Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>, researchers have found that eating just the right amount of Ataulfo mangoes can substantially reduce wrinkles in older women with fair <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/babies-have-reduced-pain-response-with-skin-to-skin-contact/">skin</a>.

Just like other orange fruits and vegetables, mangoes are rich in beta carotene - a carotenoid and antioxidant that may help to delay the cell damage associated with aging.

The research was focused on postmenopausal women who added a specific portion of Ataulfo mangoes, also known as honey mangoes, to their weekly diet. 

The study revealed that women who ate a half cup of mangoes four times a week saw a 23 percent decrease in deep wrinkles after two months. 

"That's a significant improvement in wrinkles," said study lead author Vivien Fam, who is a doctoral student in the UC Davis Department of Nutrition. The experts also discovered that the amount of mangoes consumed was critical to achieving the desired result.

"Women who ate a cup and a half of mangoes for the same periods of time saw an increase in wrinkles. This shows that while some mango may be good for skin health, too much of it may not be," explained Fam.

According to the researchers, it is unclear why consuming more mango would increase the severity of wrinkles. They speculate that the negative effects may be tied to the increased amount of sugar in the larger portion of mangoes.

The randomized pilot study involved 28 postmenopausal women with fair skin types that burn more easily than they tan. The women were divided into two groups to consume either a half cup or a cup and a half of mangoes four times a week for four months. The team used a high-resolution camera system to evaluate wrinkles.

"The system we used to analyze wrinkles allowed us to not just visualize wrinkles, but to quantify and measure wrinkles," said study co-author  Professor Robert Hackman. "This is extremely accurate and allowed us to capture more than just the appearance of wrinkles or what the eye might see."

The experts assessed the severity, length and width of fine, deep, and emerging wrinkles. The group that consumed a half cup of mangoes saw improvements in all of these categories.

Fann noted that further research is needed to understand the mechanisms underlying the reduction in wrinkles. She explained that it may be due to the beneficial effects of carotenoids and other phytonutrients that could help build collagen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients">Nutrients</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mangoes may help to erase wrinkles

In a new study from UC Davis, researchers have found...

As the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/animals-in-cold-climates-are-facing-a-higher-risk-of-disease-outbreaks/">climate</a> becomes warmer and drier, a "thirsty atmosphere" will increase extreme wildfire danger and prolonged drought in Nevada and California, according to a study led by the <a href="https://www.dri.edu/">Desert Research Institute</a> (DRI). 

The researchers analyzed projections of evaporative demand, or how dry these states will become, through the end of the century. Next, the team examined how changes in evaporative demand will influence the frequency of extreme wildfire danger and multi-year droughts.

The analysis was based on metrics from the Evaporative Demand Drought Index (EDDI) and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI).

The experts found that there will be consistent future increases in evaporative demand over California and Nevada. The projections indicate that greater "atmospheric thirst" will be primarily driven by warmer temperatures, and could lead to significant environmental impacts on the ground.

"Higher evaporative demand during summer and autumn - peak fire season in the region - means faster drying of soil moisture and vegetation, and available fuels becoming more flammable, leading to fires that can burn faster and hotter," explained study lead author Dr. Dan McEvoy.

"Increased evaporative demand with warming enables fuels to be drier for longer periods," added Dr. John Abatzoglou at UC Merced. "This is a recipe for more active fire seasons."

The study revealed that days with extreme fire danger in summer and autumn are expected to increase four to 10 times by the end of the century. Multi-year droughts, similar to the drought that impacted California and Nevada from 2012 to 2016, are projected to become three to 15 times more frequent.

"One major takeaway was that we can expect to see a lot more days in the summer and autumn with extreme fire danger related to increased temperature and evaporative demand," said Dr. McEvoy. "Another takeaway was that even in locations where precipitation may not change that much in future, droughts are going to become more severe due to higher evaporative demand."

