Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

In a special report from <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, experts warn that without limiting greenhouse gas <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fire-are-controlled-by-soil-composition/">emissions</a>, the threat of severe wildfires will continue to drastically increase worldwide. On the other hand, if immediate action is taken to limit global warming, wildfire exposure could be reduced by up to 80 percent worldwide by the end of this century.

The researchers analyzed relevant studies published over the last 20 years. They found that climate change is the primary driving force behind the three essential conditions for wildfires - fuel, oxygen, and an ignition source. For example, the combination of more frequent drought, inconsistent rainfall, and hotter temperatures results in more flammable vegetation.

The report noted that the global average carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from wildfires accounted for about 22 percent of the carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels between 1997 to 2016. 

Future projections indicate that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the current rate, wildfire exposure could increase to over 74 percent of the global land mass by the year 2100. According to the researchers, however,  limiting global warming to 1.5 or 2 degrees Celsius would help to avoid an increase in wildfire exposure of 60 to 80 percent.

"The world has already observed many devastating effects of human-induced climate change," wrote the study authors. "A vivid manifestation is the several large wildfires that have occurred recently - in some cases, fires of unprecedented scale and duration - including wildfires in Australia in 2019 to 2020, the Amazon rainforest in Brazil in 2019 and 2020, the western United States in 2018 and 2020, and British Columbia in 2017 and 2018."

"Robust projections indicate that the risk of wildfires will continue to increase in most areas of the world as climate change worsens, and that the fires will increase excess mortality and morbidity from burns, wildfire smoke, and mental health effects."

The physical consequences of wildfire exposure include eye irritation, corneal abrasions, and respiratory impacts. The psychological effects include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and insomnia. 

Since August of this year, wildfires have burned more than 7 million acres in the western United States. More than 30 people have been killed and tens of thousands of victims have lost their homes. 

While the wildfires are fueled by climate change, they are also contributing to it. "Substantial greenhouse-gas emissions and forest loss from wildfires are likely to accelerate climate change further and possibly lead to a reinforcing feedback loop," wrote the researchers. 

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.nejm.org/">New England Journal of Medicine</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfire exposure could be drastically lowered by reducing emissions

In a special report from Monash University, experts warn that...

Limiting the hours of television advertising for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-that-eat-human-foods-are-altering-their-ecosystems/">foods</a> and beverages that are high in fat, sugar, and salt (HFSS) could help reduce childhood obesity, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>.

The World Health Organization reports that childhood obesity is one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century, and it's prevalence has grown at an alarming rate. 

The United Kingdom has a goal of cutting childhood obesity in half by 2030, and the government is considering the option of placing restrictions on television advertising for HFSS products between the hours of 5:30 a.m. and 9:00 p.m. 

To investigate, the researchers analyzed data on children's exposure to HFSS advertising during these particular hours. The team also reviewed previously published information on the association between exposure to HFSS advertising and children's caloric intake.

The study revealed that limiting television advertising would make a substantial contribution to reducing childhood obesity. 

The researchers found that if all HFSS advertising in the UK was withdrawn during the hours that kids are typically awake, 3.7 million children in the UK would see an average 1.5 fewer HFSS advertisements per day. The subsequent reduction in caloric intake could lower the number of children with obesity by 40,000, and the number of children considered overweight by 120,000.

"Measures which have the potential to reduce exposure to less-healthy food advertising on television could make a meaningful contribution to reducing childhood obesity," wrote the researchers. However, they also noted that the study has some limitations and does fully account for all the factors that would affect the impact of this policy if it was implemented.

"Our analysis shows that introducing a 9 PM watershed on unhealthy TV food advertising can make a valuable contribution to protecting the future health of all children in the UK, and help level up the health of children from less affluent backgrounds," said Dr. Oliver Mytton. 

"However, children now consume media from a range of sources, and increasingly from online and on-demand services, so in order to give all children the opportunity to grow up healthy it is important to ensure that this advertising doesn't just move to the 9-10pm slot and to online services."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/">PLOS Medicine</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Limiting TV commercials could help reduce childhood obesity

Limiting the hours of television advertising for foods and beverages...

