Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

Food supply chains have been severely disrupted by events such as the COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/screen-time-is-a-top-concern-among-parents-during-pandemic/">pandemic</a>, drought, and labor shortages. A team of experts led by <a href="https://www.aalto.fi/en">Aalto University</a> reports that trade restrictions by a few countries could have far-reaching consequences for crop prices and food security. 

"We quantified the potential effects of these co-occurring global and local shocks globally with their impacts on food security," explained Professor Matti Kummu. He said the results of this research have critical implications for how we should prepare for future events like the coronavirus pandemic.

"We saw that trade restrictions by only a few key actors can create large short-term price spikes in the world market export price of grains, which can lead to food insecurity in import-dependent countries," explained study co-author Theresa Falkendal.

The researchers investigated how trade restrictions and local production shocks of rice, wheat, and maize could impact their supply and price. These three staple crops are essential for food security worldwide.

The study revealed that trade restrictions by only three key exporters of each crop would increase the price of wheat by 70 percent, the price of rice by 60 percent, and the price of maize by 40 percent. When these restrictions were combined with the local shocks that occurred last year, the researchers determined that prices would nearly double.

"This is the result of an increasingly interconnected world, in which the majority of countries are dependent on imported food and, so, vulnerable to this kind of shock," said Professor Kummu.

"It's important to realize that food security depends on both local and remote conditions, and imprudent policy decisions in the rich part of the world can plunge people into real hardship in poorer parts of the world," said Falkendal.

However, the shock scenarios modeled by the researchers could become much more common as a result of global warming.

The pandemic's effect on agricultural supply chains, as well as crops destroyed by locusts in parts of Africa and South Asia, have had a devastating effect on food security.

"To help prevent such devastation in the future, we need proactive strategies, like reducing food waste, changing the diet towards more plant-based protein sources, and increasing the yields sustainably particularly in the most vulnerable countries," said Professor Kummu.

"While sustainable design of agricultural systems is important, it must go hand-in-hand with efforts to improve political decisions and accountability," said study co-author Michael J. Puma.

"It's essential that humanitarian institutions strengthen their efforts to support democratic accountability around the world, which will ultimately help us to avoid severe food insecurity and famine."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natfood">Nature Food</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Trade restrictions by a few countries threaten food security

Food supply chains have been severely disrupted by events such...

The gut and the brain are connected in many ways, and a growing collection of research suggests that gut-brain interactions are critically important to our health. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, researchers developed an "organ-on-a-chip" system to investigate how microbes living in the gut affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-severe-covid-19-infections-start-in-the-brain-not-the-lungs/">brain</a> health.

Gut-brain interactions can make us irritable when we are hungry, or cause physical pain in the stomach when we are nervous. Recently, experts have determined that gut bacteria may even influence neurological diseases.

In the lab of study senior author Professor Linda Griffith, researchers have worked for several years developing microphysiological systems - small devices that can be used to grow engineered tissue models of different organs, connected by microfluidic channels. In some cases, these models can offer more accurate information on human disease than animal models can, noted Professor Griffith.

The researchers used this system to model the influence of gut microbes on healthy brain tissue compared to tissue samples obtained from patients with Parkinson's disease. 

The study revealed that short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are produced by microbes in the gut and are transported to the brain, can have very different effects on healthy and diseased brain cells.

"While short-chain fatty acids are largely beneficial to human health, we observed that under certain conditions they can further exacerbate certain brain pathologies, such as protein misfolding and neuronal death, related to Parkinson's disease," said study lead author Martin Trapecar.

Previously, Caltech Professor Sarkis Mazmanian discovered a connection between SCFAs and Parkinson's disease in mice. He showed that SCFAs, which are produced by bacteria as they consume undigested fiber in the gut, sped up the progression of the disease. On the other hand, mice raised in a germ-free environment were slower to develop the disease.