According to the researchers, the cumulative effects of increases in evaporative demand will stress native ecosystems, increase wildfire danger, negatively impact agriculture where water demands cannot be met, and exacerbate impacts to society during periods of prolonged dryness. 

Study co-author Dr. Julie Kalansky is the program manager for the California-Nevada Climate Applications Program (CNAP).

"These results provide information to support science-based, long-term planning for fire management agencies, forest management agencies, and water resource managers," said Dr. Kalansky. "We plan to work with partners to help integrate the findings from this paper to support building climate resilience."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/23284277">Earth's Future</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfire danger will continue to increase in California and Nevada

As the climate becomes warmer and drier, a "thirsty atmosphere"...

Global warming may increase the risk of infectious disease outbreaks in animals that are adapted to cooler and milder climates, according to a new study published by <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a>. On the other hand, animals adapted to warmer climates could experience mild reductions in infectious disease risk as temperatures rise. 

In addition to habitat loss, invasive species, and many other climate-related threats, ecological communities are now faced with more frequent and widespread disease outbreaks. Observations over the last several decades indicate that there is a link between climate change and infectious disease risk in wildlife. 

"Infectious disease outbreaks among wildlife have surged in recent decades alongside global climate change," wrote the study authors. "However, the circumstances under which climate change is most likely to promote or inhibit infectious disease remain unknown for several reasons."

Scientists have proposed the "thermal mismatch" theory to help explain the complex relationships between parasites, hosts, and their environment. The theory suggests that small-bodied, infectious pathogens have a greater tolerance for abnormal temperatures than the larger-bodied species they seek out as hosts. 

As a result, animals adapted to warmer conditions are at the greatest risk of disease outbreaks under unusually cooler temperatures, while animals that are accustomed to cooler climates are faced with greater threats as temperatures rise.

"However, thermal mismatches may not affect diverse hosts and parasites equally because wildlife host and parasite traits can greatly influence disease outcomes," explained the researchers. "For example, thermal mismatches might exert an especially strong influence over disease outcomes in ectothermic hosts because their immune responses are highly temperature-dependent."

"To address this challenge, we examined how disease risk was affected by temperature for diverse wildlife hosts and parasites that vary in ecologically important traits across a worldwide climatic gradient."

Study lead author Jeremy Cohen is an expert in climate change ecology at University of Wisconsin. His team assembled a dataset which included pathogen prevalence in 2,021 host-pathogen pairs from 7,346 wildlife populations worldwide, along with local weather and climate data for each location. 

"We found that on average, hosts from cool and warm climates experienced increased disease risk at abnormally warm and cool temperatures, respectively, as predicted by the thermal mismatch hypothesis," explained the study authors. 

The effects were largely dependent on the parasite identity and host traits, and were strongest among cold-blooded species. The researchers also noted that the thermal mismatch effect was similar in terrestrial and freshwater systems.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals in cold climates are facing a higher risk of disease outbreaks

Global warming may increase the risk of infectious disease outbreaks...

Fifty years after they were hunted to near extinction, blue whales have returned to the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> made the discovery while following up on a recent study which revealed that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-sing/">humpback</a> whales are also returning to South Georgia.

The international research team analyzed 30 years worth of sightings, photographs, and underwater sound recordings to investigate how Antarctic blue whales are recovering after commercial whaling was banned in the 1960s.

Blue whales were once abundant off South Georgia before commercial whaling killed more than 42,000 individuals between 1904 and 1971. The giant fish vanished from this region, with only a single blue whale sighting between 1998 and 2018. By 2020, however, a survey in February recorded 58 blue whale sightings and numerous acoustic detections.

"The continued absence of blue whales at South Georgia has been seen as an iconic example of a population that was locally exploited beyond the point where it could recover," said study lead author Susannah Calderan of the Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS).

"But over the past few years we've been working at South Georgia, we have become quite optimistic about the numbers of blue whales seen and heard around the island, which hadn't been happening until very recently. This year was particularly exciting, with more blue whale sightings than we ever could have hoped for."

