Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">CU Boulder</a> have discovered that cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, may have a lot in common with organisms that fundamentally transformed the planet billions of years ago. 

Cyanobacteria are single-celled, photosynthetic organisms that can be found in almost any large body of water today. More than two billion years ago, these microscopic organisms played a major role in the history of life on Earth during a period known as the Great Oxidation Event. At this time, cyanobacteria generated a major surge in oxygen throughout the shallow ocean.

"We see this total shift in the chemistry of the oceans and the atmosphere, which changed the evolution of life, as well," said study lead author Sarah Hurley. "Today, all higher animals need oxygen to survive."

It remains a mystery to scientists what cyanobacteria looked like, where they lived, or what triggered them to suddenly and dramatically oxygenate the ocean. 

But now, Hurley and her colleagues have begun to unravel this mystery. After analyzing studies of naturally-occurring and genetically-engineered cyanobacteria, the researchers propose that these ancient microbes may have floated freely in an open ocean and resembled a modern form of life called beta-cyanobacteria.

According to the researchers, studying these ancient microorganisms offers a window into a time when single-celled organisms ruled the Earth.

"This research gave us the unique opportunity to form and test hypotheses of what the ancient Earth might have looked like, and what these ancient organisms could have been," said study co-author Professor Jeffrey Cameron.

Hurley noted that cyanobacteria currently produce about a quarter of the oxygen that comes from the world's oceans.

"We think that cyanobacteria were around billions of years ago," said Hurley. "Now, we can get at what they were doing and where they were living at that time because we have a record of their metabolism."

The team studied two different types of cyanobacteria, including beta-cyanobacteria, which are common in the oceans today. The researchers also attempted to bring an ancient cyanobacterium back from the dead. 

"We had the ability to do what was essentially a physiological resurrection in the lab," said study co-author Professor Boswell Wing.

When the researchers studied the metabolism of their cultures, they found something surprising. The zombie cyanobacterium did not seem to produce a chemical signature that aligned with the carbon isotope signatures that scientists had previously seen in the rock record. It turned out that the best fit for those ancient signatures were the beta-cyanobacteria the are still alive today. 

In other words, the team may have just stumbled on a living fossil that was hiding in plain sight. 

"That modern organisms could resemble these ancient cyanobacteria - that was really counterintuitive," said Professor Wing.

According to the researchers, the study now provides scientists with a much better idea of what ancient cyanobacteria looked like and where they lived. This means they can begin running experiments to dig deeper into what life was like in the two billion-year-old ocean.

"Here is hard evidence from the geological record and a model organism that can shed new light on life on ancient Earth," said Professor Cameron.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cyanobacteria may shed new light on the history of life on Earth

Scientists at CU Boulder have discovered that cyanobacteria, also known...

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide have been nearly wiped out by a mysterious ailment known as sea star wasting disease. Some starfish species may have suffered irreversible losses, and are now threatened with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">extinction</a>.

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, researchers have found evidence to suggest that the victims of sea star wasting disease (SSWD) may actually be in respiratory distress. The experts report that afflicted starfish appear to be literally "drowning" in their own environment due to a heat-related increase in microbial activity that deprives the creatures of their ability to breathe.

"As humans, we breathe, we ventilate, we bring air into our lungs and we exhale," said study co-author Professor Ian Hewson. "Sea stars diffuse oxygen over their outer surface through little structures called papulae, or skin gills. If there is not enough oxygen surrounding the papulae, the starfish can't breathe."

According to Professor Hewson, warmer ocean conditions lead to the production of unusual amounts of organic material, which he said prompts bacteria to thrive. The bacteria deplete oxygen in the water as they consume the organic matter. This creates a low-oxygen environment that causes the starfish "wasting" characterized by deflation, discoloration, puffiness, and limb twisting.

"It's a cascade of problems that starts with changes in the environment," said Professor Hewson, noting that most of the organic matter comes from microscopic algae discharge, zooplankton excretion, and from decaying animal carcasses. He explained that this stimulates a group of bacteria called copiotrophs, which survive on carbon and rapidly consume organic matter.