Individuals who have been infected by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/what-if-humans-are-spreading-covid-19-to-other-mammals/">COVID-19</a> have antibodies that provide lasting immunity, according to a new study from the <a href="https://health.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona Health Sciences</a>. These antibodies will likely prove to block SARS-COV-2 for years or even decades. 

More than 38 million people have been infected by COVID-19 worldwide, leading to over a million deaths. There have only been five known cases of patients who were reinfected by SARS-COV-2 a second time, and experts have been working to determine whether the body's immune response to the virus provides immunity. 

"We clearly see high-quality antibodies still being produced five to seven months after SARS-CoV-2 infection," said Dr. Deepta Bhattacharya. "Many concerns have been expressed about immunity against COVID-19 not lasting. We used this study to investigate that question and found immunity is stable for at least five months."

In response to an infection, the immune system deploys short-lived plasma cells that produce antibodies to fight off the virus. These antibodies can be detected in blood tests within 14 days of infection.

During the second phase of the immune response, long-lived plasma cells are created to produce high-quality antibodies that provide lasting immunity. 

The experts tracked SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels over several months and found that they were present in blood tests at viable levels for at least five to seven months. The researchers believe that immunity lasts much longer. People who were infected with SARS-CoV-1, for example, are still immune 17 years later. 

"Whether antibodies provide lasting protection against SARS-CoV-2 has been one of the most difficult questions to answer," said Dr. Michael D. Dake. "This research not only has given us the ability to accurately test for antibodies against COVID-19, but also has armed us with the knowledge that lasting immunity is a reality."

Previous studies that were based on antibody production from initial infections suggested that antibody levels drop quickly after infection, providing only short-term immunity. Dr. Bhattacharya believes that those conclusions failed to take into account long-lived plasma cells and the higher quality antibodies they produce.

"The latest time-points we tracked in infected individuals were past seven months, so that is the longest period of time we can confirm immunity lasts," said Dr. Bhattacharya. "That said, we know that people who were infected with the first SARS coronavirus, which is the most similar virus to SARS-CoV-2, are still seeing immunity 17 years after infection. If SARS-CoV-2 is anything like the first one, we expect antibodies to last at least two years, and it would be unlikely for anything much shorter."

The antibody test developed by the UArizona Health Sciences team proved to be so accurate that it received U.S. Food and Drug Administration emergency use authorization in August.

According to Dr. Nikolich-Zugich, the experts have now tested almost 30,000 people. Antibody tests are still available for adults at multiple locations throughout Arizona. Visit <a href="https://covid19antibodytesting.arizona.edu/">covid19antibodytesting.arizona.edu</a> for more information.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/immunity/home">Immunity</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

COVID-19 antibodies provide lasting immunity

Individuals who have been infected by COVID-19 have antibodies that...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.med.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania  School of Medicine</a> are using wasp venom to create new <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fda-outlines-the-drugs-that-show-potential-for-treating-covid-19/">drugs</a>. The research is focused on the potential for proteins found in wasp venom to be converted into bacteria-killing molecules. The ultimate goal is to develop powerful antibiotics, which are desperately needed as antibiotic-resistant bacteria are increasingly emerging worldwide. 

The experts altered a highly toxic protein from the Korean yellow-jacket wasp, Vespula lewisii, which enhanced the molecule's ability to kill bacterial cells. At the same time, the modification greatly reduced the risk for the protein to harm human cells.

The scientists demonstrated that their new antimicrobial molecules could protect mice from otherwise lethal bacterial infections.

The CDC estimates that nearly three million Americans are infected with antibiotic-resistant microbes each year, resulting in more than 35,000 deaths. A persistent bacterial infection can lead to sepsis, which was responsible for about one in five deaths worldwide in 2017.

"New antibiotics are urgently needed to treat the ever-increasing number of drug-resistant infections, and venoms are an untapped source of novel potential drugs. We think that venom-derived molecules such as the ones we engineered in this study are going to be a valuable source of new antibiotics," said study senior author Dr. César de la Fuente.

Experiments showed that the family of bacteria-killing molecules engineered by the team were comparable to existing antibiotics such as gentamicin and imipenem. Alternatives are needed due these and other older antibiotics due to the spread of resistant bacterial strains.