The researchers used devices that can detect the loud, low frequency calls of whales over long distances. The team also collected records of whale sightings reported to the South Georgia Museum.

Overall, 41 individuals have been identified in photographs from South Georgia over the last ten years, yet none of these match the 517 whales in the current Antarctic blue whale photographic catalog.

"We don't quite know why it has taken the blue whales so long to come back," said Calderan. "It may be that so many of them were killed at South Georgia that there was a loss of cultural memory in the population that the area was a foraging ground, and that it is only now being rediscovered."

The remote location, harsh weather, and lack of access to South Georgia greatly limit the opportunities for whale surveys, yet careful examination of the region is critical for future management.

"This is an exciting discovery and a really positive step forward for conservation of the Antarctic blue whale," said study co-author Dr. Jennifer Jackson, who led the 2020 whale expedition.

"With South Georgia waters designated as a Marine Protected Area by the Government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, we hope that these increased numbers of blue whales are a sign of things to come and that our research can continue to contribute to effective management of the area."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/esr/esr-home/">Endangered Species Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Blue whales are making a comeback in South Georgia

Fifty years after they were hunted to near extinction, blue...

Microscopic marine algae known as phytoplankton play a more important role in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-rivers-heat-up-the-ocean-and-shrink-sea-ice/">Arctic</a> ecosystem than what was previously realized. In a study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, scientists have discovered new clues about the magnitude of phytoplankton blooms under Arctic sea ice.

Phytoplankton form the foundation of the marine food chain and help absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. Just like plants on land, these tiny organisms use photosynthesis to exploit solar energy and convert CO2 into glucose.

Until recently, scientists generally accepted that phytoplankton remained inactive in the winter and spring beneath Arctic sea ice. But now, a growing collection of research confirms the occurrence of under-ice blooms (UIBs) of phytoplankton.

"There was a long-standing assumption that what was happening under the sea ice in the water column was almost 'on pause' during the polar night and before seasonal sea ice retreat, which is apparently not the case," said study lead author Dr. Mathieu Ardyna of Stanford University.

When scientists model the global carbon cycle, they must account for how much atmospheric carbon is being absorbed by phytoplankton. The discovery of UIBs is very significant because it indicates that phytoplankton are much more productive in the Arctic Ocean than what has been accounted for in carbon cycle modeling.

Over the past 30 years, the Arctic has warmed roughly twice as fast as the rest of the world. The impacts of climate change are most apparent in the decline of Arctic sea ice - this year's ice cover dwindled down to the second lowest extent on record.

The thinning layer of sea ice allows more light to reach the phytoplankton, allowing them to become more productive. However, in a surprising twist, Dr. Ardyna's team has discovered that the phenomenon of under-ice blooms occurred well before climate change affected Arctic sea ice.

"Digging up research that occurred from the '50s and prior demonstrates that blooms, albeit not very large, were occurring under thick ice in the central Arctic," explained Dr. Ardyna. "I think this fact surprised many of us, as models had suggested this was not the case."

The study describes the variability in the frequency, magnitude, and the organisms involved in under-ice blooms across the Arctic Ocean. Some of those findings are based on expeditions that used autonomous floats, robotic gliders, and remotely operated submersible vehicles that were specifically focused on examining UIBs.

According to Dr. Ardyna, further observations to feed new computer models will be key to making more accurate predictions of how the Arctic carbon cycle will change in the future.

"So many questions remain unanswered about this critical period of spring, for many Arctic species, for their food or their life cycle. Given the remoteness of the Arctic, one way will definitely be to develop more and better autonomous platforms to give us valuable information."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Phytoplankton remain surprisingly active underneath Arctic sea ice

Microscopic marine algae known as phytoplankton play a more important...

In a recent review, Dr. Marcelo H. Cassini analyzed studies on sexual aggression among non-human mammals. The research was focused on "sexual disturbance," or aggressive male behavior toward a female around <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cross-mating-finches-exchanged-genes-and-beak-shape/">mating</a> time that could result in physical harm or cause mother-offspring separation.

