Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.psychologicalscience.org/">Association for Psychological Science</a>, researchers found that a positive affect is linked to a lower risk of age-related <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/musically-training-children-have-improved-attention-and-memory-skills/">memory</a> decline. 

The extent to which an individual experiences enthusiasm, joy, happiness, and excitement - referred to as positive affectivity - has an influence on how well information is retained throughout life.

The research adds to a growing collection of evidence that positive affectivity contributes to healthier aging. Previous studies have suggested that a positive outlook can lead many desirable life outcomes, such as more marital satisfaction, improved well-being, greater cognitive performance, and the delayed onset of disease.

The study was focused on data from nearly 1,000 middle-aged and older adults who participated in a national study that was conducted over the course of a decade in three phases: between 1995 and 1996, 2004 and 2006, and 2013 and 2014.

For each trial, the participants reported on a range of positive emotions they had experienced over the past 30 days. During the final two assessments, participants were also tested for memory performance. The tests involved recalling words immediately after they were presented and then again 15 minutes later.

The researchers examined the association between positive affect and memory decline, while accounting for additional factors such as age, gender, education, depression, negative affect, and extraversion.

Study senior author Professor Claudia Haase said that the findings confirmed that memory did, in fact, decline with age among the study participants.

"However, individuals with higher levels of positive affect had a less steep memory decline over the course of almost a decade," added study last author Emily Hittner.

According to the researchers, further studies are needed to understand the pathways that may connect positive affect and memory, such as physical health or social interactions.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/pss">Psychological Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Positive affect linked to less memory decline

In a new study from the Association for Psychological Science,...

Scientists have discovered that ogre-faced spiders can actually hear their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/top-predators-face-the-most-imminent-threat-from-habitat-loss/">predators</a> and prey, despite the fact that they have no ears. In a study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, the experts report that these spiders use hairs and receptors on their legs to detect sounds from at least two meters away. 

Ogre-faced spiders are named after their huge eyes that give them remarkable night vision for seeking out prey. The spiders dangle from Florida palm fronds, waiting to cast silk nets on insects.

The findings suggest that the big-eyed spiders can hear low-frequency sounds from insect prey as well as higher frequency sounds from bird predators.

Study senior author Ron Hoy is a professor of Neurobiology and Behavior at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.

"I think many spiders can actually hear, but everybody takes it for granted that spiders have a sticky web to catch prey, so they're only good at detecting close vibrations," said Professor Hoy. "Vibration detection works for sensing shaking of the web or ground, but detecting those airborne disturbances at a distance is the province of hearing, which is what we do and what spiders do too, but they do it with specialized receptors, not eardrums."

After hiding out during the daylight hours, ogre-faced spiders prepare to use their webs as a weapon at night. Instead of passively waiting for prey to get stuck, the spiders dangle out of the trees and throw their web over insects like a net. 

These stealthy spiders use their night vision to catch insects on the ground, but they also catch insects in the air with a skillful backwards strike. 

"In a previous study, I actually put dental silicone over their eyes so they couldn't see," said study first author Jay Stafstrom. "And I found that when I put them back out into nature, they couldn't catch prey from off the ground, but they could still catch insects from out of the air. So I was pretty sure these spiders were using a different sensory system to hunt flying insects."

The current study confirmed that ogre-faced spiders have an incredible audible range. The researchers measured the neural response of the spiders as they were exposed to different tones. The experiment revealed that they could detect sounds of up to 10 kHz in frequency, which is far higher than the sounds of a walking or flying insect.

"When I played low tone frequencies, even from a distance, they would strike like they were hunting an insect, which they don't do for higher frequencies," said Stafstrom. "And the fact that we were able to do that from a distance, knowing we're not getting up close and causing them to vibrate. That was key to knowing they can really hear."

Detecting higher frequencies may help the spiders stay alert when hiding out from birds and other predators.

"If you give an animal a threatening stimulus, we all know about the fight or flight response. Invertebrates have that too, but the other 'f' is 'freeze.' That's what these spiders do," said Professor Hoy. "They're in a cryptic posture. Their nervous system is in a sleep state. But as soon as they pick up any kind of salient stimulus, boom, that turns on the neuromuscular system. It's a selective attention system."

Next, the researchers plan to investigate whether ogre-faced spiders can tell which direction sounds are coming from. If they can hear directionally, this could help explain how they pull off their impressive backwards strike.

