Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> is providing brand new insight into how the brain is protected from bacteria and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/releasing-a-virus-is-not-the-solution-to-australias-invasive-carp-problem/">viruses</a>. The researchers were surprised to find that the brain's first line of defense are antibodies that originate in the gut. 

While it was known that the brain is uniquely shielded from harmful microbes, the underlying defense mechanism had remained a mystery. The skull, along with three watertight membranes that line it, evolved to prevent physical damage to the brain. The membranes, known as meninges, form a powerful barrier that keeps immune cells in the bloodstream from reaching the brain. In the rest of the body, immune cells and antibodies are unleashed to attack invading viruses.

The Cambridge team has discovered that meninges have their own immune cells known as plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. The cells are strategically located next to large blood vessels that run through the meninges, which allows them to release antibodies that protect the perimeter of the brain. 

When the researchers analyzed the specific antibody secreted by the plasma cells in the meninges, they were surprised or was a specific type of antibody that was normally found in the intestine.

Normally, the antibodies found in the blood are a type which are produced in the spleen and bone marrow called Immunoglobulin G (IgG), which protect the inside of the body. However, the antibodies found in the meninges were Immunoglobulin A (IgA). This type of antibody is made in the gut lining and in the lining of the nose or lungs to protect the surfaces that interact with the outside environment.

The experts sequenced the antibody genes in plasma cells in the gut and meninges and showed that they were related. The team concluded that the cells that end up in the meninges are those that have been selectively expanded in the gut, where they have recognized particular pathogens.

"The exact way in which the brain protects itself from infection, beyond the physical barrier of the meninges, has been something of a mystery, but to find that an important line of defence starts in the gut was quite a surprise," said Professor Menna Clatworthy.

"But actually, it makes perfect sense: even a minor breach of the intestinal barrier will allow bugs to enter the bloodstream, with devastating consequences if they're able to spread into the brain. Seeding the meninges with antibody-producing cells that are selected to recognize gut microbes ensures defende against the most likely invaders."

The study was based on a mouse model, but the experts confirmed the presence of IgA cells in the human meninges by analyzing samples that were removed during surgery. The findings suggest that this defense system is critical for protecting humans from infections of the central nervous system.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How the gut protects the brain from infection

A new study from the University of Cambridge is providing...

A naturally occurring psychedelic compound that is found in more than 200 species of fungus, including magic mushrooms, may be a powerful new weapon against <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meditation-and-yoga-reduce-chronic-pain-and-depression/">depression</a>. Experts at <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/">Johns Hopkins Medicine</a> found that two doses of psilocybin combined with supportive psychotherapy provided rapid and extensive relief for patients suffering from major depression. 

Psilocybin causes hallucinations and a profoundly altered state of consciousness for several hours after ingestion. In 2016, researchers at Johns Hopkins reported that supervised psilocybin treatment substantially reduced anxiety and depression among patients with a life-threatening cancer diagnosis.

The results of the current study indicate that psilocybin may be effective for a much broader range of patients than what was previously realized.

"The magnitude of the effect we saw was about four times larger than what clinical trials have shown for traditional antidepressants on the market," said study co-author Dr. Alan Davis. "Because most other depression treatments take weeks or months to work and may have undesirable effects, this could be a game changer if these findings hold up in future 'gold-standard' placebo-controlled clinical trials." 

The investigation was focused on 24 participants who had a history of major depression. Most of the patients had suffered from persistent symptoms for approximately two years before enrolling in the study. 

Thirteen participants received the psilocybin treatment immediately after recruitment and preparation, while the remaining 11 participants received the same preparation and treatment eight weeks later. After supervising two five-hour psilocybin sessions, the researchers followed up with the individuals over four weeks. 

Across the entire group of participants, 67 percent had their depressive symptoms reduced by at least half at the one-week follow-up and by 71 percent at the four-week follow-up. 

Remarkably, four weeks after the psilocybin treatment, half of the participants were considered in remission and were no longer classified as depressed.

"I believe this study to be a critically important proof of concept for the medical approval of psilocybin for treatment of depression, a condition I have personally struggled with for decades," said philanthropist Tim Ferriss, who supported the funding campaign for this study. 