The copiotrophs respire, so while absorbing the organic matter, they deplete oxygen in the sea star's watery space, explained Professor Hewson.

"It's organic matter concentrations in the water. If you have a dead and rotting starfish next to starfish that are healthy, all of that dead one's organic matter drifts and fuels the bacteria, creating a hypoxic environment. It looks like disease is being transmitted."

"This reframes the discussion about marine disease ecology, which has focused on pathogenic disease. We should now include microorganisms that don't directly cause the pathology, since they may hold a key to affecting sea star health."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea stars are drowning in their own environment

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide...

Children with self-control are more likely to grow up to be healthier <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/many-young-adults-do-not-know-common-stroke-symptoms/">adults</a> with younger brains and bodies, according to a new study from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>. The researchers tracked 1,000 individuals from birth to age 45 and found that people who had higher levels of self-control as children were aging more slowly than their peers. 

Self-control is the ability to control one's own emotions and behaviors, even when faced with difficult situations. Interviews with the study participants indicated that those in the higher self-control group were better equipped to handle health, financial, and social challenges later in life. 

Furthermore, individuals who had more self control in childhood expressed more positive views of aging and felt more satisfied with life in middle age.

"Our population is growing older, and living longer with age-related diseases," said study first author Professor Leah Richmond-Rakerd. "It's important to identify ways to help individuals prepare successfully for later-life challenges, and live more years free of disability. We found that self-control in early life may help set people up for healthy aging."

The researchers emphasized that childhood is not destiny, and that some study participants had shifted their self-control levels as adults and had better health outcomes than their childhood assessments would have predicted.

Self-control can be taught, and the experts propose that a societal investment in such training could improve life span and quality of life, not only in childhood, but also perhaps in midlife. A growing collection of evidence suggests that changing behaviors in midlife, such as quitting smoking or taking up exercise, can lead to improved outcomes.

"Everyone fears an old age that's sickly, poor, and lonely, so aging well requires us to get prepared, physically, financially, and socially," said study co-author Professor Terrie Moffitt. "We found people who have used self-control since childhood are far more prepared for aging than their same-age peers."

The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study, based in New Zealand, has tracked the individuals since they were born in 1972 and 1973. The participants were assessed using a variety of psychological and health assessments at regular intervals, most recently at age 45.

Childhood self-control was assessed by teachers, parents, and the children themselves from the ages of three to 11. The experts measured factors such as impulsive aggression, over-activity, perseverance, and inattention.

From ages 26 to 45, the participants were measured for physiological signs of aging in several organ systems, including the brain. Across all of these measures, higher self-control in childhood was associated with slower aging. In addition, the people with the highest self-control were found to walk faster and have younger-looking faces at age 45.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Self-control in childhood linked to slower aging

Children with self-control are more likely to grow up to...

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/toxic-algal-blooms-will-become-more-frequent-off-the-u-s-west-coast/">coast</a> of Oman mysteriously vanished. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/the-university">University of Bonn</a> suggests that the collapse of these coastal ecosystems was caused by climatic changes.

The experts report that the mangroves went extinct at an extremely fast rate, and most of the forests were lost within a few decades. The researchers found no evidence that falling sea levels or human disturbances contributed to the extinctions. 

Mangrove forests grow in coastal areas that are under water at high tide, yet dry at low tide. They depend on a warm climate, and most species need sea surface temperatures of at least 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Mangroves are also sensitive to water salinity, and their tolerance limit varies among species. 

"This is why we find them nowadays mostly in regions where enough rain falls to reduce salinization of the soil," explained study lead author Valeska Decker, an expert at the Institute for Geosciences at Bonn.

Fossil remains show that there were once many mangrove lagoons on the coast of Oman that mostly disappeared. Over the past few years, Decker has compiled numerous geochemical, sedimentological, and archaeological findings into an overall picture. "From our point of view, everything suggests that the collapse of these ecosystems has climatic reasons."

Just over 6,000 years ago, a low-pressure trough known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone moved to the south, but it is not entirely clear why and how fast the zone shifted. 