"What I found really amazing is that to cast their net at flying bugs they have to do a half backflip and spread their web at the same time, so they're essentially playing centerfield," said Professor Hoy. "Directional hearing is a big deal in any animal, but I think there are really going to be some interesting surprises from this spider."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ogre-faced spiders may not have ears, but they can hear

Scientists have discovered that ogre-faced spiders can actually hear their...

Experts at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> have designed a multi-drone imaging system that uses a unique route planning algorithm to autonomously survey <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-11-new-emperor-penguin-colonies/">penguin</a> colonies. Test flights in Antarctica have produced detailed surveys of approximately 300,000 nesting pairs of Adélie penguins at Cape Crozier and a smaller colony of about 3,000 nesting pairs at Cape Royds. 

While previous drone surveys of the Cape Crozier colony took two days, the new system completed each survey of the colony in about 2.5 hours. Study senior author Mac Schwager is an assistant professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics. The idea of the multi-drone system was first conceived by Professor Schwager after a chance encounter with Annie Schmidt, a biologist at Point Blue Conservation Science, who was seeking a better way to image a large penguin colony in Antarctica.

"Just moving all of that equipment down to a remote site and being able to prepare it, field it and deploy it with nothing other than tents and a small warming hut at your disposal, that's really phenomenal," said Professor Schwager. "It really goes to show how practical autonomous robotic systems can be in remote environments."

Aerial surveys of penguin colonies have been conducted using helicopters, but they can be expensive and disruptive to the animals. Single-drone surveys have been challenging as well, mainly because they are time-consuming.

For the multi-drone system, Stanford researchers developed a route planning algorithm that coordinates two to four autonomous drones and prioritizes efficient coverage of the colony.

"The process was quick. What had been just the algorithm's squiggles on a screen the day before turned into a massive image of all the penguins in the colonies," said study lead author Kunal Shah. "We could see people walking around the colonies and all the individual birds that were nesting and coming to and from the ocean. It was incredible."

The researchers hope their multi-drone system brings attention to the incredible potential of autonomous robots and systems. They plan to explore additional uses for the new technology, such as traffic monitoring and tracking wildfires.

"Humans could never leap into the sky and count 300,000 penguins or track a forest fire," said Professor Schwager. "I think that teams of autonomous robots can really be powerful in helping us manage our changing world, our changing environment, at a scale that we never could before."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://robotics.sciencemag.org/">Science Robotics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Multi-drone system uses a unique algorithm to survey penguin colonies

Experts at Stanford University have designed a multi-drone imaging system...

In 2018, a fireball meteor that appeared in the sky over the Midwest landed on a frozen <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meltwater-lakes-cause-glaciers-to-retreat-much-more-rapidly/">lake</a> in Michigan and was quickly recovered. The meteorite is not only providing scientists with a look at what space rocks are like when they are still in outer space, but also contains pristine extraterrestrial organic compounds that could hold secrets about the origins of life.

Study lead author Philipp Heck is a curator at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and a professor in the  Department of Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago.

"This meteorite is special because it fell onto a frozen lake and was recovered quickly. It was very pristine. We could see the minerals weren't much altered and later found that it contained a rich inventory of extraterrestrial organic compounds," said Professor Heck.

"These kinds of organic compounds were likely delivered to the early Earth by meteorites and might have contributed to the ingredients of life."

Scientists used NASA's weather radar to locate the pieces of the meteorite that fell onto the lake. The experts were able to collect the rocks before their chemical makeup was altered by exposure to liquid water. 

"Weather radar is meant to detect hail and rain," said Professor Heck. "These pieces of meteorite fell into that size range, and so weather radar helped show the position and velocity of the meteorite. That meant that we were able to find it very quickly."

Less than two days after the landing, meteorite hunter Robert Ward found the first piece of the space rock on the frozen surface of Strawberry Lake. The meteorite was then donated to the Field Museum, where Professor Heck and graduate student Jennika Greer were waiting.

"When the meteorite arrived at the Field, I spent the entire weekend analyzing it, because I was so excited to find out what kind of meteorite it was and what was in it," said Greer. "With every meteorite that falls, there's a chance that there's something completely new and totally unexpected."

The team quickly determined that the meteorite was an H4 chondrite, which only makes up four percent of all meteorites that fall to Earth. The most exceptional thing about this meteorite, however, is how quickly it was collected for analysis. 