The researchers created dozens of variants of the molecules and identified several that enhanced antimicrobial potency with no toxicity to human cells. They hope to develop one or more of these molecules into new antibiotics, and will explore the potential for other venom toxins to be used as well. 

"The principles and approaches we used in this study can be applied more broadly to better understand the antimicrobial and immune-modulating properties of peptide molecules, and to harness that understanding to make valuable new treatments," said Dr. de la Fuente.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists are using wasp venom to create new antibiotics

Scientists at the University of Pennsylvania  School of Medicine are...

Fires are becoming more frequent and more intense in the North American boreal <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/african-forest-elephants-are-running-out-of-fruit/">forest</a>, and experts are urgently working to estimate how much carbon is being released as a result. Researchers at <a href="https://nau.edu/">Northern Arizona University</a> have found that the carbon stored in soil organic matter underground is the most important predictor of how much carbon will be released in a fire.

The study suggests that carbon emissions from fire are primarily determined by the amount of fuel available, rather than by the weather conditions. 

The team studied the diverse composition of the Western Boreal forest conditions by analyzing field data from 417 burn sites in Canada and Alaska. The research revealed that the biggest predictor of how much carbon would combust was the amount of carbon that was stored in the soils, and that soil moisture was also a good indicator of carbon release.

"In these northern forests, soil, not trees, can account for up to 90 percent of carbon emissions, so we expected that these organic soils would be a significant driver," said study  lead author Xanthe Walker. "But we were surprised that fire weather and the time of year a fire starts proved to be poor indicators of carbon combustion. It's really about the fuels that are there when a fire starts."

This discovery is particularly important considering that the Fire Weather Index, which measures weather conditions, is one of the main tools that is used to model carbon emissions in boreal forests.

"When we think of climate change and wildfires, we often instinctively think of extreme weather conditions," said study co-author Marc-André Parisien. "But our study shows that vegetation also matters - a lot! Predicting future vegetation is a tough nut to crack, but this study emphasizes the need to keep chipping away at it."

The vegetation patterns that were uncovered in the study were very complex. The researchers found that factors such as soil moisture and tree species composition interact to predict combustion amounts. For example, highly flammable black spruce was generally a predictor of carbon combustion, and the presence of this species increased with site moisture.

Climate change alters the species composition of a forest. As fires become more frequent, black spruce trees will gradually be replaced by deciduous trees and jack pine, which grow in soils that are shallow and release less carbon during fires, according to the study authors. 

"We really need to move beyond the misconception of the boreal forest as a monotonous stretch of forest," said study co-author Professor Sander Veraverbeke. "While only a few tree species occur in the boreal forest, its diversity in ecosystem structure, forest age, topography, peatland occurrence and permafrost conditions is enormous, and our paper shows that these features dictate the carbon emissions from boreal fires. The good news is that we can map aspects of this fine-scale ecosystem variation with current tools from NASA and other space agencies. Now we need to do this at the continental scale."

"We are figuring out that fire-vegetation feedbacks a lot stronger than we thought they were just a few years ago," said Parisien. "Of course, we'll never be able to manage all of vast boreal biome - nor should we want to - but this helps us know what targeted actions, such as fire management or modifying forest vegetation, we can take to limit carbon loss."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Carbon emissions from fire are controlled by soil composition

Fires are becoming more frequent and more intense in the...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/what-if-humans-are-spreading-covid-19-to-other-mammals/">Humans</a> are much more accurate in recalling the location of high calorie foods compared to those with less calories, according to a new study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>. The research suggests that human spatial memory, which allows us to remember where an object is located in relation to another object, has evolved to prioritize the location of high calorie foods.

One behavioral ecology model, the optimal foraging theory, proposes that an animal’s fitness is the direct result of the efficiency with which the individual acquires energy. This theory assumes that under the pressure of natural selection, animals hunt for higher calorie meals to maximize the rate of energy gain.

"Although this theory has been extensively referenced in relation to the foraging strategies of other animals, the question of whether humans also inherently carry adaptations geared toward energy-efficient foraging has not been thoroughly assessed to date," wrote the study authors. 

