Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> confirms that preserving peatlands, along with the carbon they hold, is critically needed to limit climate change. After investigating peatland losses over human history, the researchers predict these will be "amplified" in the future.

Peatlands are expected to shift from absorbing massive amounts of carbon to releasing it at some point this century, which is mainly due to human development. The study warns that more than 100 billion tons of carbon could be released by 2100, but there are still some unknowns.

The Earth System Models used for climate change projections do not account for peatlands. The researchers say this oversight must be urgently addressed.

"Peatlands contain more carbon than all the world's forests and, like many forests, their future is uncertain," said Professor Angela Gallego-Sala. "Peatlands are vulnerable to climate change impacts such as increased risk of wildfires and droughts, the thawing of permafrost and rising sea levels."

"However, the main threats to peatlands are more direct - particularly destruction by humans to create agricultural land. So the future of peatlands is very much in our hands."

Peatlands can be found in more than 175 countries. These wetlands cover around four million square kilometers, or three percent of the global land surface. 

Professor Gallego-Sala explained that peatlands have been overlooked in some climate models because they are often viewed as being "inert" - neither absorbing nor releasing carbon at a rapid rate when left undisturbed.

It has been difficult to estimate future changes across the wetlands since they are excluded from climate models. For their investigation, the study authors analyzed survey estimates from 44 leading experts as well as existing research. 

The analysis revealed that 104 billion tons of carbon will be lost from peatlands between 2020 and 2100. While the researchers acknowledge that this estimate is highly uncertain, their findings highlight the need for inclusion in models and better preservation.

"Even though we would like more information, we clearly need to make decisions now about how we manage these ecosystems," said Professor Gallego-Sala. "We simply can't afford for peatlands to go up in smoke."

"We have a responsibility to find a way forward that works for people and the planet. Where people have a strong economic incentive - or even necessity - to destroy peatlands, we need plans and policies that offer more sustainable alternatives."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Peatlands could release more than 100 billion tons of carbon this century

A new study led by the University of Exeter confirms...

Extreme <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dog-ticks-prefer-human-hosts-in-hotter-weather-conditions/">weather</a> events that have been referred to as "once in a lifetime floods" will become common over the next few decades, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.stevens.edu/">Stevens Institute of Technology</a>.

In particular, the researchers found that by the end of this century, 100-year and 500-year floods will be regular threats to thousands of homes surrounding Jamaica Bay, New York. Hurricane Sandy devastated communities in this region with flood kennels that had not been experienced for generations. 

The study findings will help policymakers and the coastal municipality of Jamaica Bay make decisions on managing flood risk with flood mitigation infrastructure or other strategies. The research also provides insight into how coastal flooding will increase in the areas beyond New York due to the impacts of climate change.

Study lead author Reza Marsooli is an assistant professor of Civil, Environmental and Ocean Engineering at Stevens.

"While this study was specific to Jamaica Bay, it shows how drastic and costly of an impact that climate change will make," said Professor Marsooli. "The framework we used for this study can be replicated to demonstrate how flooding in other regions will look by the end of the century to help them mitigate risk and best protect communities and assets in impacted areas."

&nbsp;

Based on the, Marsooli and his

&nbsp;

In collaboration with study co-author Ning Lin of Princeton University, Professor Marsooli conducted high resolution simulations based on the anticipated greenhouse gas concentration by the end of the 21st century. They explored various scenarios to estimate the probability of different flood levels being reached. The team accounted for both sea level rise and hurricanes to investigate the future impacts on Jamaica Bay from storm surge and wave hazards.

The study revealed that the historical 100-year flood level would occur every nine years by 2030 to 2050, and would occur annually by 2080 to 2100. In addition, the 500-year flood levels reached by Superstorm Sandy will take place once every four years by the end of the century.

To make matters even worse, sea-level rise will result in larger waves that produce more flood hazards such as erosion and damage to coastal infrastructure.