The MIT team set out to expand on these findings using their microphysiological modeling system. For the Parkinson's model, the experts used cells that carry a mutation that causes the accumulation of a protein called alpha synuclein, which damages neurons and causes inflammation in brain cells. They also used brain cells that have this mutation corrected and are otherwise identical to the diseased cells.

First, the researchers studied these two sets of brain cells in microphysiological systems that were not connected to any other tissues. Under this condition, the Parkinson's cells showed more inflammation than the healthy, corrected cells. The Parkinson's cells were also less able to metabolize lipids and cholesterol.

Next, the investigators connected the brain cells to tissue models of the colon and liver, using channels that allow immune cells and nutrients - including SCFAs - to flow between them. The team discovered that for healthy brain cells, being exposed to SCFAs is beneficial, and helps them to mature. However, diseased brain cells did not benefit from exposure to SCFAs. Instead, the cells experienced higher levels of protein misfolding and cell death.

The same effects persisted even when immune cells were removed from the system, indicating that the effects are mediated by changes to lipid metabolism.

"It seems that short-chain fatty acids can be linked to neurodegenerative diseases by affecting lipid metabolism rather than directly affecting a certain immune cell population," said Trapecar. "Now the goal for us is to try to understand this."

The researchers plan to model other types of neurological diseases that may be influenced by gut-brain interactions. According to Professor Griffith, the findings offer support for the idea that human tissue models could yield information that animal models cannot. 

"We should be really pushing development of these, because it is important to start bringing more human features into our models," said Professor Griffith. "We have been able to start getting insights into the human condition that are hard to get from mice."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut-brain interactions have an influence on diseases

The gut and the brain are connected in many ways,...

Mother,Tyrannosaurus,Rex,With,Egg,Of,Baby,Tyrannosaur,Into,Mouth

While tyrannosaurs were some of the largest predators of all time, a new study from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> reveals that their babies were surprisingly small. Scientists have discovered that baby tyrannosaurs were no bigger than a medium-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gifted-dogs-can-learn-words-after-hearing-them-four-times/">dog</a> when they took their first steps.

The study was focused on the fossils of tyrannosaur embryos. The remains are providing brand new insight into the early development of tyrannosaurs, which weighed as much as eight tons and grew up to 40 feet in length.

The team created 3D scans of two tiny one-inch dinosaur bones unearthed in Canada, including a jaw bone and a claw. 

The scans revealed that the delicate remains belonged to baby tyrannosaurs - cousins of Tyrannosaurus rex. The researchers discovered that the jaw bone contained distinctive tyrannosaur features, such as a pronounced chin.

Based on the size of the fossils, the baby tyrannosaurs were around three feet long when they hatched. Study lead author Dr. Greg Funston said the bones can teach us much about their size and appearance.

While tyrannosaur eggs have never been found, the new research indicates that they would have been around 17 inches long. This finding could aid efforts to recognize such eggs in the future and gain greater insights into the nesting habits of tyrannosaurs, explained the researchers.

The earliest developmental stages of tyrannosaurs remain a mystery to scientists. This is because the vast majority of tyrannosaur fossils that have been uncovered belonged to adults or older juveniles.

"These bones are the first window into the early lives of tyrannosaurs and they teach us about the size and appearance of baby tyrannosaurs," said Dr. Funston. "We now know that they would have been the largest hatchlings to ever emerge from eggs, and they would have looked remarkably like their parents - both good signs for finding more material in the future."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/journal/cjes">Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Baby tyrannosaurs were surprisingly small

While tyrannosaurs were some of the largest predators of all...

In a breakthrough study from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a>, biologists are a giant step closer to making an inexpensive, renewable source of energy from a native North American <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plant</a> called switchgrass. 

The researchers conducted an advanced genome analysis of switchgrass, which revealed genes that could ultimately be key to the widespread production of biofuels. 

By linking various switchgrass genes to specific climates, the experts have essentially developed a guide for breeding switchgrass that will perform optimally under current and future climate conditions across the United States. 