"This meteorite shows a high diversity of organics, in that if somebody was interested in studying organics, this is not normally the type of meteorite that they would ask to look at," said Greer. "But because there was so much excitement surrounding it, everybody wanted to apply their own technique to it, so we have an unusually comprehensive set of data for a single meteorite."

It is believed that the organic compounds which gave rise to life on Earth may have hitched a ride to our planet on meteorites.

"Scientists who study meteorites and space sometimes get asked, do you ever see signs of life? And I always answer, yes, every meteorite is full of life, but terrestrial, Earth life," said Professor Heck. "As soon as the thing lands, it gets covered with microbes and life from Earth. We have meteorites with lichens growing on them. So the fact that this meteorite was collected so quickly after it fell, and that it landed on ice rather than in the dirt, helped keep it cleaner."

"This study is a demonstration of how we can work with specialists around the world to get most out of the small piece of raw, precious piece of rock. When a new meteorite falls onto a frozen lake, maybe even sometime this winter, we'll be ready. And that next fall might be something we have never seen before."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19455100">Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fireball meteor that fell to Earth contains extraterrestrial organic compounds

In 2018, a fireball meteor that appeared in the sky...

In a new article, Professor Shelie Miller of the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> has set out to debunk five common myths about the environmental impacts of single-use plastics. One the most common misperceptions is that the packaging itself is the main problem, but it is actually the product that is inside.

When it comes to single-use plastics, the production and disposal of packaging often represents only a few percent of a product's lifetime environmental impacts, according to Professor Miller.

"Consumers tend to focus on the impact of the packaging, rather than the impact of the product itself. But mindful consumption that reduces the need for products and eliminates wastefulness is far more effective at reducing overall environmental impact than recycling."

"Nevertheless, it is fundamentally easier for consumers to recycle the packaging of a product than to voluntarily reduce their demand for that product, which is likely one reason why recycling efforts are so popular."

Professor Miller is addressing five common myths about single-use plastics. These misperceptions, along with Professor Miller's insights, include:

Plastic packaging is the largest contributor to a product's environmental impact. In reality, the product inside the package usually has a much greater environmental impact.

The environmental impacts of plastics are greater than any other packaging material. Actually, plastic generally has lower overall environmental impacts than single-use glass or metal in most impact categories.

Reusable products are always better than single-use plastics. Actually, reusable products have lower environmental impacts only when they are reused enough times to offset the materials and energy used to make them.

Recycling and composting should be the highest priority. Truth be told, the environmental benefits associated with recycling and composting tend to be small when compared with efforts to reduce overall consumption.

"Zero waste" efforts that eliminate single-use plastics minimize the environmental impacts of an event. In reality, the benefits of diverting waste from the landfill are small. Waste reduction and mindful consumption, including a careful consideration of the types and quantities of products consumed, are far larger factors dictating the environmental impact of an event.

Professor Miller challenges beliefs that are not supported by scientific evidence while urging other environmental scientists and engineers to broaden the conversation.

"Efforts to reduce the use of single-use plastics and to increase recycling may distract from less visible and often more damaging environmental impacts associated with energy use, manufacturing and resource extraction. We need to take a much more holistic view that considers larger environmental issues."

Professor Miller says that in order to place the plastic-waste problem in proper context, it is critical to examine the environmental impacts that occur at every stage of a product's lifetime. At the same time, she emphasizes that she is not trying to downplay environmental concerns associated with plastics and plastic waste.

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool that researchers can use to estimate lifetime environmental impacts in multiple categories, such as climate change and energy use, biodiversity loss, and water and resource depletion.

It is easy for consumers to focus on packaging waste because they see it every day yet other environmental impacts are largely invisible to them, but LCA measures impacts that may otherwise be overlooked, explains Professor Miller.

"Although the use of single-use plastics has created a number of environmental problems that need to be addressed, there are also numerous upstream consequences of a consumer-oriented society that will not be eliminated, even if plastic waste is drastically reduced."

"The resource extraction, manufacturing and use phases generally dominate the environmental impacts of most products. So, reduction in materials consumption is always preferable to recycling, since the need for additional production is eliminated."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The biggest environmental impacts of single-use plastics are largely overlooked

In a new article, Professor Shelie Miller of the University...

Air pollution increases the risk of developing neurological disorders like dementia, according to a new study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a>. The study reveals that prolonged exposure to fine particulate matter pollution (PM2.5), even at levels that are considered "safe," is associated with a higher risk of first-time hospital admission for Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and other types of dementia.