"Future projections of the hurricane climatology suggest that climate change would lead to storms that move more slowly and are more intense than we have ever seen before hitting Jamaica Bay," said Professor Marsooli. "But the increase in these once-in-a-generation or even less frequent floods is so dramatic because the impact of sea-level rise will create greater flooding, even if the storms we were seeing today stayed the same."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10584">Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

100-year floods could occur every year by the end of this century

Extreme weather events that have been referred to as "once...

In the first comprehensive report of its kind, experts describe how the impacts of ocean pollution are directly harmful to human health, and plastic is only part of the problem. The researchers found that toxic ocean pollution endangers the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-based-diet-can-transform-your-health-and-body/">health</a> and well-being of more than three billion people.

Dr. Philip Landrigan is the director of <a href="https://www.bc.edu/bc-web/centers/schiller-institute/programs/global-observatory-on-pollution-and-health.html">Boston College's Global Observatory on Pollution on Health</a>. "Simply put, ocean pollution is a major global problem, it is growing, and it directly affects human health," said Dr. Landrigan.

"People have heard about plastic pollution in the oceans, but that is only part of it. Research shows the oceans are being fouled by a complex stew of toxins including mercury, pesticides, industrial chemicals, petroleum wastes, agricultural runoff, and manufactured chemicals embedded in plastic. These toxic materials in the ocean get into people, mainly by eating contaminated seafood."

"We are all at risk, but the people most seriously affected are people in coastal fishing communities, people on small island nations, indigenous populations and people in the high Arctic. The very survival of these vulnerable populations depends on the health of the seas."

The researchers analyzed data from more than 584 scientific studies. Beyond food contamination, oil spills and chemical waste threaten the marine microorganisms that provide much of the world's oxygen supply. According to Prince Albert of Monaco, the analysis can be used to mobilize global resolve to curb ocean pollution.

"The link between ocean pollution and human health has, for a long time, given rise to very few studies. Taking into account the effects of ocean pollution - due to plastic, water and industrial waste, chemicals, hydrocarbons, to name a few - on human health should mean that this threat must be permanently included in the international scientific activity," wrote Prince Albert.

"This document on Human Health and the Ocean, prepared with the contributions of the Monaco Science Centre and Boston College, substantiates that the pollution of the ocean is not inevitable."

The researchers found that mercury pollution has become widespread in the oceans, and accumulates to high levels in predator fish. Once mercury enters the food chain, it poses documented risks to humans. The study showed that burning coal is the biggest source of mercury pollution.

The analysis confirmed that human sources of pollution such as industrial waste, agricultural runoff, pesticides, and sewage have increased the frequency of harmful algal blooms (HABs). These blooms produce toxins associated with dementia, amnesia, neurological damage, and rapid death.

Plastic waste is now entering the oceans at a rate of more than 10 million tons each year, according to the researchers. This waste is consumed by people in the form of toxic microscopic particles, which are now found in all humans.

The study also revealed that the Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, and Asian rivers are the water bodies that are most severely impacted by ocean pollution.

"The key thing to realize about ocean pollution is that, like all forms of pollution, it can be prevented using laws, policies, technology, and enforcement actions that target the most important pollution sources," said Dr. Landrigan. 

"Many countries have used these tools and have successfully cleaned fouled harbors, rejuvenated estuaries, and restored coral reefs. The results have been increased tourism, restored fisheries, improved human health, and economic growth. These benefits will last for centuries."

"Our Global Observatory on Pollution and Health at Boston College is extremely proud to have been able to partner with the Centre Scientifique de Monaco and the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation to produce this report and develop the Declaration of Monaco."

"This work advances the mission of the Schiller Institute for Integrated Science and Society at Boston College to use scientific research to benefit society, and it fulfills Pope Francis' call in Laudato Si' to care for our Common Home and to protect the poor and the vulnerable among us."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.annalsofglobalhealth.org/">Annals of Global Health</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ocean pollution threatens the health of more than three billion people

In the first comprehensive report of its kind, experts describe...