According to the researchers, optimizing switchgrass to grow efficiently in many different environments is key to ensuring its success as a biofuel feedstock.

Professor Tom Juenger has been on a mission to optimize switchgrass in his lab at UT Austin for more than a decade. When Professor Juenger analyzed samples provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's switchgrass stocks, he noticed a lack of diversity. 

Study co-author David Lowry was a postdoctoral researcher in Professor Juenger's lab when the research was initiated, and is now an assistant professor of Plant Biology at Michigan State University.

"Originally, a lot of these collections came from us driving around in a pickup truck with a shovel and digging up plants off the side of the road or in parks where we had permits," said Lowry.

Switchgrass is a warm-season perennial with deep roots that grows all over the country. It is an important component of tallgrass prairie habitats, growing up to 12 feet in some regions, and is also considered to be one of the most valuable plants for controlling soil erosion.

Furthermore, switchgrass has recently gained a lot of attention as a potential source of biofuel, which is critically needed to address the climate crisis. 

In collaboration with experts at the Hudson Alpha Institute for Biotechnology and the DOE Joint Genome Institute, the UT Austin team created 10 identical gardens in eight states. They grew clones of more than 1,000 switchgrass samples collected from across North America. 

The researchers assembled a reference genome sequence to compare the diversity among the samples. They documented which varieties thrived and where, matching sections of their DNA with traits that evolved over millennia in response to specific climates.

"We ended up finding three very distinct populations of switchgrass from three regions of the United States, all of which had their own sets of adaptations to climate," said study first author Alice MacQueen. "It means there are potentially multiple evolutionary paths available to match switchgrass plants to particular climates."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Switchgrass could be a major weapon in the fight against climate change

In a breakthrough study from the University of Texas at...

Researchers have found evidence that women's menstrual cycles are synchronized with lunar cycles, including the intensity of moonlight and the moon's gravitational pull. The experts theorize that this synchronization was strongest in ancient times and has been widely lost due to modern lifestyles and exposure to artificial light at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-stay-up-all-night-to-overindulge/">night</a>.

Study lead author Charlotte Förster holds the Chair of Neurobiology and Genetics at the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/university/">University of Würzburg</a> (JMU). "We know many animal species in which the reproductive behavior is synchronized with the lunar cycle to increase reproductive success," said Förster. 

Both menstrual and lunar cycles have a length of around 29.5 days, which indicates that there is a correlation. The idea is also supported by the results of previous research. For example, multiple older studies show that women who have menstrual cycles that are synced up with the moon have the greatest chances of becoming pregnant. 

In addition, two longitudinal studies found a significant connection between lunar cycles and birth rate, with an increase in births during the full moon and a decline in births during the new moon. Further evidence suggests that births are more likely to take place at night when there is a full moon, and in the daytime when there is a new moon. 

To investigate, Förster and her team analyzed the timing of the menstrual cycles of 22 women who had kept menstrual diaries for up to 32 years. "To our knowledge, this approach to analyzing this type of long-term data has not been used before." 

Förster explained that the moon exhibits three distinct cycles that periodically change the intensity of moonlight and its gravitational pull here on Earth. 

The researchers determined that all three lunar cycles influence the onset of menstruation in women. They found that moonlight seems to have the strongest effect, while gravitational forces of the moon also contribute.

Not all women follow the cycle of moonlight, and those that do only sync up for certain periods of time. Women under 35 years of age have menstrual cycles that follow the light and dark phases of the moon for an average of 25 percent of the time.

The connection between menstrual and lunar cycles decreases as women age, and also decreases with exposure to artificial light sources at night. For example, women who go to bed late and leave lights on longer do not show signs of synchronization with the moon.

The fact that humans follow the rhythm of gravity could explain why other cycles, such as when we fall asleep or how long we sleep, are temporarily influenced by a full moon or new moon. 