In collaboration with experts at Emory and Columbia University, the researchers conducted the first nationwide investigation into the link between neurodegenerative diseases and PM2.5 pollution in the United States. The long-term, comprehensive study was focused on more than 63 million older adults.

"The 2020 report of the Lancet Commission on dementia prevention, intervention, and care has added air pollution as one of the modifiable risk factors for these outcomes," said study co-lead author Xiao Wu. 

"Our study builds on the small but emerging evidence base indicating that long-term PM2.5 exposures are linked to an increased risk of neurological health deterioration, even at PM2.5 concentrations well below the current national standards."

The researchers analyzed 17 years of hospital admissions data from 63,038,019 Medicare recipients and linked the cases with estimated PM2.5 concentrations by zip code. 

The experts determined that for each increase in annual PM2.5 concentrations of 5 micrograms per cubic meter of air (μg/m3), there was a 13-percent greater risk of first-time hospitalization for Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and related dementias. The risk of hospitalization for dementia was found to remain elevated at PM2.5 levels that are considered by EPA standards to be safe for human exposure.

The study showed that the link was most pronounced among urban populations, women, and Caucasians. For first-time Parkinson's disease hospital admissions, the risk was highest in the northeastern United States, while the risk for first-time Alzheimer's disease was highest among older adults in the Midwest.

"Our U.S.-wide study shows that the current standards are not protecting the aging American population enough, highlighting the need for stricter standards and policies that help further reduce PM2.5 concentrations and improve air quality overall," said study co-senior author Antonella Zanobetti

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/home">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exposure to air pollution linked to higher risk of dementia

Air pollution increases the risk of developing neurological disorders like...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> have pinpointed the ideal balance of daily activities for optimal bone health in children. The study shows that children typically need more sleep, more physical activity, and less sedentary time to build strong bones. 

"Children's activities throughout the whole 24-hour day are important for their bone health, but until now, we haven't known the perfect combination of exercise, sleep and sedentary time," explained study lead researcher Dr. Dot Dumuid.

"Higher levels of physical activity are known to be good for children's bone health, yet we can't just increase children's exercise without impacting their other activities."

"In this study, we looked at the interrelating factors of physical activity (both light, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity), sedentary time and sleep, finding an ideal combination that delivers the best daily balance."

To identify the "Goldilocks Day" for bone health and function, the researchers focused on 804 children between the ages of 11 and 13. The participants were selected from the Child Health CheckPoint study, which collected exercise data from activity trackers, bone measurements from QCT scans, and self-reported information on sleep duration. 

According to the analysis, the perfect day for children's bone health includes: 1.5 hours of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, such as running or engaging in sports; 3.4 hours of light physical activity like cleaning or walking; 8.2 hours of sedentary time, such as reading or sitting in class; and 10.9 hours of sleep.

"The 'Goldilocks Day' tells us the durations of physical activity, sleep and sitting that are 'just right' for children's optimal bone health," said Dr. Dumuid. "Up to 90 percent of peak bone mass is achieved by age 18-20, which makes this especially important during childhood and adolescence."

"Optimizing bone health in children is a key protector against osteoporosis, the leading preventable cause of fracture in adults and a major public health problem with considerable economic and societal costs."

In Australia alone, 1.2 million people suffer from osteoporosis and 6.3 million people have low bone density. Dr. Dumuid said the current research also emphasizes the importance of sleep for bone health, especially among boys.

"We always talk about getting enough exercise to help build bones, but for children, it's vital that they also get enough sleep," said Dr. Dumuid. "Curiously, the study also showed that sleep is more important for boys' bone health than for girls, with boys needing an extra 2.4 hours of sleep a day. However, boys tended to be at earlier stages of pubertal development than girls, causing us to speculate that the need for longer sleep is related to rapidly changing hormonal processes rather than gender.

"By knowing the best balances and interrelations of sleep, exercise and rest, parents and caregivers can guide their child's daily activities to put them in good stead for future bone health."

The study is published in the <a href="https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15234681">Journal of Bone and Mineral Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sleep and physical activity can optimize bone health in children

Scientists at the University of South Australia have pinpointed the...

A new study from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> describes how the overall dynamics of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-have-core-relationships-with-certain-bacteria-and-fungi/">relationships</a> could be changed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The experts predict that the psychological fallout from the pandemic will affect families, work lives, relationships, and gender roles for years.