"How do we explain the incredible magnitude and durability of effects? Treatment research with moderate to high doses of psychedelics may uncover entirely new paradigms for understanding and improving mood and mind. This is a taste of things to come from Johns Hopkins."

The researchers will continue to follow up with the participants until a year after treatment to investigate how long the antidepressant effects of psilocybin last.

"Because there are several types of major depressive disorders that may result in variation in how people respond to treatment, I was surprised that most of our study participants found the psilocybin treatment to be effective," said Dr. Roland Griffiths. He began studying psilocybin in the early 2000s, and his research was initially met with skepticism and concern. 

Dr.. Griffiths said he is gratified by the support from Johns Hopkins and by the dozens of startups and labs that have initiated their own research. He noted that numerous companies are now actively working to develop marketable forms of psilocybin and related psychedelic substances.

The study is the published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry">JAMA Psychiatry</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Psilocybin treatment relieves symptoms of major depression

A naturally occurring psychedelic compound that is found in more...

Every planet in our Solar System will be visible in the sky this month, and you can observe most of them without binoculars or a telescope. 

Venus and Mercury can be viewed just before dawn, while Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars will be brightest in the evening sky. Using a telescope, you can spot Uranus and Neptune during the evening as well.

Jupiter and Saturn will appear to have a close encounter on the sky's dome, known as a great conjunction, on December 21, 2020. According to <a href="https://earthsky.org/">EarthSky</a>, great conjunctions of these two worlds occur every 20 years, but this year Jupiter and Saturn will appear closer together than they have since 1623. 

Up until the winter solstice on December 21st, the two planets will be visible every evening just after sunset in the southwestern sky. Use a telescope to catch a glimpse of Saturn’s rings, which are tilted toward the Earth this year, and to view Jupiter's major moons. While Saturn shines as bright as some stars, Jupiter shines 12 times brighter than Saturn. 

In the eastern half of the sky, Mars will shine the brightest. Even though Mars is fading from sight compared to its close approach to Earth in October, it will still appear unusually large throughout November.

Venus will rise a couple of hours before sunset this month, and will look just like a brilliant morning star. Venus is the brightest celestial object that can be seen at night besides the Moon. Before daybreak on November 11th, 12th, and 13th, look for the waning crescent moon to line up with Venus and Mercury in the eastern sky just before daybreak. 

To find Mercury, just look close to the horizon below Venus, which is 70 times brighter than Mercury. According to EarthSky, Mercury can be seen most clearly about an hour before sunrise. The planet will gradually move higher in the sky throughout the month. 

On a dark night, about 9 hours after sunset, you may be able to catch a glimpse of Uranus with the naked eye. Neptune will be much harder to spot, and will require a very dark sky and binoculars or a telescope. 

Finally, be sure to look out for the South Taurids meteor shower that is expected to peak on the night of November 4th, as well as the North Taurids, which are expected to peak one week later on November 11th.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Every planet in our Solar System is visible this month

Every planet in our Solar System will be visible in...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> explains how music can flood your <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/motivation-to-learn-declines-as-a-specific-brain-circuit-ages/">brain</a> with positive emotions. When neuroscientists investigated the source of "chills" that many people get while listening to music, they linked the experience to multiple brain regions involved in activating reward and pleasure systems.

The study was focused on 18 participants with an average age of 40 who reported regularly getting the chills during their favorite songs. A team led by Thibault Chabin at the Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté used electroencephalogram (EEG) scans to detect electrical activity in the brains of the individuals as they listened to music. The participants were asked to document when they experienced chills and to rate their degree of pleasure from them.

"Participants of our study were able to precisely indicate 'chill-producing' moments in the songs, but most musical chills occurred in many parts of the extracts and not only in the predicted moments," said Chabin.

At the exact times when the participants experienced chills, Chabin identified specific electrical activity in several brain regions including: the orbitofrontal cortex, which is involved in emotional processing; the supplementary motor area, which regulates the planning of complex movement; and the right temporal lobe, which is involved in auditory processing and musical appreciation.

These three brain regions coordinate their activity to process music, trigger the brain's reward systems, and to release the feel-good hormone dopamine. It is this series of events that produces the chills - a physiological response thought to indicate greater cortical connectivity.