According to the researchers, the observations suggest that humans respond not only to rapid changes in gravity, like when we are thrown off balance, but also to slow, recurring gravitational changes. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lunar cycles have a secret influence on human reproduction

Researchers have found evidence that women's menstrual cycles are synchronized...

Mineral dust is driving increasingly large algal blooms on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/greenland-glaciers-face-a-triple-threat-from-global-warming/">Greenland</a> Ice Sheet. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> have found that the blooms have created a "Dark Zone" on the western margin of the ice sheet where sunlight is not properly reflected, which causes the ice to melt faster.

Across the Greenland Ice Sheet, surface melting and water runoff has increased by about 40 percent in the last 25 years. The new research indicates that algae living on the melting ice surfaces are contributing to this phenomenon, and that phosphate mineral dust is helping the algal blooms thrive. 

According to study co-author Professor Jim McQuaid, mineral dust can be transported thousands of miles by wind, but the dust examined by the researchers was from local sources. 

"As dryland areas in northerly latitudes become even drier under climate change, we can expect to see more dust transported and deposited on the Greenland Ice Sheet, further fuelling algal blooms," said Professor McQuaid.

"As an atmospheric scientist, it's exciting to see how wind-blown mineral dust is linked to algal bloom development and impacts ice sheet melting."

The algae blooms darken the ice as they spread out. This decreases the ice sheet's albedo, or its ability to reflect sunlight.

The Leeds team analyzed samples from the southwestern margin of the Greenland ice sheet over two years. By examining the surface dust, the experts determined that phosphorus is used as a key nutrient to help the algae grow. 

The researchers identified the phosphorus-containing mineral hydroxylapatite as the source of fuel for the algal blooms in the Dark Zone. The hydroxylapatite was blown onto the ice from neighboring rock outcrops.

"The photosynthesis rate of the ice algae improved significantly when we provided them with a source of phosphorus," said study lead author Dr. Jenine McCutcheon. "Our mineralogy results revealed that the phosphorus used by ice algae may be coming from the hydroxylapatite we identified in the mineral dust."

"It's important to understand the controls on algal growth because of their role in ice sheet darkening. Although algal blooms can cover up to 78% of the bare ice surfaces in the Dark Zone, their abundance and size can vary greatly over time."

"From one season to the next, algal blooms may change and vary in intensity, making them difficult to model year-to-year."

Previous studies have shown that for the last two decades, the melt season in the Dark Zone has started progressively earlier and lasted longer, reducing the ice sheet's ability to reflect solar radiation.

"The glacier ice algae bio-mine the phosphorus from the minerals fueling the blooms that cover larger and larger areas each year, leading to more melting and faster rising sea levels," said Professor Liane G. Benning, who is the principal investigator of the Natural Environment Research Council project Black and Bloom. 

"As current ice sheet and climate models do not include this phenomena, this research will advance these models and give us a greater understanding of the annual lifecycle of algal blooms."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How mineral dust is melting the Greenland ice sheet

Mineral dust is driving increasingly large algal blooms on the...

Bones found in Argentina may belong to the world's largest dinosaur. Experts in Argentina are reconstructing the fossilized bones of what may have been the largest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/when-the-dinosaurs-vanished-forests-expanded-and-thrived/">dinosaur</a> that ever lived on Earth. 

The remains of a 98 million-year-old titanosaur were uncovered in Argentina's northwest Patagonia in 2012. The giant bones, including 24 vertebrae of the tail and elements of the pelvic and pectoral girdle, had been preserved in thick, sedimentary deposits known as the Candeleros Formation.

It was not immediately clear what type of animal had been found. In a new study published in the journal Cretaceous Research, paleontologists report that the remains belonged to a long-necked, plant-eating dinosaur called a titanosaur.

The experts believe the creature is "one of the largest sauropods ever found" and could exceed the size of a Patagotitan, a species which lived about 100 million years ago and measured up to 122 feet in length.