A team of 12 leading scientists analyzed 90 research studies to evaluate the potential social consequences of COVID-19.

According to senior author Professor Martie Haselton, marriages will be postponed, birth rates will drop, and planned pregnancies will decrease in the post-pandemic world. She said that people who are single will be less likely to start new relationships, and women who can afford to be independent will stay single longer.

Unlike many past crises, this pandemic is not bringing people closer together, noted study lead author Benjamin Seitz. Despite some exceptions, it is not producing an increase in kindness, empathy or compassion, especially in the United States, said Seitz. 

Professor Haselton explained that with children home due to the pandemic, women are spending more time providing care and schooling and are less available for paying work. This means that many women will have to rely more on male partners as breadwinners, and society could shift back toward socially conservative gender norms.

"The psychological, social and societal consequences of COVID-19 will be very long-lasting," said Professor Haselton. "The longer COVID-19 continues, the more entrenched these changes are likely to be."

As marriage rates drop and pregnancy is postponed, the populations of some nations will shrink and fall precipitously below "replacement level," wrote the researchers. Lower birth rates have cascading effects of their own, such as slowing economic growth and affecting job opportunities.

Studies have shown that women were more stressed by work and family responsibilities even before the pandemic, whereas now they have been forced to take over new jobs related to child care and education. In medicine and other sciences, women scholars are already publishing substantially less research than they did a year ago, while men are showing increased productivity, said Professor Haselton.

The study authors predict a shift toward social conservatism in the months and years to come. They refer to the pandemic as a "worldwide social experiment" that exploits our weaknesses by infecting us through contact with people we love who seem to be healthy. 

"Our social features that define much of what it is to be human make us a prime target for viral exploitation," said Professor Haselton. "Policies asking us to isolate and distance profoundly affect our families, work lives, relationships and gender roles."

Viruses and other infectious agents must evolve to better manipulate their hosts so they can survive and continue to spread. In this case, SARS-CoV-2 may be altering human neural tissue to change our behavior, the researchers explained. The virus appears to be suppressing feelings of sickness, and perhaps even enhancing our social impulses, during times of peak transmissibility before symptoms appear. 

According to the experts, we must gain a clearer understanding of how SARS-CoV-2 is enhancing its own transmission through behavioral and psychological impacts in an effort to make the virus less harmful and less lethal.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic will alter families and relationships for years to come

A new study from UCLA describes how the overall dynamics...

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-that-eat-human-foods-are-altering-their-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> of the Falkland Islands were transformed by seabirds thousands of years ago. Researchers at the <a href="https://umaine.edu/">University of Maine</a> explain that high concentrations of seabird poop, or guano, increased nutrient availability that nourished the land and soil.

Today, the Falkland Islands remain a sanctuary for many important seabirds, including five species of penguins. However, the coastal breeding grounds have come under increasing pressure from sheep grazing and erosion in recent years. In addition, there are no long-term observations available to understand how the ground nesting seabirds will respond to climate change.

By reconstructing the paleoecological history of the islands, the researchers determined that the birds initially colonized the region 5,000 years ago during a period of cooling climate conditions. The fact that seabirds were absent in the islands before this time suggests that they may be sensitive to warmer sea surface temperatures, which can impact their food supply, explained the study authors. As the South Atlantic warms today, it is possible that the Falkland Islands may not remain a hotspot for breeding seabirds. 

"Our work suggests that as the Southern Ocean continues to warm in the coming decades, the Falkland Islands seabird communities may undergo abrupt turnover or collapse, which could happen on the order of decades," wrote the researchers. They noted that the Falkland Islands are at the boundary of a number of potential climate drivers.

There are no native mammals or trees in the Falklands, and sheep were brought to the islands by settlers in the 17th century. The locals currently make a living from sheep farming, fishing, and tourism.

The 14,000-year record developed by the researchers showed that for 9,000 years before the arrival of seabirds, the East Falklands were dominated by low levels of grasses, a heathland of ferns, and dwarf Ericaceous shrubs. But then, around 5,000 years ago, the region was transformed by elements such as phosphorus, zinc, and grass pollen that were deposited by the seabirds. The analysis of the record indicates that within 200 years of seabird colonization, tussac grasslands became established.