"The fact that we can measure this phenomenon with EEG brings opportunities for study in other contexts, in scenarios that are more natural and within groups," said Chabin. "This represents a good perspective for musical emotion research."

The EEG scans revealed that when the individuals felt chills, low frequency electrical signals called "theta activity" either increased or decreased in the brain regions that are involved in musical processing. Theta activity is associated with successful memory performance in the context of high rewards and musical appreciation.

"Contrary to heavy neuroimaging techniques such as PET scan or fMRI, classic EEG can be transported outside of the lab into naturalistic scenarios," said Chabin. "What is most intriguing is that music seems to have no biological benefit to us. However, the implication of dopamine and of the reward system in processing of musical pleasure suggests an ancestral function for music."

As we wait for the chill-inducing parts of music, our brains are busy anticipating the future and releasing dopamine. Evolutionarily speaking, being able to predict what will happen next is essential for survival.

During the trials, the participants reported more than 300 chills which lasted an average of 8.75 seconds. The same brain regions associated with increased activity in this study have been previously linked to musical pleasure in PET and fMRI studies. Going forward, the researchers plan to continue to study the chills.

"We want to measure how cerebral and physiological activities of multiple participants are coupled in natural, social musical settings," said Chabin. "Musical pleasure is a very interesting phenomenon that deserves to be investigated further, in order to understand why music is rewarding and unlock why music is essential in human lives."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience">Frontiers in Neuroscience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Music can flood your brain with feelings of pleasure

A new study published by Frontiers explains how music can...

In a groundbreaking new study, Professor Derrick Wirtz of <a href="https://ok.ubc.ca/">UBC Okanaga</a> has examined the relationship between social media and life satisfaction. He explains that it is not if or when, but how we use social media that can negatively influence our overall sense of happiness and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/spiritual-experiences-linked-to-improved-overall-well-being/">well-being</a>.

"Social network sites are an integral part of everyday life for many people around the world," said Professor Wirtz. "Every day, billions of people interact with social media. Yet the widespread use of social network sites stands in sharp contrast to a comparatively small body of research on how this use impacts a person's happiness."

The study was focused on how people use three major social platforms - Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Professor Wirtz said that even before COVID-19 and self-isolation became standard practice, social media transformed how we interact with others. Online social interaction is quickly replacing conversations that take place in person.

While face-to-face interactions are associated with satisfaction and contentment, Professor Wirtz notes that many people come away from social media with negative feelings. There are a variety of underlying reasons for this, and one of the biggest issues is social comparison. For example, study participants said the more they compared themselves to others while using social networks, the less happy they felt.

"Viewing images and updates that selectively portray others positively may lead social media users to underestimate how much others actually experience negative emotions and lead people to conclude that their own life - with its mix of positive and negative feelings - is, by comparison, not as good."

Professor Wirtz explains that viewing other people's posts and images while not interacting with them lends itself to comparison without the mood-boosting benefits that ordinarily follow social contact, which can undermine well-being and lower self-esteem. 

"Passive use, scrolling through others' posts and updates, involves little person-to-person reciprocal interaction while providing ample opportunity for upward comparison."

For the study, individuals were asked about four specific functions of Facebook: messaging, checking a news feed, reading world news, and posting status updates. The analysis revealed that the most frequently used function is passively checking one's news feed without making contact with other users. The effects on happiness and well-being associated with this form of Facebook use were found to be consistently negative.

"The three social network sites examined - Facebook, Twitter and Instagram - yielded remarkably convergent findings. The more respondents had recently used these sites, either in aggregate or individually, the more negative effect they reported when they responded to our randomly-timed surveys over a 10-day period."

Through his research, which was conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic, Professor Wirtz found that people use social media more when they are lonely, but time spent on social media only increases feelings of loneliness. "Today, the necessity of seeing and hearing friends and family only through social media due to COVID-19 might serve as a reminder of missed opportunities to spend time together."

Despite the discouraging findings, the research showed that social media can also be used in positive ways. Professor Wirtz suggests that users avoid passively scrolling and resist comparing themselves to other people on social media. He says the sites should be used for direct interactions and social connectedness, such as chatting with others.