"For about 99 percent of human evolution, our ancestors were hunter-gatherers inhabiting a highly complex and variable physical food environment, where food sources varied on both spatial and temporal availabilities." 

"A cognitive adaptation that could have evolved to optimize foraging efforts within such erratic food habitats of the past is a high-calorie bias in spatial memory. Such an inbuilt spatial bias entails the automatic registration and prioritization in memory of high-calorie food locations."

The researchers said that this foraging strategy would have improved the ability of hunter-gatherers to navigate toward calorie-rich resources without competing for limited attentional capacities required in other important activities, such as avoiding predators.

To investigate, a team of researchers led by Rachelle de Vries measured food location memory among 512 volunteers. The participants were divided into two groups that were instructed to follow a fixed route around a room that contained either eight food samples or eight food-scented cotton pads placed in various locations. 

When the individuals reached a sample, they rated how much they liked it based on how it tasted or smelled. The food and odor samples included apples, potato chips, brownies, and cucumbers.

Next, the volunteers were presented with a map of the room and were asked to identify the location of each food or food odor.

The participants presented with food samples at the study site were nearly 30 percent more accurate at mapping high calorie foods and in mapping the room in general. 

While spatial memory was influenced by calorie content, it was not influenced by how much an individual liked a particular sample. Overall, the mapping of rooms was 243 percent more accurate when participants were presented with actual food samples.

The findings confirm that human spatial memory is biased towards locating high calorie foods. According to the study authors, this bias could have helped human ancestors to survive in environments with fluctuating food availability by enabling them to efficiently locate calorie-dense foods through foraging 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans more accurately recall the location of high calorie foods

Humans are much more accurate in recalling the location of...

SARS-CoV-2 can survive for up to 28 days on common <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/modifying-metal-surfaces-to-instantly-kill-viruses/">surfaces</a> such as dollar bills, mobile phones, and stainless steel, according to a new study from the Australian national science agency <a href="https://www.csiro.au/">CSIRO</a>.

To investigate the survivability of SARS-COV-2, the researchers conducted tests at the Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (ACDP) in Geelong. 

The team found that SARS-CoV-2 is more persistent at lower temperatures. The virus also remains viable for longer on non-porous, smooth surfaces like glass or stainless steel compared to porous surfaces such as cotton.

According to CSIRO Chief Executive Dr. Larry Marshall, the surface survivability study builds on the agency's other COVID-19 research, including vaccine testing, wastewater testing, and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) manufacture and accreditation.

"Establishing how long the virus really remains viable on surfaces enables us to more accurately predict and mitigate its spread, and do a better job of protecting our people," said Dr. Marshall. 

"Together, we hope this suite of solutions from science will break down the barriers between us, and shift focus to dealing with specific virus hotspots so we can get the economy back on track."

Dr. Debbie Eagles is the deputy director of ACDP, where experts have been working on a potential vaccine for the virus.

"Our results show that SARS-CoV-2 can remain infectious on surfaces for long periods of time, reinforcing the need for good practices such as regular handwashing and cleaning surfaces," said Dr. Eagles.

"At 20 degrees Celsius, which is about room temperature, we found that the virus was extremely robust, surviving for 28 days on smooth surfaces such as glass found on mobile phone screens and plastic banknotes."

"For context, similar experiments for Influenza A have found that it survived on surfaces for 17 days, which highlights just how resilient SARS-CoV-2 is."

For their investigation, the researchers dried artificial mucus containing the virus on different surfaces. The concentrations used were similar to those reported in samples from infected patients.

Experiments carried out at 30 and 40 degrees Celsius showed that SARS-COV-2 became less persistent as the temperature increased. 

"While the precise role of surface transmission, the degree of surface contact and the amount of virus required for infection is yet to be determined, establishing how long this virus remains viable on surfaces is critical for developing risk mitigation strategies in high contact areas," said Dr. Eagles.

Professor Trevor Drew, the director of ACDP, said that many viruses remained viable on surfaces outside their host.