"That this was the case has been well documented for several years," explained Decker. "Our results now indicate that this climate change had two effects: On the one hand, it caused salinization of the soil, which put the mangroves under extreme stress. On the other hand, the vegetation cover in the affected areas decreased in general due to the greater drought." 

As erosion increased, the wind carried large amounts of barren soil into the lagoons that dried up the mangrove forests. According to Decker, the ecosystems probably disappeared within a few decades.

Previous studies suggest that the environmental changes were gradual, and the mangrove forests struggled up until a certain threshold was reached and then collapsed very quickly. Today, mangroves are only found in a few places in Oman.

"Archaeological findings also speak against a man-made ecological catastrophe. It is true that there were humans living in the coastal regions who used the mangroves as firewood. However, they were nomads who did not build permanent settlements. This meant that their need for wood was relatively low - low enough to rule out overuse as a cause."

Decker and her colleagues plan to investigate further, and their findings could be particularly relevant today as the climate is changing in many regions of the world at a very rapid pace. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research">Quaternary Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mangrove forests in Oman were wiped out by climate change

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on...

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone. The reawakening of the world's tallest active geyser is not a forewarning of explosive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/why-australias-east-coast-is-a-hotbed-of-volcanic-activity/">volcanic</a> activity in Yellowstone National Park, according to a study from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a>. In 2018, the Steamboat Geyser entered into a prolonged period of frequent activity after three and a half years of dormancy.

Yellowstone National Park has over 10,000 hot springs and geysers. Some of the geysers erupt as frequently as 300 times a year, while others remain dormant for decades at a time. 

"Hydrothermal explosions - basically hot water exploding because it comes into contact with hot rock - are one of the biggest hazards in Yellowstone," said study senior author Professor Michael Manga. "The reason that they are problematic is that they are very hard to predict; it is not clear if there are any precursors that would allow you to provide warning."

The researchers established that the ground around the Steamboat Geyser has risen, and that seismic activity increased somewhat before the geyser reawakened. In addition, the area is currently radiating more heat into the atmosphere. However, no other dormant geysers in the basin have restarted, and the temperature of the groundwater propelling Steamboat's eruptions has not increased. 

"We don't find any evidence that there is a big eruption coming. I think that is an important takeaway," said Professor Manga, who has studied geysers around the world and created some in his own laboratory.

The experts set out to answer three questions about Steamboat Geyser, including why it reawakened and why its activity is so variable. The team also wanted to know how the geyser has the potential for such powerful explosions. While minor eruptions of 10 to 15 feet are much more frequent, major eruptions have thrown water more than 375 feet into the air. 

The researchers managed to answer two out of three questions. First, by comparing geysers in the United States, Russia, Iceland, and Chile, the team determined that the deeper the reservoir, the higher the eruption jet. Steamboat Geyser, with a reservoir about 82 feet below ground, has the highest column of up to 377 feet. Meanwhile, two of the other geysers that were measured in Chile had eruptions of only about three feet high from up to 16-foot-deep reservoirs.

"What you are really doing is you are filling a container, it reaches a critical point, you empty it and then you run out of fluid that can erupt until it refills again," said Professor Manga. "The deeper you go, the higher the pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling temperature. And the hotter the water is, the more energy it has and the higher the geyser."

The researchers also analyzed historical records that included weather data and seismometer and readings to predict which factors cause the variability of Steamboat's eruptions, which ranges from three to 17 days. 

The study authors concluded that variations in rainfall and snowmelt were likely responsible for most of this variability. For example, melting snow and rainfall in the warmer months will fill the reservoir up faster, providing geysers with enough water to erupt more frequently.

Professor Manga and his team were unable to determine why Steamboat Geyser reawakened on March 15, 2018, after three years and 193 days of inactivity. They found no definitive evidence that it was triggered by new magma rising below the geyser.

According to Professor Manga, studies of water eruptions from geysers could give insight into the eruptions of hot rock from volcanoes.

"What we asked are very simple questions and it is a little bit embarrassing that we can't answer them, because it means there are fundamental processes on Earth that we don't quite understand."