Researchers at institutions all over the world have collaborated to track the impacts of climate change on human <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-based-diet-can-transform-your-health-and-body/">health</a>. In a comprehensive report, the experts reveal that millions of lives can be saved and improved with urgent climate action. 

Without urgent action, however, we can expect an increasingly hotter world that threatens global health, disrupts lives, and overwhelms healthcare systems, warn the study authors. 

Brittany Shea is the project director of the Global Consortium on Climate &amp; Health Education at the <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Mailman School of Public Health</a>.

"Whether it's the spread of viruses and infectious diseases, heat exposure, or wildfires, the 2020 Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change U.S. Policy Brief shows how climate change makes communities and health care systems more vulnerable," said Shea. "The Brief lays out how climate action across sectors will lead to major environmental and public health gains."

The researchers investigated the potential impacts of converging climate crises across 41 key indicators. These indicators are organized into five categories: climate change impacts, exposures, and vulnerabilities; adaptation planning and resilience for health; mitigation actions and health co-benefits; economics and finance; and public and political engagement.

"An important aspect of public health involves ensuring food security following a climate change induced extreme event. Here we look for common occurrences, problems and potential solutions that can be used as recommendations to ensure that no one goes hungry following a hurricane, flood or intense windstorm. But more needs to be done," explained study co-author Dr. Lewis Ziska.

According to Dr. Kim Knowlton, a senior scientist at the Natural Resources Defense Council, this year's report from the Lancet is the latest warning that the United States is going in the wrong direction on climate action and human health. 

"But it's not too late to change course," said Dr. Knowlton. "The incoming Biden/Harris administration should seize this opportunity to embrace the knowledge, expertise, and passion of the American public health and healthcare community. Together, we can build back a healthier, more equitable, and climate-resilient nation."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/">The Lancet</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Urgent climate action could save and improve millions of lives

Researchers at institutions all over the world have collaborated to...

Group of Alaskan islands may belong to a single, massive volcano. A cluster of volcanic islands in Central Alaska may be part of one interconnected giant volcano, according to the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a>. If this theory is correct, the massive volcanic caldera would belong to the category of supervolcanoes that have produced the largest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/kilauea-eruption-was-caused-by-a-series-of-small-changes/">eruptions</a> in Earth's history.

The Islands of the Four Mountains in the central Aleutians is a group of six stratovolcanoes named Carlisle, Cleveland, Herbert, Kagamil, Tana, and Uliaga. With their steep conical mountains, stratovolcanoes can have enormous eruptions, like that of Mount St. Helens in 1980. 

While studying Mount Cleveland, the most active volcano of the group, researchers from multiple institutions have found evidence to suggest that the islands belong to one interconnected caldera.

Caldera-forming eruptions are the most explosive and dangerous volcanic eruptions. The volume of ash and gas released by these events can have global impacts on the climate, and can also trigger abrupt social change. For example, the fall of the Roman Republic was recently linked to an eruption of the nearby Okmok volcano in the year BCE 43.

The proposed caldera in Alaska would be even larger than Okmok. Study co-author Diana Roman said that if the caldera is confirmed, it would become the first in the Aleutians that is hidden underwater. She described the difficulty of studying such a remote place."We've been scraping under the couch cushions for data," said Roman. "But everything we look at lines up with a caldera in this region."

Study lead author John Power is a a researcher with the U.S. Geological Survey at the Alaska Volcano Observatory. He and Roman emphasized that the existence of the caldera is not yet proven. To investigate further and confirm the caldera, the team must return to the islands and gather more direct evidence to fully test their theory.

"Our hope is to return to the Islands of Four Mountains and look more closely at the seafloor, study the volcanic rocks in greater detail, collect more seismic and gravity data, and sample many more of the geothermal areas," said Roman. She noted that the caldera hypothesis may also help explain the frequent explosive activity seen at Mount Cleveland.

For the last 20 years or longer, Mount Cleveland has likely been the most active volcano in North America. It is known to produce ash clouds as high as 15,000 and 30,000 feet above sea level, which poses serious hazards to aircraft.