"How long they can survive and remain infectious depends on the type of virus, quantity, the surface, environmental conditions and how it's deposited - for example touch vs droplets emitted by coughing," said Professor Drew. "Proteins and fats in body fluids can also significantly increase virus survival times."

"The research may also help to explain the apparent persistence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 in cool environments with high lipid or protein contamination, such as meat processing facilities and how we might better address that risk."

The study is published in the <a href="https://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/">Virology Journal</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The coronavirus can survive on common surfaces for weeks

SARS-CoV-2 can survive for up to 28 days on common...

In a surprising new study, researchers have discovered that the activity of individual nerve cells in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brain-fog-in-recovered-covid-19-patients-may-be-ptsd/">brain</a> reveals the amount of confidence we have as we make decisions. The experts found that the firing rate of certain brain cells increased when individuals felt the most confident in their choices.

The researchers monitored the activity of 830 different nerve cells located in the temporal lobe as volunteers chose between various foods. Study co-author Dr. Florian Mormann is a professor in the Department of Epileptology at the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/the-university">University of Bonn</a>. 

"We showed them photos of two different snacks, for example a chocolate bar and a bag of chips," said Dr. Mormann. "They were then asked to use a slider to indicate which of these alternatives they would rather eat." 

The farther the slider was moved to the left or right from its center position, the more confident a volunteer was in his or her decision. Overall, the participants judged 190 different snack pairs.

"We discovered that the frequency of the electrical pulses in some neurons, in other words their 'firing rate', changed with increasing decision confidence," explained study co-author Alexander Unruh-Pinheiro. "For instance, some fired more frequently, the more confident the respective test person was in their decision."

The study is the first to identify a correlation between brain cell activity and decision confidence. The experts noted that these particular nerve cells are located in a region of the brain involved in memory processing.

"It is possible that we not only store what decision we made, but also how confident we were in it," said Dr. Mormann. "Perhaps such a learning process saves us from future wrong decisions."

The research was initially designed to investigate an entirely different brain process that takes place during decision-making: when we make a selection, we assign a subjective value to each of the rejected options.

"There is evidence that this subjective value is also reflected in the activity of individual neurons," said Dr. Mormann. "The fact that we instead came across this connection between fire behavior and decision confidence surprised even us."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain cell activity shows how confident we are in our decisions

In a surprising new study, researchers have discovered that the...

Fossils that were recovered from a lignite mine in China indicate that monkeys existed in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-in-the-sahara-linked-to-a-megadrought-in-asia/">Asia</a> at the same time as apes 6.4 million years ago. According to an international team of researchers, the remains most likely belong to ancestors of monkeys that exist in the same region today. 

Study lead author Nina G. Jablonski is a professor of Anthropology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>.

"This is significant because they are some of the very oldest fossils of monkeys outside of Africa," said Professor Jablonski. "It is close to or actually the ancestor of many of the living monkeys of East Asia. One of the interesting things from the perspective of paleontology is that this monkey occurs at the same place and same time as ancient apes in Asia."

The fossils were linked to an extinct genus of Old World monkeys called Mesopithecus pentelicus. The team studied a jawbone and a proximal femur bone, as well as a calcaneus, or heel bone.

"The significance of the calcaneus is that it reveals the monkey was well adapted for moving nimbly and powerfully both on the ground and in the trees," said Professor Jablonski. "This locomotor versatility no doubt contributed to the success of the species in dispersing across woodland corridors from Europe to Asia."

The lower jawbone and proximal femur bone indicate that the individual was a female, explained the researchers. They theorize that M. pentelicus was probably a "jack of all trades" who was able to navigate in the trees and on land. The analysis of the teeth revealed that the monkeys could eat a wide variety of fruits and flowers.

"The thing that is fascinating about this monkey, that we know from molecular anthropology, is that, like other colobines (Old World monkeys), it had the ability to ferment cellulose," said Professor Jablonski. "It had a gut similar to that of a cow."These monkeys can eat low-quality food that is high in cellulose and obtain sufficient energy by fermenting the food and using the fatty acids that are made available from the bacteria. A similar pathway is used by other animals, including cows, goats, and deer.