"If we all remember to do that, the negative impact of social media use could be reduced - and social networks sites could even have the potential to improve our well-being and happiness. In other words, we need to remember how we use social media has the potential to shape the effects on our day-to-day happiness."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10902">Journal of Happiness Studies</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How you use social media affects your sense of happiness

In a groundbreaking new study, Professor Derrick Wirtz of UBC...

An international team of scientists has determined that global <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/melting-sea-ice-accelerates-global-warming-in-a-vicious-cycle/">warming</a> of two degrees Celsius would trigger the release of an estimated 230 billion tons of soil carbon.

The amount of carbon that is stored in soil is two to three times greater than the amount in the atmosphere. As temperatures rise, soil decomposition will be accelerated and the amount of time organic carbon is stored in the soil will be greatly reduced.

The new research substantially reduces the level of uncertainty regarding how future climate change models will represent the sensitivity of soil carbon turnover.

To put the magnitude of the findings into perspective, 230 billion tons of carbon is more than four times the total emissions from China and more than double the emissions from the United States over the last century.

"Our study rules out the most extreme projections - but nonetheless suggests substantial soil carbon losses due to climate change at only 2°C warming, and this doesn't even include losses of deeper permafrost carbon," said study co-author Dr. Sarah Chadburn of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.

The link between climate change and soil carbon turnover is an example of a reinforcing or positive feedback loop. Global warming will speed up the loss of carbon, and the subsequent increase in atmospheric CO2 levels will further accelerate global warming.

The loss of carbon from Earth's soils represents one of the greatest areas of uncertainty when it comes to modeling the carbon cycle in climate change projections.

In an effort to address this uncertainty, the researchers used a new combination of observational data and Earth System Models.

"We investigated how soil carbon is related to temperature in different locations on Earth to work out its sensitivity to global warming," said study lead author Rebecca Varney.

While current models indicate an uncertainty of about 120 billion tons of carbon at 2°C global mean warming, the new study reduces this uncertainty to about 50 billion tons of carbon.

We have reduced the uncertainty in this climate change response, which is vital to calculating an accurate global carbon budget and successfully meeting Paris Agreement targets," said study co-author Professor Peter Cox.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warming of 2°C would unleash 230 billions tons of soil carbon

An international team of scientists has determined that global warming...

Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a close approach. As the anticipation builds for what is being called the most important U.S. election of our lifetime, scientists are eagerly awaiting an entirely different type of event. On November 2nd, an asteroid that was discovered in 2018 is expected to pass relatively very close to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fireball-meteor-that-fell-to-earth-contains-extraterrestrial-organic-compounds/">Earth</a>. 

Regardless of its close encounter, however, the space rock known as 2018VP1 does not pose a threat to our planet. According to NASA, the asteroid is too small to do any damage, even if it does reach Earth's atmosphere.

"Asteroid 2018VP1 is very small, approx. 6.5 feet, and poses no threat to Earth! It currently has a 0.41% chance of entering our planet’s atmosphere, but if it did, it would disintegrate due to its extremely small size," <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroidwatch/">NASA Asteroid Watch</a> tweeted on August 23.

The asteroid was first discovered in 2018 by scientists at the Zwicky Transient Facility at Caltech's Palomar Observatory. During the two years that have followed, experts have struggled to monitor the space rock because it is so small. Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a close approach

Since 1998, NASA has tracked thousands of near-Earth objects, none of which are known to be potentially hazardous to our planet in the near future. 

Back in August, a car-size asteroid flew within about 1,830 miles of Earth, which is the closest flyby ever recorded. Because the asteroid was moving toward us from the direction of the sun, it went completely undetected until about six hours after its approach.

Paul Chodas is the director of NASA's <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/">Centre for Near Earth Object Studies</a>."There's not much we can do about detecting inbound asteroids coming from the sunward direction, as asteroids are detected using optical telescopes only (like ZTF), and we can only search for them in the night sky," Chodas told Business Insider.

"The idea is that we discover them on one of their prior passages by our planet, and then make predictions years and decades in advance to see whether they have any possibility of impacting."

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a close approach

Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a...

Teenagers who feel supported by their teachers experience benefits that extend far beyond the classroom. A study published by the <a href="https://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a> has found a link between positive student-teacher relationships and long-term health benefits.