"One of the reasons we argue we need to study geysers is that if we can't understand and explain how a geyser erupts, our hope for doing the same thing for magma is much lower."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone. The...

Researchers at <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> have found scientific evidence that people who travel frequently are significantly happier than those who do not. The study also revealed that individuals who are constantly thinking about and discussing their travel plans are more likely to go on regular vacations. 

"This research shows the more people talk about and plan vacations the more likely they are to take them," said study lead author Chun-Chu Chen. "If you are like me and chomping at the bit to get out of dodge and see someplace new, this research will hopefully be some additional good motivation to start planning your next vacation."

The researchers set out to examine whether frequent travelers have higher levels of life satisfaction, and why these individuals travel more frequently than others. 

A survey of 500 respondents showed that individuals who personally value tourism are more likely to gather travel-relevant information, which leads to more frequent traveling. 

The team also found that frequent travelers are, in fact, more satisfied with their life. The findings indicate that travel and tourism can be an important life domain affecting how people evaluate their overall quality of life.

Survey participants who reported regularly traveling at least 75 miles away from home also reported being substantially happier when asked about their overall well-being.  

Previous studies that examined the health and wellness benefits of tourism experiences, including stress relief, were primarily focused on the effect of a single trip or vacation. The current investigation looked at the sustained benefits of travel over the course of a year.

"While things like work, family life and friends play a bigger role in overall reports of well-being, the accumulation of travel experiences does appear to have a small yet noticeable effect on self-reported life satisfaction," said Chen. "It really illustrates the importance of being able to get out of your routine and experience new things."

When travel restrictions due to COVID-19 begin to relax, the research could have important implications for both tourists and the tourism industry. Chen said that based on the results of the study, travel companies, resorts, and even airlines could launch social media campaigns to spark people's interest in discussing their opinions about travel.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://cognizantcommunication.com/publication/tourism-analysis-an-interdisciplinary-tourism-hospitality-journal/">Tourism Analysis</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People who travel frequently are happier

Researchers at Washington State University have found scientific evidence that...

By 2040, an estimated 635 million people will be impacted by the sinking of the ground's surface, according to a study from <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a>. This potentially destructive hazard, known as land subsidence, has a range of natural and human-induced causes such as groundwater removal.

"Subsidence due to groundwater depletion is a slow and gradual process that develops on large time scales (months to years), producing progressive loss of land elevation (centimeters to decimeters per year) typically over very large areas and variably affects urban and agricultural areas worldwide," explained the researchers.

"Subsidence permanently reduces aquifer-system storage capacity, causes earth fissures, damages buildings and civil infrastructure, and increases flood susceptibility and risk." 

A research team led by Gerardo Herrera Garcia conducted a large-scale literature review which revealed that, during the past century, land subsidence due to groundwater depletion occurred at 200 locations in 34 countries. 

The study indicates that within the next two decades, 19 percent of the world's population - accounting for 21 percent of the global Gross Domestic Product - will be affected by land subsidence.

"During the next decades, global population and economic growth will continue to increase groundwater demand and accompanying groundwater depletion and, when exacerbated by droughts, will probably increase land subsidence occurrence and related damages or impacts."

"To raise awareness and inform decision-making, we evaluate potential global subsidence due to groundwater depletion, a key first step toward formulating effective land-subsidence policies that are lacking in most countries worldwide."

Policies that implement constant monitoring of high-risk areas and damage evaluation could help reduce the impacts of subsidence where it will hit hardest. These will be areas with increased population density, high groundwater demand, and irrigated areas that are suffering water stress.

The researchers found that their model is 94 percent capable of distinguishing between subsidence and non-subsidence areas. The model showed that most of the 635 million inhabitants in high-risk areas are located in Asia, with a total exposed GDP of $9.78 trillion. 

The experts noted that while the model does not consider existing mitigation measures, potentially resulting in overestimates of subsidence exposure, their research still represents a step forward to effective policies.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Land subsidence will affect 635 million people by 2040

By 2040, an estimated 635 million people will be impacted...