"In non‐human mammals, sexual conflict should be particularly intense because males rarely provide parental care," explained Dr. Cassini. "An expected consequence of sexual conflict is male aggression towards mates."

"Considering how complex measurements and interpretations of behaviors such as sexual aggression and sexual coercion are, I preferred to define operationally, as sexual disturbance - any male behavior towards females during the pericopulatory period that can be costly for females."

Dr. Cassini set out to estimate how widespread sexual disturbance is among mammals, and to analyze the various types of female responses to sexual disturbance. He also wanted to characterize the consequences of such male aggression for the females.

"I conducted a systematic review by searching the literature in the Web of Knowledge database using the search tools available for 19 main journals, and I conducted a qualitative review via a taxon‐by‐taxon analysis."

The study, which was published by <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us">Wiley</a>, revealed that sexual disturbance is common in 4 of the 32 mammalian orders examined: Primates, Artiodactyla, Carnivora, and Cetacea. All of these groups include species that practice polygyny, which is when males mate with multiple females. 

"The most common expression of sexual conflict around copulation is seen in behaviors associated with female retention attempts that cause minor harm," said Dr. Cassini. "Research suggests that the most common response of females to sexual disturbance comprises female grouping around a dominant male."

According to Dr. Cassini, his review suggests that sexual aggression is a rare behavior when you consider that there are thousands of species of mammals. Further studies are needed to see whether sexual disturbance affects the reproductive success of males and females.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652907">Mammal Review</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Polygynous male mammals may have more sexual aggression

In a recent review, Dr. Marcelo H. Cassini analyzed studies...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a>, experts assembled a 10,000-year record of alpine <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meltwater-lakes-cause-glaciers-to-retreat-much-more-rapidly/">glacier</a> fluctuations in Wyoming's Teton Range. The analysis of this timeline revealed that some glacial ice in the western United States was able to withstand global warming during the early Holocene. 

The researchers found evidence that glacial ice persisted in a dormant state, sealed off underneath debris. The findings contradict the common assumption that all Rocky Mountain glaciers completely disappeared during the warm, dry conditions of the Holocene.

The study suggests that glacial ice shrunk before was covered by dirt, rocks, or other debris, which would have insulated the dwindling ice from the heat and saved it from disappearing. 

This remarkable new insight may help scientists better understand how glaciers in the region will respond to future warming. 

"The long-term survival of glacial ice through warm conditions highlights the potential role of debris-covered glaciers and/or rock glaciers to continue providing ecosystem services into the future, despite unfavorable climatic conditions," explained study lead author Darren Larsen. 

Due to an incomplete glacial record, little is known about how glacial ice in the western U.S. responded to environmental changes thousands of years ago. 

To construct a continuous record, the team sampled sediment cores from two lake basins in the Tetons. Delta Lake provided a record of glacier activity, while other non-glacial lakes including Surprise Lake provided a record of climate variability. 

Using accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating, the researchers developed composite rock layer sequences that revealed changes in the glaciers as they experienced climate shifts over 10,000 years. 

Sediment fluctuations and meltwater flow from the Teton Glacier appeared to decrease during a warm period between about 10,000 and 6,300 years ago. At the same time, Delta Lake sediments maintained distinct glacial characteristics which indicate that glacial ice persisted.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Glacial ice persisted in the Teton Range during past warming

In a new study published by AAAS, experts assembled a...

Experts may soon be able to stock your gut with beneficial bacteria After discovering how a common virus infects and controls bacteria in the gut, experts are closer to finding ways to manipulate the composition of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-the-gut-protects-the-brain-from-infection/">gut</a> microbiome - which has a major influence on human health. The research, led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>, may ultimately lead to the creation of beneficial bacteria that produce medicines and clean up pollutants.