"It is a huge dinosaur, but we expect to find much more of the skeleton in future field trips, so we'll have the possibility to address with confidence how really big it was," said study lead author Alejandro Otero of the Museo de La Plata.

Titanosaur fossils have been found on almost every continent, but the largest "multi-ton" individuals, including those that exceeded 40 tons, have been primarily unearthed in Patagonia.

The experts still need the dinosaur's humerus or femur bones to accurately estimate how much the creature weighed. At the same time, the researchers believe the enormous dinosaur had a body mass as large or larger than that of a Patagotitan or Argentinosaurus.

"While anatomical analysis does not currently allow us to regard it as a new species, the morphological disparity and the lack of equivalent elements with respect to coeval taxa also prevent us from assigning this new material to already known genera," wrote the study authors. 

"This set of extremely large taxa from Patagonia has contributed to a better understanding of the phylogenetic relationships of titanosaurs, revealing the existence of a previously unknown lineage and shedding new light on body mass evolution."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cretaceous-research">Cretaceous Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bones found in Argentina may belong to the world's largest dinosaur

Bones found in Argentina may belong to the world's largest...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a> (AIP) describes how air purifiers can actually worsen airborne <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plant-compounds-in-muscadine-grapes-block-coronavirus-replication/">virus</a> transmission. The researchers found that air purifiers in elevators and other confined spaces facilitate the dispersal of saliva droplets, potentially increasing the spread of viruses. 

Air purifiers are often used in small spaces that are not well-ventilated. These systems use ultraviolet radiation to kill viruses, but they also increase the movement of air as they purify it. This accelerated air circulation has not been considered in previous studies.

Recently, the AIP team demonstrated that saliva droplets can travel 18 feet in five seconds when an unmasked person coughs. The researchers used the same model to examine the effects of face masks and weather conditions.

For the current investigation, the experts simulated conditions in a 3D space equivalent to an elevator with the capacity to hold five people. The team examined the effect of a mild cough in the space, which contained air inlets, air outlets, and an air purifier.

"We quantified the effect of air circulation on airborne virus transmission and showed that installing an air purifier inside an elevator alters the air circulation significantly but does not eliminate airborne transmission," said study co-author Dimitris Drikakis.

The researchers analyzed the role of the air purifier, considering the air intake and exhaust associated with the system. They found that airborne virus transmission is still significant even with an air purifier in place. 

"Our results show that installing an air purifier may increase the droplet spread," said Drikakis. "The air intake integrated inside the purifier equipment induces flow circulation that can add to the transport of contaminated saliva droplets in the cabin."

Since the effect would increase with the number of infected persons in a confined space, the number of people allowed in an elevator should be restricted to minimize the spread of viruses. The study also suggests that air purifier and ventilation systems are in urgent need of improvement.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/journal/phf">Physics of Fluids</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air purifiers help spread airborne viruses in confined spaces

A new study from the American Institute of Physics (AIP)...

In a new report published by <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>, experts have found evidence that listening to music significantly reduces <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-share-a-common-network-in-the-brain/">anxiety</a> and pain after major heart surgery. The findings are based on a meta-analysis of relevant studies. 

Heart surgery patients are often anxious before their procedure, and may experience severe pain afterwards, despite being given sedatives and strong pain relief, explained the researchers. They noted that since music has no risks or side effects like those associated with drugs, clinicians should recommend it to patients scheduled for major heart surgery.

Previous research has indicated that listening to music around the time of any surgery may help to relieve anxiety and pain. In the current study, the researchers set out to investigate whether music can help patients undergoing major heart surgery by reducing their apprehension, length of hospital stay, and their need for drugs.

The experts reviewed the results of 20 relevant clinical trials, which involved 1,169 patients. They also pooled data from 16 studies involving 987 patients.

The music, which was was most often provided to patients through headphones, was usually described as relaxing and free of strong rhythms and percussion.