"It does potentially help us understand what makes Cleveland so active," said Power. "It can also help us understand what type of eruptions to expect in the future and better prepare for their hazards."

The research will be presented on December 7, 2020 at the <a href="https://www.agu.org/fall-meeting">AGU Fall Meeting 2020</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Group of Alaskan islands may belong to a single, massive volcano

Group of Alaskan islands may belong to a single, massive...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> have determined that a human migration from Taiwan to the Ryukyu Islands 35,000 years ago was an intentional move, and did not happen just by chance. The team used satellite-tracked buoys to simulate ancient <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fritillaria-plants-have-found-a-way-to-hide-from-humans/">humans</a> drifting at sea. The vast majority of the buoys did not successfully complete the crossing

Tracking human migrations over the last 50,000 is key to understanding human history. There has been a lot of debate as to the degree of intentionality behind the movement of Paleolithic people from Taiwan to the Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, between 35,000 and 30,000 years ago. 

"There have been many studies on Paleolithic migrations to Australia and its neighboring landmasses, often discussing whether these journeys were accidental or intentional," said Professor Yosuke Kaifu. "Our study looks specifically at the migration to the Ryukyu Islands, because it is not just historically significant, but is also very difficult to get there. The destination can be seen from the top of a coastal mountain in Taiwan, but not from the coast. In addition, it is on the opposite side of the Kuroshio, one of the strongest currents in the world. If they crossed this sea deliberately, it must have been a bold act of exploration."

To investigate the likelihood of arriving at the Ryukyu Islands by chance, the researchers deployed 138 satellite-tracked buoys to mimic drifters making the ocean journey out of Taiwan.

"The results were clearer than I would have expected," said Professor Kaifu. "Only four of the buoys came within 20 kilometers of any of the Ryukyu Islands, and all of these were due to adverse weather conditions. If you were an ancient mariner, it's very unlikely you would have set out on any kind of journey with such a storm on the horizon. What this tells us is that the Kuroshio directs drifters away from, rather than towards, the Ryukyu Islands; in other words, that region must have been actively navigated."

According to geological records as well as other existing evidence, the currents in this region have been stable for at least the last 100,000 years. Previous studies also suggest that Paleolithic voyagers would not have risked heading out into stormy conditions, which eliminates the possibility that ancient humans stumbled upon the Ryukyu Islands by chance. 

"At the beginning, I had no idea how to demonstrate the intentionality of the sea crossings, but I was lucky enough to meet my co-authors in Taiwan, leading authorities of the Kuroshio, and came across the idea of using the tracking buoys," said Professor Kaifu. "Now, our results suggest the drift hypothesis for Paleolithic migration in this region is almost impossible. I believe we succeeded in making a strong argument that the ancient populations in question were not passengers of chance, but explorers."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human migrations to the Ryukyu Islands were led by explorers, not drifters

Researchers at the University of Tokyo have determined that a...

A large portion of the Milky Way is about to become much less mysterious today as scientists release the most detailed data that has ever been obtained for more than two billion stars. The European Space Agency's Gaia space observatory has measured stellar positions, colors, brightness, and movement,  including the first optical measurement of the acceleration of the solar system. 

Gaia was launched in 2013 to orbit around the so-called Lagrange 2 (L2) point, located 1.5 million kilometers behind the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fireball-meteor-that-fell-to-earth-contains-extraterrestrial-organic-compounds/">Earth</a> in the direction away from the Sun. At L2, the gravitational forces between the Earth and the Sun are balanced, which keeps the spacecraft stable. Here, Gaia also has unobstructed views of the sky.

The primary goal of Gaia is to continuously scan the sky, allowing for astronomers to measure changes in the positions of stars over time. Calculating these tiny shifts makes it possible to calculate the distance between the stars. 

Two previous data releases from Gaia revealed the positions of 1.6 billion stars. The latest release will push this total up to just under 2 billion stars, and their positions are significantly more clear this time around.