Study co-author Konstantin Severinov is a principal investigator at the Waksman Institute of Microbiology and a professor of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry in the School of Arts and Sciences at Rutgers University-New Brunswick. 

"CrAssphages are the most abundant viruses infecting bacteria in the human gut. As such, they likely control our intestinal community of microbes (the microbiome)," said Professor Severinov.

"Understanding how these tiny viruses infect bacteria may allow scientists to control and manipulate the makeup of the microbiome, either by increasing the proportion of beneficial bacteria in our intestines or decreasing the number of harmful bacteria, thus promoting health and fighting disease."

The scientists determined that crAssphages use their own enzyme - an RNA polymerase - to make RNA copies of their genes. All cells, from bacterial to human, use such enzymes for the same purpose. According to Professor Severinov, the enzymes are very similar in all living matter, implying that they are ancient and related by common ancestry.

The experts analyzed the atomic structure of a crAssphage enzyme. They found that it was distinct from other RNA polymerases yet closely resembled an enzyme in humans that is involved in RNA interference. This interference is known to silence the function of some genes and may lead to certain diseases.

"This is a startling result. It suggests that enzymes of RNA interference, a process that was thought to occur only in cells of higher organisms, were 'borrowed' from an ancestral bacterial virus early in evolution," explained Professor Severinov. "The result provides a glimpse of how cells of higher organisms evolved by mixing and matching components of simpler cells and even their viruses."

"In addition to deep evolutionary insights, phage (viral) enzymes such as crAssphage RNA polymerase may be used in synthetic biology to generate genetic circuits that do not exist in nature."

"We are now trying to match the thousands of different crAssphage viruses in our gut with the bacterial hosts they infect. By using just the 'right' bacterial virus, we will be able to get rid of bacteria it infects, which will allow us to alter the composition of the gut microbiome in a targeted way."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts may soon be able to stock your gut with beneficial bacteria

Experts may soon be able to stock your gut with...

Despite previous reports that vertebrates are in a global state of decline, a new study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> has determined otherwise. The researchers found that some specific <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/human-development-has-the-biggest-impact-on-dwindling-koala-populations/">populations</a> really are in trouble, such as those in the Indo-Pacific region, but that vertebrates are actually stable overall. 

Mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and fish are all animals within the subphylum Vertebrata. Based on historical monitoring data, experts have typically estimated that vertebrates have declined by an average of more than 50 percent over the last five decades. 

The McGill researchers determined that this average number is greatly impacted by a small portion of animal populations that have experienced extreme losses.

"Recent analyses have reported catastrophic global declines in vertebrate populations,"wrote the experts. "However, the distillation of many trends into a global mean index obscures the variation that can inform conservation measures and can be sensitive to analytical decisions. For example, previous analyses have estimated a mean vertebrate decline of more than 50% since 1970." 

"Here we show, however, that this estimate is driven by less than 3% of vertebrate populations; if these extremely declining populations are excluded, the global trend switches to an increase."

Study senior author Brian Leung explains that given the previous mathematical methods used to model vertebrate populations, an estimate could arise from two very different scenarios: widespread systematic declines or a few extreme declines. For the current investigation, the researchers took a different approach.

The team analyzed a dataset of over 14,000 vertebrate populations from around the globe collated in the Living Planet Database. The  researchers identified a very small percentage of vertebrate populations which have suffered extreme population losses, including reptiles in tropical areas of North, Central and South America, and birds in the Indo-Pacific region. 

When these extreme losses were accounted for, the remaining vertebrate populations as a whole were not generally increasing or decreasing.

"The variation in this global aggregate is also important. Some populations really are in trouble and regions such as the Indo-Pacific are showing widespread systematic declines. However, the image of a global 'biodiversity desert' is not supported by the evidence." said Leung. "This is good, as it would be very discouraging if all of our conservation efforts over the last five decades had little effect."

