Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp;



The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-global-warming-event-sheds-light-on-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> (UW) offers a more complete picture of how the last Snowball Earth episode ended and sheds light on why it was followed by a major expansion of life, including the emergence of Earth's first animals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-key-earth-properties">Changes in key Earth properties</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51412-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, focuses on ancient rocks known as “cap carbonates,” which are believed to have formed as the planet’s ice sheets thawed.&nbsp;



These rocks provide clues about the state of Earth's atmosphere and oceans roughly 640 million years ago - long before ice cores or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> could record such history.



Study lead author Trent Thomas is a doctoral student in earth and space sciences at UW.



“Cap carbonates contain information about key properties of Earth's atmosphere and ocean, such as changing levels of carbon dioxide in the air or the acidity of the ocean,” said Thomas. "Our theory now shows how these properties changed during and after Snowball Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-cap-carbonates-nbsp">Formation of cap carbonates&nbsp;</h2>



Cap carbonates are layered limestone or dolomite rocks with distinct chemical properties. Today, they can be found in more than 50 locations worldwide, including places like Death Valley, Namibia, Siberia, Ireland, and Australia.&nbsp;



These formations are believed to have resulted from the melting of the ice sheets that once covered Earth, triggering significant shifts in atmospheric and oceanic chemistry. The unique sediments were then deposited on the ocean floor.



The rocks are called “caps” because they lie atop the glacial deposits left behind after the Snowball Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, and they’re classified as “carbonates” because they consist of carbon-containing limestone or dolomite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-appeared-after-the-last-snowball-earth-nbsp">Animals appeared after the last Snowball Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how these rocks formed helps clarify the carbon cycle during periods of dramatic climate shifts. 



This latest study, which models these environmental changes, also provides clues about the evolution of life on Earth and explains why more complex life-forms emerged following the last Snowball Earth.



“Life on Earth was simple - in the form of microbes, algae, or other tiny aquatic organisms - for over two billion years leading up to Snowball Earth,” said senior author David Catling, a professor of earth and space sciences at UW.&nbsp;



“In fact, the billion years leading up to Snowball Earth are called the ‘boring billion’ because so little happened. Then two Snowball Earth events occurred, and soon after, animals appear in the fossil record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-a-snow-covered-earth-nbsp">Chemistry of a snow-covered Earth&nbsp;</h2>



The new research offers a framework to explain how these two events may be connected. The study models the chemistry and geology during three distinct phases of Snowball Earth.&nbsp;



During the peak of the icy period, the thick ice sheets covering the planet reflected sunlight, though some open water allowed limited exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. Meanwhile, the cold seawater continued reacting with the ocean floor.



Over time, carbon dioxide built up in the atmosphere until it trapped enough heat to warm the planet and melt the ice.&nbsp;



Once this occurred, rainfall began again, and freshwater from glacial melt poured into the oceans, creating a layer of meltwater that floated on top of the denser, salty ocean water.&nbsp;



This layering slowed down ocean circulation. Eventually, ocean mixing resumed, allowing the upper ocean, deep ocean, and atmosphere to interact again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-recovery-from-the-snowball-period-nbsp">Earth's recovery from the Snowball period&nbsp;</h2>



“We predict important changes in the environment as Earth recovered from the Snowball period, some of which affected the temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidity</a>, and circulation of the ocean. Now that we know these changes, we can more confidently figure out how they affected Earth’s life,” noted Thomas.



The research team plans to continue exploring how pockets of life that may have survived during Snowball Earth’s tumultuous aftermath could have evolved into the more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> forms that appeared shortly after.



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‘Snowball Earth’ event set the stage for complex life

Some of the most dramatic climate events in history are the Snowball Earth episodes, which occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. Nearly the entire planet was covered in ice up to a kilometer (0.6 miles) thick during these periods.&nbsp; The rare Snowball Earth events did not follow regular cycles but lasted for millions to tens of millions of years before being followed by intense warming. Despite their significance, the details surrounding how these frozen periods ended are still not fully understood. A new study led by...

New research by neuroscientists has revealed that a single brain cell can both sense the environment and control foraging behavior. The study, which used computer modeling to examine a small roundworm called a nematode, was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>. 



The scientists found that the same cells that sense the environment - in this case, cells that sense salt in microscopic nematodes (Caenorhabditis elegans) - also control decision making.&nbsp;



“Our findings are startling – we found simple mechanisms by which salt tasting cells drive a rather sophisticated strategy to forage for food," said study co-lead author Professor Netta Cohen.