Both teens and adults who vape are more likely to report difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/focus-on-the-positive-to-make-better-decisions-during-turbulent-times/">decisions</a>, according to researchers at the <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/">University of Rochester Medical Center</a> (URMC). The results of two separate investigations confirmed the link between vaping and mental fog. 

The experts also found that kids were more likely to experience mental fog if they started vaping before the age of 14.

Previous studies have uncovered an association between vaping and mental impairment in animals, but the URMC team is the first to establish the same link in humans. 

"Our studies add to growing evidence that vaping should not be considered a safe alternative to tobacco smoking," said lead author Dr. Dongmei Li.

The studies, which were published in the journals Tobacco Induced Diseases and Plos One, were focused on the response of over 18,000 middle and high school students in the National Youth Tobacco Survey. Data was also analyzed from adults who participated in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System phone survey, including more than 886,000 responses.

The surveys asked similar questions about smoking and vaping habits, as well as about issues with memory, attention, and mental function.

The analysis revealed that people who smoke and vape are most likely to report struggling with mental function, regardless of their age. Following just behind that group, people who only vape or only smoke reported mental fog at similar rates that were significantly higher than those reported by people who do neither. 

Among teens, those who started vaping as early as eight to 13 years old were more likely to have difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions.

"With the recent rise in teen vaping, this is very concerning and suggests that we need to intervene even earlier," said Dr. Li. "Prevention programs that start in middle or high school might actually be too late."

According to the researchers, adolescence is a critical period for brain development, especially for executive mental function, which means tweens and teens may be more susceptible to nicotine-induced brain changes. 

The experts noted that further studies are needed to follow kids and adults over time in order to gain a better understanding of the cause and effect of vaping and mental fog.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.tobaccoinduceddiseases.org/">Tobacco Induced Diseases</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vaping interferes with memory, focus, and decision-making

Both teens and adults who vape are more likely to...

The frozen ground in the northern hemisphere is estimated to contain about twice as much carbon as Earth's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-beyond-moon/">atmosphere</a>. But now, these permafrost soils are collapsing under warmer conditions, and releasing unknown amounts of carbon in the process. 

An international team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">CSU</a> Professor Thomas Borch investigated how the thawing process may be affecting microorganisms in the soil. 

The experts tested the theory that thawing increases the availability of organic carbon for microorganisms to process, subsequently releasing vast amounts of carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these heat-trapping gases accelerate climate warming and cause more permafrost to thaw in a vicious cycle. 

"The organic material naturally present in the samples accumulated as peat over thousands of years. With permafrost thaw, microbes become active and are able to decompose the peat," said study co-lead author Andreas Kappler. "We also know that iron minerals preserve organic carbon from biodegradation in various environments - and thus they could be a carbon sink even after the permafrost has thawed."

The reactive iron is present as a kind of rust that could potentially trap the organic material in what is referred to as a "rusty carbon sink." The team analyzed the storage potential of the rusty carbon sink at a permafrost peatland in Abisko, Sweden. The researchers collected samples of the soil porewater and drill cores of the active layer along a permafrost thaw gradient. 

The permafrost soil samples were used to evaluate how much organic material was bound to reactive iron minerals, how stable these iron-carbon associations are with permafrost thaw, and whether the microorganisms present could use the material as a source of energy. 

The study revealed that microorganisms are, in fact, able to use the iron as a food source, thereby releasing the bound organic carbon.

"That means the rusty carbon sink cannot prevent the organic carbon from escaping from the thawing permafrost," said Kappler. "Based on data available from elsewhere in the northern hemisphere, we expect that our findings are applicable for permafrost environments worldwide," added study co-lead author Casey Bryce.

The researchers explained that the rusty carbon sink is only found in intact permafrost soils and is lost during permafrost thaw. 

"It appears that the previously iron-bound carbon is highly bioavailable and, therefore, bacteria could immediately metabolize it into greenhouse gas emissions," said study co-author Monique Patzner. "This is a process which is currently absent from climate-change prediction models and must be factored in."