"We were surprised by how strong the effect of these extreme populations was in driving the previous estimate of average global decline," said study co-author Professor Anna Hargreaves. "Our results identify regions that need urgent action to ameliorate widespread biodiversity declines, but also reason to hope that our actions can make a difference."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vertebrate populations are not in a global state of decline

Despite previous reports that vertebrates are in a global state...

Measles outbreaks are back, and COVID-19 will make them worse. Researchers are warning that measles outbreaks will be another unexpected consequence of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-antidepressant-fluvoxamine-may-prevent-severe-covid-19-infection/">COVID-19</a> pandemic. In a new article published by The Lancet, the experts call for urgent international action to prevent devastating epidemics that could emerge as soon as next year. 

Many children have missed out on their vaccinations this year, making future measles outbreaks inevitable, explained study lead author Professor Kim Mulholland of the <a href="https://www.mcri.edu.au/">Murdoch Children's Research Institute</a>.

Professor Mulholland noted that while 2020 has been a quiet year for measles, partly due to travel restrictions, the economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic will lead to many cases of childhood malnutrition. As a result, the measles will lead to worse health outcomes and more deaths - considering that malnutrition worsens the severity of the infection.

"Children who die from measles are often malnourished, but acute measles pushes many surviving children into malnutrition," said Professor Mulholland. "Malnutrition, along with measles-associated immune suppression, leads to delayed mortality, while co-existing vitamin A deficiency can also lead to measles-associated blindness."

"The coming months are likely to see increasing numbers of unimmunized children who are susceptible to measles. Many live in poor, remote communities where health systems are less resilient, and malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency are already increasing."

According to Professor Mulholland, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound effect on the control of vaccine preventable diseases, with vaccination campaigns paused in the early months of 2020 and routine immunization services greatly disrupted in many countries.

The WHO estimates that delayed campaigns in 26 countries led to a lack of vaccines for 94 million children by the end of October.

"All these factors create the environment for severe measles outbreaks in 2021, accompanied by increased death rates and the serious consequences of measles that were common decades ago," said Professor Mulholland. "This is despite the fact that we have a highly cost effective way to prevent this disease through measles vaccination."

Before COVID-19, the measles had already made a dramatic and devastating return in 2019 when 9.8 million cases emerged. Compared to 2016, measles deaths doubled to more than 200,000.

Major outbreaks in Madagascar and the Democratic Republic of the Congo were responsible for many of the fatalities in 2019. Measles also re-emerged in South America, where it was particularly prevalent among indigenous communities.

"The inadequate vaccination that led to the 2019 measles outbreaks has still not been adequately addressed, and the situation is now exacerbated by service disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic so that high-risk, unimmunized children are clustered together in unreached communities," said Professor Mulholland. 

"Without concerted efforts now, it is likely that the coming years will see an increase in measles and its severe, frequently fatal, complications."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/">The Lancet</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Measles outbreaks are back, and COVID-19 will make them worse

Measles outbreaks are back, and COVID-19 will make them worse....

A new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> describes how the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dog-ticks-prefer-human-hosts-in-hotter-weather-conditions/">human</a> ability to teach evolved along with complex tools. The researchers explain that as tools shifted from simple to complex, teaching became more necessary and advantageous. 

When recovering the remains of ancient societies, artifacts like stone tools provide scientists with a glimpse into how early humans lived and their level of sophistication. 

The social-learning process through which technology has improved over time, known as "cumulative cultural evolution," plays a critical role in the advancement of the human species. Despite its significance, however, little is known about the origins of such social learning. 

The Exeter team set out to investigate how teaching may influence the development of simple and more complex tools. The experts found that when it comes to tackling complicated problems, teaching really stands out. 

The research suggests that, as early humans developed more complex tools, natural selection began to favor those who could teach.

"Humans have an unrivaled ability to pass knowledge down the generations," said study senior author Dr. Alex Thornton.

"Traditional theories assumed that cumulative cultural evolution requires specialized processes, like teaching, to transmit information accurately, but this cannot explain why these processes evolved in the first place."