Study lead author Dulcinea Groff conducted the research during expeditions in 2014 and 2016 that were led by Jacquelyn Gill, an associate professor of Paleoecology and Plant Ecology in the UMaine Climate Change Institute.

"Our work emphasizes just how important the nutrients in seabird poop are for the ongoing efforts to restore and conserve their grassland habitats. It also raises the question about where seabirds will go as the climate continues to warm," said Groff.

"Our 14,000-year record shows that seabirds established at Surf Bay during cooler climates. Seabird conservation efforts in the South Atlantic should be prepared for these species to move to new breeding grounds in a warmer world, and those locations may not be protected."

According to the researchers, it is clear that the addition of seabird populations bringing nutrients from the marine environment to the island drove changes in the terrestrial plant community structure, composition, and function, as well as in fire activity and nutrient cycling. What remains unclear is what drove the abrupt ecosystem shift, said Professor Gill.

"We know seabirds arrived at Surf Bay during a time when the climate was becoming cooler in the South Atlantic, though we still don't know for sure what it was they were tracking. We also don't know where these birds took refuge when climates were warmer, and that's concerning as the South Atlantic gets hotter into the future," explained Professor Gill.

"Our study is also a powerful reminder of why we need to understand how different ecosystems are connected as the world warms. We know that many seabirds in the South Atlantic rely on these unique coastal grasslands, but it turns out that the grasses also depend on the nutrients seabirds provide. Because they rely on ecosystems in the ocean and on land for their survival, seabirds are really good sentinels of global change."

"We just don't have good long-term monitoring data for most of these species, so we don't know enough about how sensitive they are to climate change. The fossil record can help us fill in the gaps."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a> 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nutrients in seabird poop transformed the Falkland Islands

The ecosystems of the Falkland Islands were transformed by seabirds...

Language is one of the most powerful tools that we have available as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-instability-drove-early-humans-to-become-adaptable/">humans</a>, yet there is still much that is unknown about why and when this complex form of communication evolved. 

A study led by the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/">University of Warwick</a> has produced new clues to help solve this mystery by tracing the capacity for language all the way back to the last common ancestor of monkeys, apes, and humans 30 to 40 million years ago.

The scientists found that apes and monkeys can track relationships between sounds the same way as humans, which means that this ability predates the evolution of language itself.

Language is based on the ability to understand combinations of words and the relationships between them. To process language, for example, humans pick up on the correlation between words in a sentence. This includes words that are next to each other, which is known as an 'adjacent dependency, or words that are distant from each other, known as a "non-adjacent dependency."

"Most animals do not produce non-adjacent dependencies in their own natural communication systems, but we wanted to know whether they might nevertheless be able to understand them," said Dr. Stuart Watson.

The study was focused on experiments that tested the ability of marmosets, chimpanzees, and humans to recognize non-adjacent dependencies among sequences of meaningless tones, which were used instead of words. This made it possible to compare the ability to recognize non-contiguous dependencies between three different primate species, even though they do not share a common language.

The study revealed that all three species could reliably process the relationships between both adjacent and non-adjacent sound elements. This indicates that non-adjacent dependency processing is widespread in the primate family.

The implications of this finding are significant, said Professor Simon Townsend. "This indicates that this critical feature of language already existed in our ancient primate ancestors, predating the evolution of language itself by at least 30 - 40 million years."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The foundation of language evolved 30 to 40 million years ago

Language is one of the most powerful tools that we...

In late February, Dr. Stephen Smith of the <a href="https://www.seattlechildrens.org/research/">Seattle Children's Research Institute</a> suspected that he had been infected by the coronavirus. Since his symptoms did not qualify for COVID-19 testing at that time, Dr. Smith set out to create a method for testing himself. The results of his work are now being translated into a new technique of testing for the presence of neutralizing antibodies that could provide individuals with COVID-19 immunity. 

"If you think you've had COVID-19 and go to the doctor, they can test your blood and tell you whether or not you have antibodies to COVID-19, but that doesn't tell you whether your antibodies are any good at functionally blocking the virus from binding to cells," said Dr. Smith. "There are tests on the market now that can tell you that, but they are expensive and take a long time to get results. We wanted to develop a way to give you additional information about your immune status without all the barriers that make it difficult to use in a community setting."

SARS-CoV-2 invades the body by binding its spike protein to specific receptors on the surface of human cells. Antibodies that block this binding are believed to provide immunity in people who have recovered from COVID-19 infection.