While friendships are obviously very important to adolescents, the researchers did not find the same positive health benefits associated with peer relationships.

"This research suggests that improving students' relationships with teachers could have important, positive and long-lasting effects beyond just academic success," explained study co-author Dr. Jinho Kim. "It could also have important health implications in the long run."

Dr. Kim said that previous research has also suggested that social relationships in adolescence may be linked to health outcomes in adulthood. This could be because poor relationships can lead to chronic stress, which increases the risk for developing diseases.

However, it has remained uncertain whether the link between teen relationships and lifetime health is causal. For example, other factors like different family dynamics could contribute to both relationship problems in adolescence and to poor health in adulthood. 

Furthermore, most relevant studies have focused on teens' relationships with their peers, and not their relationships with teachers.

To investigate, Dr. Kim analyzed data from nearly 20,000 participants who were involved in the Add Health study, which followed participants for 13 years from seventh grade into early adulthood. The volunteers included more than 3,400 pairs of siblings, who answered questions including: "How much do you agree that friends care about you?" and "How much do you agree that teachers care about you?" 

When they were adults, the study participants self-reported on their physical and mental health and were tested for various markers of physical health, such as blood pressure. 

As expected, Dr. Kim found that participants who had reported better relationships with both their peers and teachers in middle school and high school also reported better physical and mental health in their mid-20s. 

However, when he controlled for family background by looking at pairs of siblings together, only the link between teacher relationships and good health in adulthood remained significant.

The results suggest that teacher relationships are even more important than previously realized, and that schools should invest in training teachers on how to build warm and supportive relationships with their students, said Dr. Kim. "This is not something that most teachers receive much training in, but it should be."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/school">School Psychology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Positive student-teacher relationships improve long-term health

Teenagers who feel supported by their teachers experience benefits that...

So far this year, severe wildfires in the western United States have burned more than 8 million acres, which is an area larger than the size of Maryland. The affected areas are now facing the threat of destructive debris flows, and <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">USGS</a> scientists are urgently working to gain a better understanding of how and when this type of slope failure occurs.

Debris flows are fast-moving rivers of water, rock, soil, and vegetation that are particularly dangerous because they usually happen with no warning. While landslides typically require prolonged periods of rain and saturated ground, a debris flow can be triggered after just a few minutes of intense rainfall on a dry slope.

The rivers of debris often gain enough power to level everything in their paths, including trees, vehicles, and homes. 

In 2018, soon after one of Southern California's largest wildfires, a half an inch of rain fell in a matter of five minutes across a deforested area of the Santa Ynez Mountains. Debris flows carried an avalanche of mud and boulders into Montecito, where 23 people were killed. Dozens of homes were buried and hundreds more were damaged.

To investigate the origin of debris and mud flows, the USGS team studied slope failure at two sites in the San Gabriel Mountains. The first site was burned in 2016 during the San Gabriel Complex fire, and the second site was burned during the 2014 Colby fire. 

The researchers found that there were major differences in slope failure between the first and the third years after the fires. The results will provide critical insight into when and where debris flows and other types of slope failure are most likely to occur.

"In the first year after each fire, we observed debris flows generated by rainfall runoff," explained study lead author Francis Rengers. "But as we continued monitoring, we were surprised to see that a storm with a higher rainfall intensity than the first year's storms, resulted in more than 280 shallow landslides, rather than debris flows, in the third year."

Rengers explained that severe wildfires make soils more water-repellent, and rainfall tends to run off burned ground. "If water is not soaking in, it's flowing over the surface." 

Wildfires remove ground cover that would normally serve as a barrier to slow the speed and momentum of a debris flow. According to Rengers, incineration can also allow rainfall on bare soil to create a "surface seal" that further increases runoff.

Landslides are less fluid than debris flows and glide as cohesive mass along a rupture plane.

Because they have much shorter runoffs than debris flows, landslides pose different hazards. 

"The landslides we observed would primarily impact local infrastructure in the forest, such as roads, transmission lines, and culverts," said Rengers. By contrast, he noted, debris flows move sediment much further downstream - posing a major threat beyond the hillslopes. 