Gaia also monitors how fast stars are moving toward or away from the Sun, assesses their chemical composition, and tracks their brightness and position. 

In addition, the spacecraft collects data on the two largest companion galaxies to the Milky Way, the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds. 

"Gaia is measuring the distances of hundreds of millions of objects that are many thousands of light years away, at an accuracy equivalent to measuring the thickness of hair at a distance of more than 2,000 kilometers. These data are one of the backbones of astrophysics, allowing us to forensically analyze our stellar neighborhood, and tackle crucial questions about the origin and future of our Galaxy."

The data, as well as early scientific discoveries, will be presented today at a special briefing hosted by the <a href="https://ras.ac.uk/">Royal Astronomical Society</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gaia mission has obtained new details about two billion stars

A large portion of the Milky Way is about to...

In a new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, researchers have successfully used GPS technology to follow plastic bottles through the Ganges River system into Bay of Bengal. Tracking the movement of the bottles will provide scientists with new insight on the environmental pathways of plastic pollution, which threatens the health of humans and natural <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-that-eat-human-foods-are-altering-their-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> worldwide.

Previous studies suggest that rivers transport up to 80 percent of the plastic pollution found in oceans. While the movement and accumulation of plastic pollution in the ocean is well-documented, not as much is known about the transfer of plastic litter through rivers.

To investigate, a team led by Emily Duncan at the University of Exeter created a new system that uses GPS tracking devices placed in 500 mL plastic bottles. The so-called "bottle tags" were designed to mimic plastic beverage bottles traveling through natural environments.

As part of the National Geographic Sea to Source Ganges Expedition, the researchers released 25 bottle tags at various sites along the Ganges River. 

The experts successfully tracked several of the bottles through the Ganges and into the Bay of Bengal. The bottle that traveled the longest distance moved across 2,845 kilometers in 94 days.

The findings suggest that bottle tags could be used to significantly improve our understanding of plastic litter's movement through rivers and into oceans. The devices may provide new insight into where plastic litter is most likely to accumulate.

According to the researchers, the bottle tags could also be used to get the public involved by letting people follow along with their journey. This would potentially boost awareness and discourage littering.

"Our 'message in a bottle' tags show how far and how fast plastic pollution can move," wrote the study authors. "It demonstrates that this is a truly global issue, as a piece of plastic dropped in a river or ocean could soon wash up on the other side of the world."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists use GPS tags to track plastic bottles moving through the Ganges

In a new study published by PLOS, researchers have successfully...

Chemical compounds that plants use to protect themselves may also help to protect people from <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/how-much-did-pollution-levels-drop-due-to-covid-19-shutdowns/">COVID-19</a> infection, according to a new study from at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>. 

Plant compounds found in muscadine grapes, dark chocolate, and green tea can bind to and inhibit the coronavirus' main protease (Mpro), which plays a key role in viral gene expression and replication.

Study co-author and plant biologist Professor De-Yu Xie explained that proteases are important to the health and viability of cells and viruses. For example, cells cannot perform many important functions like replication if proteases are inhibited. 

"One of our lab's focuses is to find nutraceuticals in food or medicinal plants that inhibit either how a virus attaches to human cells or the propagation of a virus in human cells," said Professor Xie.

The researchers set out to investigate how Mpro in the SARS-CoV-2 virus would react when it encountered a number of different plant chemical compounds that are known for having powerful antioxidant properties. 

Using computer simulations, the experts demonstrated that chemical compounds from green tea, two varieties of muscadine grapes, cacao powder and dark chocolate were able to bind to different portions of Mpro.

"Mpro in SARS-CoV-2 is required for the virus to replicate and assemble itself. If we can inhibit or deactivate this protease, the virus will die," said Professor Xie. "Mpro has a portion that is like a 'pocket' that was 'filled' by the chemical compounds. When this pocket was filled, the protease lost its important function."