"Monkeys and apes would have been eating fundamentally different things," said Professor Jablonski. "Apes eat fruits, flowers, things easy to digest, while monkeys eat leaves, seeds and even more mature leaves if they have to. Because of this different digestion, they don't need to drink free water, getting all their water from vegetation."

"These monkeys are the same as those found in Greece during the same time period. Suggesting they spread out from a center somewhere in central Europe and they did it fairly quickly. That is impressive when you think of how long it takes for an animal to disperse tens of thousands of kilometers through forest and woodlands."

While there is evidence to suggest that the species emerged in Eastern Europe and spread out from there, the researchers say the exact patterns are unknown. What they do know, however, is that the dispersal was rapid in evolutionary terms. 

At the end of the Miocene when these monkeys were leaving Eastern Europe, apes were vanishing from everywhere except in Africa and parts of Southeast Asia.

"The late Miocene was a period of dramatic environmental change," said Professor Jablonski. "What we have at this site is a fascinating snapshot of the end of the Miocene - complete with one of the last apes and one of the new order of monkeys. This is an interesting case in primate evolution because it testifies to the value of versatility and adaptability in diverse and changing environments. It shows that once a highly adaptable form sets out, it is successful and can become the ancestral stock of many other species."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-human-evolution">Journal of Human Evolution</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossils reveal that monkeys were in Asia 6.4 million years ago

Fossils that were recovered from a lignite mine in China...

Shrinking ice levels in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-region-of-east-antarctica-is-rapidly-melting/">Antarctica</a>, along with future sea level rise, have been underestimated. In a new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>, researchers found that existing models do not account for climate variability, which has a significant influence on the Antarctic ice sheet. 

"We know ice sheets are melting as global temperatures increase, but uncertainties remain about how much and how fast that will happen," said study co-author Professor Chris Forest. "Our findings shed new light on one area of uncertainty, suggesting climate variability has a significant impact on melting ice sheets and sea level rise."

Before accounting for climate variability, the experts found that models projected roughly 10.6 to 14.9 inches of sea level rise by the end of this century. When climate variability was incorporated into the models, those forecasts increased by as much as 4.3 inches. 

"That increase alone is comparable to the amount of sea level rise we have seen over the last few decades," said Professor Forest. "Every bit adds on to the storm surge, which we expect to see during hurricanes and other severe weather events, and the results can be devastating."

It requires thousands of simulations to project how the Antarctic ice sheet will evolve under future climate conditions. Scientists use the average temperature that is derived from all of those results. 

However, the process smooths out peaks caused by climate variability and reduces the average number of days above temperature thresholds that can impact the ice sheet melt, creating a bias in the results, the scientists said.

"If we include variability in the simulations, we are going to have more warm days and more sunshine, and therefore when the daily temperature gets above a certain threshold it will melt the ice," said Professor Forest. "If we're just running with average conditions, we're not seeing these extremes happening on yearly or decadal timescales."

To study the effects of climate variability, the scientists incorporated relevant atmospheric and oceanic data into a three-dimensional Antarctic ice sheet model. The analysis showed that atmospheric variations had a great impact on the ice sheet with immediate effects. Variability in ocean temperatures were found to have a smaller, yet significant, impact. 

The results of previous studies suggest that warming oceans could cause large chunks to break away, exposing massive ice cliffs that would collapse under their own weight.

According to the experts, model simulations which did not include the effects of climate variability delayed the retreat of the ice sheet by up to 20 years and underestimated future sea level rise.

"This additional ice melt will impact the hurricane storm surges across the globe. Additionally, for years, the IPCC reports have been looking at sea level rise without considering this additional variability and have been underestimating what the impact may be," said Professor Forest. "It's important to better understand these processes contributing to the additional ice loss because the ice sheets are melting much faster than we expected."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/382">Climate Dynamics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antarctica is melting faster than models predict due to climate variability

Shrinking ice levels in Antarctica, along with future sea level...

Moderate-intensity exercise is just as effective in boosting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/our-immune-system-may-protect-us-from-mental-health-issues/">health</a> and longevity as vigorous-intensity exercise, according to a new study published by <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">BMJ</a>. The researchers confirmed that exercise lowers the risk of premature death among older adults, and they found that the intensity of physical activity made no difference in the outcomes.