"Our aim in this study was to test the hypothesis that these processes gradually 'co-evolved' with an increasing reliance on complex tools."

The experiment involved more than 600 people, who formed "chains" to develop a simple boat made of waterproof paper or a more complex basket made of pipe cleaners. The tools were used to carry marbles, and their effectiveness at doing so was used to measure success. 

The development chain consisted of ten "generations," or ten versions of the tool. Each participant either saw the tool made by the previous person in the chain or spoke to the previous participant - which allowed teaching to take place.

"Simple and complex tools generally improved down the 'generations', and for simple tools this improvement was about the same in all three study conditions," said study co-author Dr. Amanda Lucas. 

"With complex tools, teaching consistently led to more improvement compared to other conditions. Teaching seemed to be particularly useful in allowing new, high-performing designs to be transmitted."

Dr. Lucas expressed her enormous gratitude to the local community groups across Cornwall who took part in the research, including Women's Institutes, sports clubs, craft societies, museums, theaters, galleries, libraries and community gardeners.

"This meant that our study represented a diversity of ages, backgrounds and skills, which is important as many of these types of experiments, that intend to investigate something essential about being human, recruit a narrower sample of university students only," said Dr. Lucas.

The study revealed that simple tools tended to converge toward a common design, while complex tools were more divergent and unique, which reflects the diversity of technologies across human societies.

"The effects we found were gradual - but the idea here was to look at the origins of cumulative cultural evolution, and over many generations these gradual improvements would add up," said Dr. Thornton. "Our findings point to an evolutionary feedback loop between tool-making and teaching."

"This suggests that our ancestors could have started to make modest cumulative improvements to simple tools without the need for teaching, but as tools became more complex, teaching started to become advantageous."

"The evolution of improved teaching skills would in turn allow the production of even more complex and effective tools."

The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Teachers became essential when tools became more complex

A new study from the University of Exeter describes how...

Holes that drain summer meltwater on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-lake-bed-may-reveal-secrets-of-the-greenland-ice-sheet/">Greenland</a> ice sheet are much larger than previously realized, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.uark.edu/">University of Arkansas</a>. 

The researchers are working to understand how the size of these holes, known as moulins, may affect the stability of the Greenland ice sheet and influence how quickly it slides toward the sea. The team studied the relationship between the size of the moulins and daily variations of the depth of the summer meltwater they hold each season. 

Experts theorize that increased water depth inside of moulins, along with the subsequent increase in pressure, polishes the base of the ice sheet and accelerates its movement toward the ocean. Prior to this study, however, little was known about the actual size of moulins and how much water they can hold.

"We compared our models with in-the-field observations of the water levels and it seemed like we would need really huge volumes inside moulins to produce the relatively smaller water variations that we were seeing," said study first author Professor Matt Covington. "Then when we went back in the following year and explored a moulin, it was giant. It was a case where the model made the prediction, and we went out in the field and it turned out to be right."

During each of two trips to the Greenland ice sheet in October of 2018 and October of 2019, the scientists used climbing equipment to rappel 100 meters into two separate moulins until they nearly reached the water level. 

Despite being an experienced cave explorer, Professor Covington said that rappelling into these holes was intimidating. "You back over the edge and you just see blueish ice going down as far as you can see, and then it's blackness and there also are occasional sounds of crashing ice, which is pretty unnerving."

Scientists have anticipated that under warming climate conditions, more summer meltwater will speed up the movement of Greenland's ice sheet. The new research will help experts understand the interaction between meltwater and the base of the ice sheet. 

"We're trying to understand the way the meltwater is interacting with the ice motion, and the main thing that we found is that the water pressure within these moulins is not as variable as was previously observed, and that this seems to result from really large volumes in the moulins," said Professor Covington.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Summer meltwater is drilling giant holes through Greenland’s ice

Holes that drain summer meltwater on the Greenland ice sheet...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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