The music sessions were either repeated several times on the same day or over several days. In some trials, the music was provided only after surgery, while it was provided before, during, and after the procedure in other trials.

Across the various studies, patients in the comparison groups received scheduled rest sessions, headphones with no music, breathing exercises, or standard care. 

An analysis of the data revealed that listening to music significantly reduced anxiety and pain after major heart surgery.

However, patients who were only provided music before surgery did not experience reductions in pain. The researchers also found that several days of listening to music reduced anxiety for up to 8 days after surgery.

The study authors emphasize that several limiting factors need to be taken into consideration when interpreting the findings. For example, some of the trials involved only small numbers of patients. Furthermore, the timing, duration, and type of music varied widely across the studies. 

According to the experts, further research is needed before definitive conclusions can be drawn. Regardless, they say that listening to music is a "promising" option for major heart surgery patients.

"Since music intervention has neither risks nor known side effects, but may have a positive effect on patients' health outcomes, healthcare professionals should consider providing perioperative music for patients undergoing cardiac surgery."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://openheart.bmj.com/">Open Heart</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Music reduces pain and anxiety in heart surgery patients

In a new report published by The BMJ, experts have...

Lake heatwaves are expected to become hotter and last longer by the end of this <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/peatlands-could-release-more-than-100-billion-tons-of-carbon-this-century/">century</a>, according to a new report from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). 

The study has revealed that the average duration of lake heatwaves could increase by an average of three months under a high greenhouse gas scenario. For some lakes, the shift will be permanent.

Prior to this research, little was known about how global warming will affect the frequency and duration of lake heatwaves, which are characterized by periods of extremely warm surface water temperatures. 

To investigate, a team led by Iestyn Woolway modeled the impact of heatwaves on 702 lakes worldwide from 1901 to 2099. 

The researchers found, for the first time, that heatwaves frequently occur in lakes, and that these extreme events are very sensitive to climate variations. 

The projections indicate that lake heatwaves will become progressively worse over the course of this century, especially if greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced. The average duration will increase from around a week to more than three months by 2100.

Even under a conservative emissions scenario, the heatwaves will become hotter and last a month longer on average. According to the study authors, the heatwaves will be less intense but longer lasting in deep lakes. 

The researchers explained that as lakes warm up over the 21st century, heatwaves will extend across all seasons and some lakes will reach a permanent heatwave state.

"Agencies from around the world recently reported that 2020 was part of the warmest decade on record, and climate projections suggest that this warming will continue," said Woodway. 

"Unless climate change is mitigated, our projections suggest that lake heatwaves will become increasingly severe this century, threatening lake biodiversity and pushing ecosystems to the limits of their resilience.”

The research was made possible by the use of long-term satellite observation records generated by ESA’s <a href="https://climate.esa.int/">Climate Change Initiative</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake heatwaves will become hotter and longer lasting

Lake heatwaves are expected to become hotter and last longer...

In a study from <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a>, researchers have investigated how sea level rise may impact coastal airports and disrupt flight routes. The experts found that even a modest increase in global <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-linked-to-low-quality-diets-among-children/">temperatures</a> would place 100 airports below the mean sea level by the end of this century.

The team used computer modeling to analyze the location of more than 14,000 coastal airports around the world and predict their vulnerability to storm surges at both current and future sea levels. 

The study revealed that 269 airports are already at risk of coastal flooding. In addition, a temperature rise of two degrees Celsius would put 100 airports below mean sea level and 364 airports at risk of flooding. Furthermore, if global average temperature rise exceeds two degrees, as many as 572 airports will be at risk by the end of this century.

According to a report by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the world is now on track for an average temperature rise of three degrees Celsius. The current study suggests that this will lead to major flight disruptions without appropriate adaptation, such as increased flood protection, raising land, or relocation.

The team ranked the coastal airports most threatened by sea level rise based on each airport's flood risk, level of flood protection, and impacts in terms of flight disruption. The airports that are most at risk are in Europe, North America, and Oceania. 