Dr. Smith used a technique called immunoprecipitation detected by flow cytometry (IP-FCM) to look for evidence that antibodies could block the virus from binding to cells. While current blood testing relies on live cells and viruses, IP-FCM uses proteins developed in the lab.

"Other tests that provide insight into immunity work by taking antibodies from your blood and mixing them together with a virus and then exposing that mixture to live cells. Three days later they can determine immunity based on whether your blood prevented the viruses from infecting the cells or not," said Dr. Smith. "Our cell-free test can provide that same information overnight."

Dr. Lisa Frenkel and Dr. Whitney Harrington from the Center for Global Infectious Global Disease Research are following a community cohort of Seattle Children's employees who have recovered from mild to moderate COVID-19 without being hospitalized. Dr. Smith is collaborating with the researchers to investigate immune responses to SARS-CoV-2.

Using IP-FCM, Dr. Smith tested blood samples from 24 cohort participants. The analysis revealed that 92 percent of the participants had developed COVID-19 antibodies about a month after they were infected. 

"Not only did the participants have antibodies, but our test also showed that their antibodies were pretty effective at neutralizing the binding between the spike protein and the cell's receptor," said Dr. Smith. "It's consistent with other studies from cell-based tests showing that people who get COVID do make neutralizing antibodies."

The researchers also discovered that individuals who developed a fever during COVID-19 infection had higher levels of antibodies. 

"It's going to be very important to look at people over a longer time period to track their antibody levels and whether or not they get re-infected," said Dr. Smith. "Until we do those studies, we really don't know how these clinical measures of antibody neutralization relate to susceptibility in the real world."

The team is now using Dr. Smith's testing technique to screen thousands of approved drugs that could potentially block the spike protein from binding with human cells.

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jid">Journal of Infectious Diseases</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New technique can be used to test for COVID-19 immunity

In late February, Dr. Stephen Smith of the Seattle Children's...

Is it really possible to improve strength in one of your arms without moving it? The answer is yes, according to a surprising new study from <a href="https://www.ecu.edu.au/">Edith Cowan University</a> (ECU). The researchers found that training one arm can increase strength in the other while also minimizing muscle loss. 

The findings could ultimately help to address injury-related muscle weakness by simply using eccentric training on the opposing arm. Eccentric exercises lengthen muscles during contraction, just like what happens when you walk down stairs or lower a dumbbell using your bicep.

In previous studies, experts have determined that eccentric exercises are more effective at growing muscle than concentric exercises, which shorten muscles as they are contracting.

Study co-author Professor Ken Nosaka said that the findings challenge conventional rehabilitation methods and could improve outcomes for post-injury and stroke patients.

"I think this could change the way we approach rehabilitation for people who have temporarily lost the use of one arm or one leg," said Professor Nosaka."By starting rehab and exercise in the uninjured limb right away, we can prevent muscle damage induced by exercise in the other limb and also build strength without moving it at all."

The study was focused on 30 participants who had one arm immobilized for a minimum of eight hours a day for four weeks. The individuals were divided into three groups who either performed a mix of eccentric and concentric exercise, performed only eccentric exercise, or did not exercise at all.

According to Professor Nosaka, the group who used a heavy dumbbell to perform only eccentric exercise on their active arm showed an increase in strength and a decrease in muscle atrophy, or wastage, in their immobilized arm.

"Participants who did eccentric exercise had the biggest increase in strength in both arms, so it has a very powerful cross-transfer effect," explained Professor Nosaka. 

"This group also had just two percent muscle wastage in their immobilised arm, compared with those who did no exercise who had a 28 per cent loss of muscle.

"This means that for those people who do not exercise, they have to regain all that muscle and strength again."

Professor Nosaka pointed out that this type of training is useful for athletes who can begin post-injury recovery sooner. Next, he plans to continue this investigation by expanding the research into other arm muscles and movements.

"In this study we focused on the elbow flexors as this muscle is often used as a model to examine the effects of immobilisation on strength and size, and of course it is an important muscle for arm movement," said Professor Nosaka.

"In the future, we hope to look at how eccentric exercise can help improve motor function, movement and fine muscle control, which is particularly important for stroke and rehabilitation patients."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/16000838">Scandinavian Journal of Medicine &amp; Science in Sports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

You can gain strength in your arm without even moving it

Is it really possible to improve strength in one of...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...