The researchers will now investigate how this newly discovered process affects greenhouse gas emissions, and will study the chemical nature and fate of the organic matter released from permafrost soils. According to Professor Borch, these further inquiries should help to improve our understanding of carbon cycling in these sensitive ecosystems.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Permafrost soils are collapsing under rising temperatures

The frozen ground in the northern hemisphere is estimated to...

A volcano on the eastern Caribbean island of St. Vincent is rumbling back to life and spewing ash for the first time since 1979. The last major <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/kilauea-eruption-was-caused-by-a-series-of-small-changes/">eruption</a> of the volcano, La Soufriere, killed 1,600 people in 1902.

On Thursday, 100,000 residents of the island chain that includes St. Vincent and the Grenadines were advised to evacuate their homes. The government raised the alert level to orange, which indicates that the volcano could erupt within 24 hours. Officials recommended for people who live nearby to leave their homes immediately.

The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency said that steam and gas were seen over La Soufriere. Experts also spotted a volcanic dome, which forms when lava reaches the Earth's surface.

About 100 miles from St. Vincent, on the Caribbean island of Martinique, authorities are also closely monitoring the Mount Pelee volcano after tremors beneath the mountain became more frequent last month. Officials in the French Caribbean territory issued a yellow alert in early December. This was the first time an alert had been issued for Mount Pelee since its last eruption in 1932, according to the <a href="https://apnews.com/">Associated Press</a>.

Experts have documented an increase in seismic activity on Mount Pelee since April of 2019 - the first activity since the end of an eruption that lasted from 1929 to 1932. 

Even though the eastern Caribbean is one long chain of volcanoes, Erik Klemetti of Denison University told <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/">ABC News</a> that the activity at Mt. Pelee and La Soufriere are not related. “It’s not like one volcano starts erupting then others will. It falls into the category of coincidence.”

Klemetti told ABC that the activity is evidence that magma is lurking underground and percolating toward the surface. The mechanisms that control this process are not very well understood.

According to Klemetti, the most active volcano in the eastern Caribbean recently has been Soufriere Hills in Montserrat, which has erupted continuously since 1995.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Caribbean volcanoes show first signs of activity in decades

A volcano on the eastern Caribbean island of St. Vincent...

The time has come for New Year's resolutions, when many of us will set ambitious goals to improve our lives in 2021. But a new study from the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/">University of Rochester</a> suggests that this year, we must change our approach to making resolutions. According to Professor Richard Ryan, goals that involve giving to others are not only the most satisfying, but may also be the most necessary as the COVID-19 pandemic rages on.

"There are many goals that even when achieved will not bring people more happiness. A goal of making more money, for example, may get a person working harder, but may actually leave them less connected to others, or feeling less autonomy on a day-to-day basis. It could make the person less happy. Goals that work are ones where we can find real satisfaction in achieving them."

Professor Ryan is a clinical psychologist and an international expert on human motivation. His advice on resolutions is that most of the time people are simply not successful at following through with them. 

"The saddest part is that most people don't succeed at their January 1 resolutions. But that is because most of these midnight resolutions look more like pressure coming from the outside - an attempt to look better, relieve guilt, or meet the standards of others."

"Losing weight, for example, is one of the most common New Year's goals and one that people tend to do poorly at. Part of the reason for that is where it's coming from: it's often coming from internal or external pressure - as opposed to a goal that's something that you might intrinsically value such as having more health or vitality. If the goal is one that is not 'authentic' and not really coming from your own values or interests, the energy for it fades fast."

However, Professor Ryan notes that any occasion that gives us an opportunity to reflect on our lives is ultimately a good thing. "Whenever that happens, if it's really a reflective change - something that you put your heart behind - that can be good for people."

"For most of us, if we give ourselves occasional moments of reflection-taking the time to really think about what's going well in our lives and what really matters-we can usually identify some things we could change."

"Often that means listening to that little nagging feeling about the things that we know would improve our lives. It means allowing ourselves to tune into that inner signal in an open, non-defensive way and to consider the possibilities and the choices that you really have. In truth, there are always ways to make life better, but the road upward need not be a painful one - if you are going in the right direction."