The findings offer some indication that the threat of slope failure has a limited duration. The researchers found that within five years, the density of landslides on burnt slopes in the San Gabriels was nearly equal to the density in unaffected regions. The evidence suggests that vegetation can recover within half a decade.

"Our model suggests that debris flows will be the primary concern during the next one to two years, at least in the burn scars in Southern California, and after that the concern will shift toward shallow landslide hazards," said Rengers. "I hope our work offers land managers useful expectations regarding how these processes are likely to evolve and helps them prioritize post-wildfire mitigation and planning."

The research was presented at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.geosociety.org/">Geological Society of America</a>, GSA 2020 Connects Online.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Western U.S. wildfires will increase the threat of dangerous debris flows

So far this year, severe wildfires in the western United...

Researchers at the <a href="https://admissions.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> report that mutations may have made the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-has-increased-covid-19-deaths-by-at-least-15-percent/">coronavirus</a> more contagious. As SARS-COV-2 evolved, the D614G mutation located in its spike protein made the virus more infectious, allowing it to spread more easily. 

The study involved more than 5,000 COVID-19 patients in Houston, and was focused on the various genetic mutations emerging in different strains of SARS-COV-2 since the time of the initial outbreak. 

According to the researchers, the spike protein is continuing to accumulate additional mutations with unknown abilities. Lab experiments revealed that at least one such mutation allows the protein to evade a neutralizing antibody that humans naturally produce to fight SARS-CoV-2 infections.

"The virus is mutating due to a combination of neutral drift - which just means random genetic changes that don't help or hurt the virus - and pressure from our immune systems," said study co-author Professor Ilya Finkelstein.

In collaboration with experts at Houston Methodist Hospital, the UT Austin team tested different genetic variants of the spike protein, which is used by the virus to gain entry into host cells. The experts measured the protein's stability by examining how well it binds to a receptor on host cells and to neutralizing antibodies. 

The researchers found that SARS-CoV-2 was independently introduced to the Houston area many times from diverse geographic regions, including virus strains from Europe, Asia, South America,  and elsewhere in the United States. 

During the initial wave, 71 percent of the coronaviruses identified in COVID-19 patients in Houston had the D614G mutation on the spike protein. When the second wave of the pandemic hit Houston during the summer, this variant was found in 99.9 percent of the patients.

The same trend has been observed worldwide. A study that was based on more than 28,000 genome sequences showed that SARS-COV-2 strains with the infectious mutation took over as the globally dominant form of SARS-CoV-2 in about one month.

In another study of more than 25,000 genome sequences in the U.K., experts have determined that the D614G mutation allowed viruses to transmit faster than those without it and caused larger clusters of infections.

Some scientists believe the D614G mutation may have simply been more common in the first viruses to arrive in Europe and North America, which would have given them a head start on other strains.

"The virus continues to mutate as it rips through the world," said Professor Finkelstein. "Real-time surveillance efforts like our study will ensure that global vaccines and therapeutics are always one step ahead."

Overall, the team found a total of 285 mutations across thousands of infections, most of which did not seem to affect the severity of COVID-19. Ongoing studies will continue to monitor the third wave of COVID-19 patients to understand how the virus is adapting to neutralizing antibodies that are produced by our immune systems. Each new infection gives SARS-CoV-2 an additional chance to develop more dangerous mutations.

"We have given this virus a lot of chances," study lead author James Musser told The Washington Post. "There is a huge population size out there right now."

The research represents the largest peer-reviewed study of SARS-CoV-2 genome sequences in one metropolitan region of the United States.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://mbio.asm.org/">mBio</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A mutation made the coronavirus more contagious

Researchers at the University of Texas at Austin report that...

Environmental degradation will usher in an era of pandemics in which pandemics will occur more frequently, spread faster, kill more people, and will do even more damage to the global economy than <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-has-increased-covid-19-deaths-by-at-least-15-percent/">COVID-19</a> unless dramatic changes are made soon. Some of the biggest risk factors include the wildlife trade and deforestation, according to a new report released by the <a href="https://ipbes.net/">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> (IPBES).

The research was conducted by 22 leading experts from all over the world. After analyzing the link between environmental and increasing pandemic risks, the team agrees that it is still possible to avoid an "era of pandemics," but it will require transformative changes in the global strategies used for prevention and response.