Lab experiments conducted in Professor Xie's lab by PhD student Yue Zhu confirmed the results of the computer simulations. The chemical compounds in green tea and muscadine grapes were very successful at blocking the function of Mpro. In addition, plant compounds in cacao powder and dark chocolate reduced Mpro activity by about half.

"Green tea has five tested chemical compounds that bind to different sites in the pocket on Mpro, essentially overwhelming it to inhibit its function," said Professor Xie. "Muscadine grapes contain these inhibitory chemicals in their skins and seeds. Plants use these compounds to protect themselves, so it is not surprising that plant leaves and skins contain these beneficial compounds."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.frontiersin.org/Plant_Biotechnology/">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compounds in muscadine grapes block coronavirus replication

Chemical compounds that plants use to protect themselves may also...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.uthscsa.edu/">UT Health San Antonio</a>, experts have pinpointed why drinking alcohol interferes with our ability to concentrate. The researchers have found that alcohol blocks the release of norepinephrine, which is needed to help us pay <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/musically-training-children-have-improved-attention-and-memory-skills/">attention</a>.

"When we want to focus on something, or when we stand up from a chair and become active, a brain stem nucleus releases a chemical called norepinephrine. Acute exposure to alcohol inhibits this signal in the brain," said study senior author Dr. Martin Paukert.

When a particular task requires our attention,  norepinephrine is secreted by a brain structure called the locus coeruleus. Dr. Paukert and his colleagues have described, for the first time, what happens next. They discovered that the norepinephrine normally attaches to receptors on cells called Bergmann glia, which elevates calcium levels within these cells. 

Bergmann glia are supporting cells in the cerebellum, a region near the brain stem. "To our knowledge, this paper is the first description that norepinephrine in mammals directly binds to receptors on the Bergmann glia and activates them through calcium elevation," said Dr. Paukert.

Even though the researchers focused primarily on the Bergmann glia, they also demonstrated that the same type of inhibition takes place in cortical astrocytes. "Most likely vigilance-dependent astrocyte calcium activation is inhibited throughout the brain by acute alcohol intoxication."

People tend to lose their balance when they are drinking alcohol. The researchers expected to find that the inhibition of calcium rise in Bergmann glia would explain this as well, but it did not. 

"The calcium elevation in Bergmann glia is not critical for motor coordination, which is somewhat surprising because the cerebellum is classically known for its role in motor control," said Dr. Paukert. "However, our findings are in line with current suggestions that the cerebellum also plays critical roles in non-motor functions, and that astrocytes are not only supporting basic brain maintenance, but they may actively participate in cognitive function."

Study co-author Dr. Manzoor Bhat suggested that the significance of this groundbreaking research is that it was conducted "in real time in living and breathing animals using state-of-the-art technologies." 

"The findings will open up new avenues of defining the brain circuits that ultimately determine the state of alertness, and how chemicals that interfere with those circuits essentially dampen this inherent vigilance system of the brain," said Dr. Bhat. 

The work was funded by the Robert J. Kleberg, Jr. and Helen C. Kleberg Foundation, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, and the National Institute of Mental Health. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why drinking alcohol interferes with concentration

In a new study from UT Health San Antonio, experts...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> have demonstrated for the first time that cannabidiol (CBD) does not impair a person's ability to drive. The research is particularly relevant as CBD is increasingly used to treat anxiety, epilepsy, fibromyalgia pain, sleep disorders, and other medical issues. 

"These findings indicate for the first time that CBD, when given without THC, does not affect a subject's ability to drive. That's great news for those using or considering treatment using CBD-based products," said study lead author Dr. Thomas Arkell.

For the investigation, 26 participants were given four different types of vaporized cannabis in a random order on four separate occasions. The vaporized cannabis contained either: mainly THC, mainly CBD, a combination of THC and CBD, or a placebo cannabis with no active components. The amount of THC inhaled by the volunteers was potent enough to induce strong feelings of intoxication.

