people living in river deltas have a disproportionately high risk of exposure to <a href="http://www.earth.com/image/historic-rainfall-in-pakistan-has-caused-deadly-flooding/">flooding</a>, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.indiana.edu/">Indiana University</a>. The research reaffirms that some of the most disadvantaged populations are also the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

"To date, no one has successfully quantified the global population on river deltas and assessed the cumulative impacts from climate change," said study lead author Douglas Edmonds.

"Since river deltas have long been recognized as hotspots of population growth, and with increasing impacts from climate change, we realized we needed to properly quantify what the cumulative risks are in river deltas."

The researchers found that while river deltas occupy 0.5 percent of Earth’s land surface, they contain 4.5 percent of the global population, or 339 million people. River deltas form at the ocean at or below sea level, which makes them extremely vulnerable to the destructive storm surges that are expected to occur more frequently due to the effects of climate change.

The team used a new global dataset to determine how many people live on river deltas and how many are vulnerable to a 100-year storm surge event. The experts also investigated the ability of river deltas in cities like New Orleans and Bangkok to naturally mitigate impacts of climate change.

“River deltas present special challenges for predicting coastal floods that deserve more attention in discussions about the future impacts of climate change,” said study co-author Professor Eduardo Brondizio, who has been working with rural and urban communities in the Amazon delta for 3 decades. 

“Our estimates are likely a minimum because the storm surge and flooding models do not account for the compound interactions of the climate impacts, deficient infrastructure, and high population density.”

Beyond the threat of flooding, many of the residents in river deltas are living in low-income areas that are already exposed to pollution, poor housing infrastructure, and limited access to public services. 

According to the study, 31 million of the vulnerable residents of river deltas are living in 100-year storm surge floodplains. Furthermore, 92 percent of these at-risk individuals live in developing or underdeveloped economies. 

“These communities are already dealing with health risks, lack of sanitation and services, poverty, and exposure to flooding and other environmental risks," said Professor Brondizio. "Climate change is exacerbating all of these issues and creating more impacts."

The study showed that decades of engineering have expanded the habitable land area of river deltas, but they have also starved the regions of flood-preventing sediment. If the sediment cannot naturally renew itself, the shorelines will continue to recede and the impacts of storm surges will intensify.

“To effectively prepare for more intense future coastal flooding, we need to reframe it as a problem that disproportionately impacts people on river deltas in developing and least-developed economies,” said Edmonds. 

“We need better models for the climate impacts that are capable of stimulating compound flooding in densely populated areas so that exposure and risk can be mapped to more accurately assess risk and vulnerability.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Poor communities on river deltas will be hit hard by coastal flooding

Due to the impacts of climate change, 31 million people...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...