"The physical activity guidelines state that being physically active is one of the most important measures individuals of all ages can take to improve their health," wrote the study authors. "The multiple benefits of exercise on physical function and physical performance are well known, and short term randomized controlled trials have shown that exercise training improves traditional risk factors for lifestyle related diseases and premature death." 

"In line with this, observational studies suggest that exercise has a statistically significant preventive effect on premature all cause mortality, with active individuals showing up to a 72% lower risk of premature mortality from all causes compared with inactive individuals."

However, there is a lack of high quality evidence to confirm a causal link between current advice on physical activity levels and longevity. 

"In a general population of older adults aged 70-77 years in Norway, we tested the primary hypothesis that systematic exercise training lowers all cause mortality compared with giving advice to follow the national guidelines for physical activity. We also examined an exploratory hypothesis that high intensity interval training lowers mortality more than moderate intensity continuous training."

The research was focused on 1,567 participants with an average age of 73 years. In total, 87.5 percent of participants reported overall good health, while 80 percent reported medium to high levels of physical activity at the start of the trial.

For five years, the individuals were engaged in one of three groups involving two weekly sessions of either: high intensity interval training (HIIT), moderate intensity continuous training (MICT), or following the Norwegian guidelines for physical activity.

Five years into the study, 72 participants had died with an overall mortality rate of 4.6 percent. The researchers found no difference in premature death from any cause between the control group participants and those who engaged in moderate or vigorous activity. In addition, no differences were found in the rate of cardiovascular disease or cancer between the three groups.

"All cause mortality did not differ between the combined high and moderate intensity exercise group and the group following recommended physical activity guidelines," wrote the study authors. At the same time, the study showed that high intensity exercise led to greater health benefits overall. 

"The findings suggest that future guidelines for physical activity, at least for older adults, should be more specific in requiring that at least part of the physical activity should be performed at high intensity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise boosts health and lifespan regardless of intensity

Moderate-intensity exercise is just as effective in boosting health and...

Musical training can improve attention and working <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/writing-by-hand-boosts-learning-and-memory/">memory</a> in children, as well as their overall quality of life, according to a new study led by Dr. Leonie Kausel. The researchers found that musically trained children have greater activation in brain regions related to attention control and auditory encoding, and greater executive skills associated with reading, resilience, and creativity.

Dr. Kausel is a violinist and neuroscientist at the <a href="https://www.uc.cl/en">Pontifical Catholic University of Chile</a> and the Universidad del Desarrollo Chile. Her team tested attention and working memory among 40 children between 10 and 13 years old. Half of the children had been trained to play an instrument for at least two years, while the other half had no musical training.

As the study participants performed an attention and working memory task, their brain activity was monitored with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which detects small changes in blood flow within the brain. 

"Our most important finding is that two different mechanisms seem to underlie the better performance of musically trained children in the attention and WM memory task," said Dr. Kausel. "One that supports more domain-general attention mechanisms and another that supports more domain-specific auditory encoding mechanisms."

The "domain" refers to how sensory information such as heat, sound, or light is encoded by the brain, while the "mechanisms" are the neurochemical processes that occur.

Brain regions that were found to be more active in musically trained children include the inferior frontal gyrus and the supramarginal gyrus in the front and center-front of the brain, which are both part of a working memory system involved in auditory processing, establishing auditory-motor connections, and verbal auditory working memory. 

"The next step of the project is to establish the causality of the mechanisms we found for improving attention and working memory," said Dr. Kausel. "We also aim to make a longitudinal study on musical training with children, evaluating attention and working memory, and the possibility to evaluate a musical training intervention on ADHD children."

Dr. Kausel recommends signing children up for music classes, but not simply for the purpose of improving their memory and attention skills. "I think parents should not only enroll their children because they expect that this will help them boost their cognitive functions, but because it is also an activity that, even when very demanding, will provide them with joy and the possibility to learn a universal language."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience">Frontiers in Neuroscience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Musically training children have improved attention and memory skills

Musical training can improve attention and working memory in children,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...