In a decades-long collaboration with fellow Rochester Professor Edward Deci, Ryan developed the self-determination theory (SDT), one of the most widely accepted frameworks of human motivation in contemporary behavioral science. The theory, which is based on the idea that all humans have the natural tendency to behave in effective and healthy ways, may explain what truly motivates people to stick with certain goals.

Acts of kindness toward others satisfy all three of the basic psychological needs identified in Professor Ryan's theory - autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Competence gives us a sense of accomplishment, while autonomy helps us find personal value. Relatedness can be achieved by working with and feeling connected to others.

"If you want to make a New Year's resolution that really makes you happy, think about the ways in which you can contribute to the world. All three of these basic needs are fulfilled. The research shows it's not just good for the world but also really good for you."

"We found that when people are focused on giving to others they experience deeper satisfactions than when their goals are more self-oriented. For example, experiments show that doing something benevolent for others, even when you will never meet the beneficiary, increases your positive mood and energy." 

"Most recently, we published a study about what we call people's 'integrative span.' We discovered that your happiness increases as your focus of concern and care gets wider. If your main concerns and cares are narrow and selfish - just about 'me and the people very close to me' versus about "my family and my community' versus about 'the larger world and everything in it' - the less happy you are prone to be. A broader scope of caring and concern for others, in contrast, predicts a higher well-being."

So, now it is time to settle on our resolutions. How do we set goals that we are most likely to achieve? "Beyond the focus of your goals, there are some key elements to success at any resolution you might make," says Professor Ryan.

"First, make sure your goal is one you truly embrace - that you are fully behind and care about. An achievable goal is also one that is not abstract, like 'improve my health' but concrete - such as 'increase my daily step count' or 'drink sparkling water rather than sugared soda at lunch.' These latter goals are clear and achievable in a way that a vague global resolution can never be. Once having a clear aim, the next step is making a realistic plan on how and when it will be implemented."

"Just as important, research shows that the more you can make achieving your resolution fun and 'intrinsically motivated' the more you'll persist. For example, a plan to increase your step count might include a walk each day with a good friend - which will both achieve your step goal and satisfy relatedness needs. By finding an activity that both gets you to your goal and that you actually enjoy - or at least don't find aversive - you'll be more likely to carry on."

"Finally, successful resolutions are usually built upon optimal challenges. Setting the bar too high will feel discouraging and lead to disengagement. Keep in mind that with almost any long-term goal the best strategy is to set small incremental goals - not 'I'm going to climb Everest' but rather 'I'm going to take these first few steps toward base camp.'"

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New Year's resolutions are more satisfying when they're focused on others

The time has come for New Year's resolutions, when many...

Breakthrough may greatly improve the production of clean water. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a>, experts have had a breakthrough that may help produce clean drinking water at a lower cost. The researchers solved a complex problem that has baffled scientists for decades.

Desalination membranes remove salt and other chemicals from water, cleaning billions of gallons of water for agriculture. While the concept seems simple, the process of desalination is actually very complex and not well understood. 

In collaboration with DuPont Water Solutions, the researchers have solved an important aspect of this mystery, opening the door to reduce costs of clean water production. 

The team discovered that desalination membranes are inconsistent in density and mass distribution, which limits their performance. This means that uniform density at the nanoscale is the key to increasing how much clean water these membranes can pump out.

"Reverse osmosis membranes are widely used for cleaning water, but there's still a lot we don't know about them," said study co-lead author Manish Kumar0. "We couldn't really say how water moves through them, so all the improvements over the past 40 years have essentially been done in the dark."

The efficiency of the membranes tested in the study increased by 30 to 40 percent. In other words, the membranes could clean more water while using significantly less energy, which could greatly expand access to clean water.

"Fresh water management is becoming a crucial challenge throughout the world," said study co-lead author Professor Enrique Gomez. "Shortages, droughts - with increasing severe weather patterns, it is expected this problem will become even more significant. It's critically important to have clean water availability, especially in low-resource areas."

The research was funded by the National Science Foundation and DuPont, which makes numerous desalination products.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breakthrough may greatly improve the production of clean water

Breakthrough may greatly improve the production of clean water. In...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...