COVID-19 is the sixth global health pandemic since the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918. Even though the virus originated in animals, the outbreak has been entirely driven by human activities, according to the IPBES report.

There are currently an estimated 1.7 million "undiscovered" viruses present in mammals and birds. Of these mysterious viruses, up to 850,000 may have the ability to infect people.

"There is no great mystery about the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic - or of any modern pandemic," said Dr. Peter Daszak, President of EcoHealth Alliance. "The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment." 

"Changes in the way we use land; the expansion and intensification of agriculture; and unsustainable trade, production and consumption disrupt nature and increase contact between wildlife, livestock, pathogens and people. This is the path to pandemics."

The risk of pandemics can be reduced by slowing the human activities that drive biodiversity loss and greater conservation of protected areas.

The likely cost of COVID-19 is expected to reach up to $16 trillion globally by July 2020. By the end of 2021, costs could reach the same amount in the United States alone. The experts estimate that the cost of preventing pandemics is 100 times less than the cost of responding to pandemics.

"The overwhelming scientific evidence points to a very positive conclusion. We have the increasing ability to prevent pandemics - but the way we are tackling them right now largely ignores that ability," said  Dr. Daszak. 

"Our approach has effectively stagnated - we still rely on attempts to contain and control diseases after they emerge, through vaccines and therapeutics. We can escape the era of pandemics, but this requires a much greater focus on prevention in addition to reaction."

"The fact that human activity has been able to so fundamentally change our natural environment need not always be a negative outcome. It also provides convincing proof of our power to drive the change needed to reduce the risk of future pandemics - while simultaneously benefiting conservation and reducing climate change."

The full report from IPBES is available <a href="https://ipbes.net/pandemics">here</a>. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Environmental degradation could push us into an era of pandemics

Environmental degradation will usher in an era of pandemics in...

When <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/peatlands-become-fuel-for-wildfires-in-a-warming-climate/">peat</a> fires smolder underground during the freezing winter months, they sometimes persist for so long that they reignite after the ground warms and thaws in the spring. These "zombie fires" are known to release up to 100 times more carbon into the atmosphere than flaming fires.

In a new study, researchers at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> have demonstrated how soil moisture content affects the ignition and spread of smoldering peat fires. The team also used computer models to discover how several small peat fires can merge into one large blaze.

"Peat fires are a devastating yet chronically under-researched phenomenon that spurt millions of tons of carbon into the atmosphere every year," said study first author Dwi Purnomo. "If we can use scientific evidence to help people manage them more effectively, we can perhaps dampen their impact on people and the environment."

Peat fires are most common in regions like Southeast Asia, North America, and Siberia.  Peat is a natural reservoir of carbon, and zombie fires are fueled by soils that are rich in this and other organic content. 

Unlike the smoke from non-peat fires, which is ejected high into the atmosphere, smoldering peat fires burn close to the ground where they produce a haze that is very threatening to human health. 

Zombie fires are notoriously difficult to control. Even when the flames are extinguished, the fire can smolder up to several feet underground for weeks or months at a time, just waiting to flare back up.

These hazardous peat fires can be sparked naturally by lightning strikes or by human activities, such as controlled burns. 

"Although people have been using controlled burns in agriculture for centuries, starting them on peat soils can be particularly dangerous," explained study senior author Professor Guillermo Rein. 

"Peat draws the fire underground, which then hides there before coming back like zombies, making detection and extinction very challenging. The effects are felt in plantations, forests, homes, residents' health and the environment." 

The new study reveals that burning vegetation on peat soils with a higher moisture content is less likely to sustain smoldering, which means that fires will be less likely to burn uncontrollably. 

The research is the first of its kind to investigate the interaction between smoldering peat and flaming vegetation. The findings may ultimately inform land managers and scientists on the safest ways to clear the vegetation in peatlands. 

"It might seem trivial that drier soils sustain faster and larger smouldering fires, but this work can predict the critical moisture values for ignition," said Purnomo. "I've seen the devastation they can cause and want to help my country and others like it which are affected by peat fires."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/proceedings-of-the-combustion-institute">Proceedings of the Combustion Institute</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Soil moisture is key to slowing zombie fires

When peat fires smolder underground during the freezing winter months,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...