Coastal airports in East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific dominated the top 20 most threatened list, with Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok (BKK) coming in first place. 

"These coastal airports are disproportionately important to the global airline network, and by 2100 between 10 and 20% of all routes will be at risk of disruption," said study co-author Professor Richard Dawson. "Sea level rise therefore poses a serious risk to global passenger and freight movements, with considerable cost of damage and disruption."

"Moreover, some airports, for example in low-lying islands, play critical roles in providing economic, social and medical lifelines."

"The cost of adaptation will be modest in the context of global infrastructure expenditure. However, in some locations the rate of sea level rise, limited economic resources or space for alternative locations will make some airports unviable."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/climate-risk-management">Climate Risk Management</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hundreds of coastal airports are threatened by sea level rise

In a study from Newcastle University, researchers have investigated how...

Research has shown that the most common psychological responses to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/most-severe-covid-19-infections-start-in-the-brain-not-the-lungs/">COVID-19</a> pandemic were anxiety, stress, and depression. A new study from the <a href="https://ics-seville.org/university-of-seville/">University of Seville</a> suggests that having indoor plants protected many people from these negative feelings. The researchers found that exposure to houseplants had a positive influence on mental health during the early months of the COVID-19 lockdown. 

The experts evaluated the role of houseplants during the confinement period from March to June, when many people were deprived of freely visiting green spaces. Previous studies have reported on the psychological benefits of nature, including lower levels of stress and a greater sense of well-being. Exposure to plants has also been linked to more positive feelings and behaviors, as well as less anger and fear. 

"These psychological benefits might be related to the so-called biophilia concept (i.e., a preference for interacting in a natural environment as a consequence of our evolutionary course) and based on theories of restorative effects," wrote the study authors. They noted that these restorative effects help to promote a genuine appreciation for nature that motivates pro-environmental behavior and creates more environmentally aware citizens.

"Furthermore, evidence shows that there is an implicit link between 'nature' and 'outdoors' that results in lower attention attributed to indoor vegetation settings," wrote the researchers. "However, in contemporary societies, the increasing amount of time spent indoors often results in separation from the natural environment."

"Living in environments with minimal or absent use of plants could lead to negative behaviors, such as irritation or hostility. These behaviors might be particularly applicable to the COVID-19 pandemic confinement, which was aggravated by additional negative emotions of fear, disappointment, uncertainty, and stress."

For the current investigation, the experts surveyed more than 4,200 individuals in 46 countries. Overall, 74 percent of the respondents agreed that having houseplants had a positive influence on their emotional well-being during lockdown. More than half of the participants said they would have preferred to have more plants in their home at that time. 

Respondents who did not have houseplants were more likely to report experiencing negative emotions compared to individuals who cared for plants during COVID-19 restrictions. People living in small or poorly lit spaces, as well as those who did not visit green spaces frequently before the pandemic, also experienced more negative emotions.

The researchers found that just over half of respondents spent more time on plant care at home during lockdown. In addition, 63 percent of the participants expressed the desire to care for plants more after the pandemic, while 40 percent said they planned to get more plants for their home. 

According to the researchers, a 2019 review of 50 studies concluded that the strongest effect of houseplants on human behavior is their capacity to increase positive emotions and to reduce negative feelings. 

"For instance, a decrease in the perception of pain, fear, unhappiness, and aggressiveness has been found to be associated with the presence of indoor plants. In addition, stress seems to be reduced in indoor environments enriched with vegetation compared with indoor spaces without plants."

The international study was coordinated by the Research Group for Urban Nature and Biosystems Engineering (NATURIB) from the University of Seville's School of Agricultural Engineering. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/urban-forestry-and-urban-greening">Urban Forestry and Urban Greening</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Houseplants boosted psychological well-being during COVID-19 lockdown

Research has shown that the most common psychological responses to...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...