The driving tests that followed were conducted on a 100-kilometer stretch of public highway in a dual control car with a driving instructor present. The study participants completed two driving tests, which were conducted 40 minutes and four hours after inhaling the cannabis vapor. The researchers used a well-established scientific test that measures lane weaving, swerving, and overcorrecting. 

The study revealed that cannabis containing mainly CBD did not impair driving, while cannabis containing THC caused mild impairment 40 minutes later. The individuals who were given THC no longer showed signs of impairment four hours after exposure.

"With cannabis laws changing globally, jurisdictions are grappling with the issue of cannabis-impaired driving," said Dr. Arkell.  "These results provide much needed insights into the magnitude and duration of impairment caused by different types of cannabis and can help to guide road-safety policy not just in Australia but around the world."

Dr. Arkell said that road safety is a primary concern, and that the research can support evidence-based laws and regulation for people receiving medical cannabis.

Professor Iain McGregor is the academic director of the Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics at the University of Sydney.

"The results should reassure people using CBD-only products that they are most likely safe to drive, while helping patients using THC-dominant products to understand the duration of impairment," said Professor McGregor.

"With rapidly changing attitudes towards medical and non-medical use of cannabis, driving under the influence of cannabis is emerging as an important and somewhat controversial public health issue."

"While some previous studies have looked at the effects of cannabis on driving, most have focused on smoked cannabis containing only THC (not CBD) and have not precisely quantified the duration of impairment."

"This is the first study to illustrate the lack of CBD effects on driving and to also provide a clear indication of the duration of THC impairment."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/">JAMA</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

CBD does not impair driving ability

Experts at the University of Sydney have demonstrated for the...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.pcrm.org/">Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine</a>, experts report that a plant-based diet can transform the health of individuals who are <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/overweight-depression/">overweight</a>. The researchers found that the benefits of a plant-based diet begin with a metabolism boost, and then spread throughout the body. 

Beyond weight loss, study participants experienced cardiometabolic improvements that can reduce the risk for type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and many other health issues.

"These findings are groundbreaking for the 160 million Americans struggling with overweight and obesity," said study lead author Dr. Hana Kahleova. "Over the course of years and decades, burning more calories after every meal can make a significant difference in weight management."

The participants, who were overweight and had no history of diabetes, were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group. Individuals in the intervention group followed a plant-based diet focused on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes with no calorie limit, while individuals in the control group made no dietary changes. Unless directed by a physician, none of the participants changed their exercise or medication routines. 

After 16 weeks, members of the plant-based group had increased their after-meal calorie burn by an average of 18.7 percent, and had lowered their body weight by about 14 pounds. These individuals also saw significant drops in visceral fat volume, which is dangerous fat that builds up around the internal organs.

In collaboration with experts at Yale University, the researchers used magnetic resonance spectroscopy to track the accumulating fat in muscle and liver cells. The team discovered that individuals in the plant-based group had reduced fat inside their liver and muscle cells by 34 and 10 percent, respectively. Fat stored in these cells is linked to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.

"When fat builds up in liver and muscle cells, it interferes with insulin's ability to move glucose out from the bloodstream and into the cells," said Dr. Kahleova. "After just 16 weeks on a low-fat, plant-based diet, study participants reduced the fat in their cells and lowered their chances for developing type 2 diabetes."

The study offered new insight into the link between insulin resistance and the fat contained within cells. Participants on a plant-based diet showed decreased fasting plasma insulin concentration, decreased insulin resistance, and increased insulin sensitivity - which are all positive results. In addition, members of the plant-based group substantially reduced their "bad" cholesterol levels.

Out of all of the body and health improvements achieved by the intervention group, the control group saw no significant changes.

One study participant known as Sam not only improved his metabolism during the 16-week plant diet, but also lost 34 pounds. "I plan to stay on this diet for good. Not just for 16 weeks, but for life." In the time since the research concluded, Sam has stuck with a plant-based diet, reached his goal weight, and has started running marathons.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen">JAMA Network Open</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A plant-based diet can transform your health and body

In a new study from the Physicians Committee for Responsible...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...