"When a nematode first senses a salty environment, the sensory cell that is sensitive to increasing salt concentrations is stimulated - and provides all the information the animal needs to steer into the salt patch."



"We think this is a mechanism built into these sensory cells. Not only is it remarkably effective, but surprisingly, because it all takes place inside the sensors, it is very easy to implement with the basic toolkit that nearly all brain cells have at their disposal."&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The nematodes have only 302 cells altogether, including two cells that sense salt - one activated by increased levels of salt, the other turned on by decreased levels of salt. Together these cells can steer the animal towards salt. Although in some ways nematodes are simple animals, the scientists suspect that other animals may use a similar mechanism for food searches.



“We think this is a mechanism built into these sensory cells. Not only is it remarkably effective, but surprisingly, because it all takes place inside the sensors, it is very easy to implement with the basic toolkit that nearly all brain cells have at their disposal," said Professor Cohen.



While C. elegans may use salt cues to forage for food, we suspect similar mechanisms may be used by other animals to selectively attend to other cues or features of the environment."



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Taste cells may control foraging and decision making

New research by neuroscientists has revealed that a single brain...

A team of experts at the Hudson Alpha Institute for Biotechnology has identified the gene that is responsible for tiger stripes, leopard spots, and other fur patterns found in cats. The colors and fur patterns that cats are born with are the same markings they will have for life.&nbsp;



"From leopards to giraffes to zebras, the developmental biology of self-organizing color pattern in mammals is an unsolved mystery," said Professor Gregory Barsh. "Tigers with black stripes on an orange or white background roam the grasslands of Southeast Asia and India."



"Spotted cheetahs chase antelope through the shrubland in Africa. Jaguars with their rosette patterned coats stalk down prey throughout South and Latin America. And domesticated cats of many coat colors and patterns bask in the sunlight of living rooms across the world."



For their investigation, the researchers analyzed skin samples from non-viable cat embryos at different stages of development.



The genetic analysis of single cells and proteins in the tissue showed that a signaling molecule encoded by the gene Dkk4 plays a central role in determining cat fur patterns, including their shape and color. As the embryo develops, the expression of this molecule drives unique fur patterns that emerge in cats during hair growth.&nbsp;



“Intricate color patterns are one aspect that defines morphological diversity in cats,” said Professor Barsh. He noted that early in development, his team identified strip-like alterations in the thickness of the epidermis preceded by a pre-model of gene expression.



"Our findings lead to a molecular understanding of how the leopard got its spots. They suggest similar mechanisms underpinning the periodic color pattern and hair follicle spacing and identify targets for different variations of the pattern in other mammals."



Dr. Chris Kaelin, a senior scientist at Alpha Hudson, explained that the study has identified a network of molecules involved in pattern formation. "Several of the molecules, including Dkk4, are known to function coordinately as activators and inhibitors, exactly as Alan Turing predicted 70 years ago."



According to Dr. Kelly McGowan, the findings suggest that even before pigment producing melanocyte cells enter the epidermis, the cells are predestined to signal for a specific fur color.



"Our results bring molecular understanding to how the leopard got its spots, suggest that similar mechanisms underlie periodic color pattern and periodic hair follicle spacing, and identify targets for diverse pattern variation in other mammals," wrote the study authors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts have solved the mystery of fur patterns in cats

A team of experts at the Hudson Alpha Institute for...

The,Starry,Night,,,Art,Painting,Oil,Color,Moon,Mountain

A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25477-8">Nature Communications</a> has proposed a new theory to explain innovation in arts and sciences. By using artificial intelligence to mine big data, researchers from the <a href="https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/">Kellogg School of Management</a> at Northwestern University discovered a pattern of creative exploration followed by exploitation that generally led to artists’ and scientists’ most successful breakthroughs.



Jackson Pollock, for instance, spent years drawing, printmaking, and painting surrealist pictures of humans, nature, and animals, before developing his unique “drip technique,” which brought him world fame. Similarly, Vincent Van Gogh painted a series of somber, realistic pictures before experiencing his artistic breakthrough from 1888-1890, during which he painted his most innovative works.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“If you look at his production before 1888, it was all over the place,” said lead author Dashun Wang, director of the <a href="https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/research/science-of-science.aspx">Center of Science &amp; Innovation</a> at Northwestern University. “It was full of still-life paintings, pencil drawings and portraits that are much different in character from the work he created during his hot streak.”



As Professor Wang and colleagues explained in a previous <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0315-8">study</a>, hot streaks highlight specific periods during which an individual’s performance is substantially better than his or her typical performance. In their new study, by analyzing data from 2,128 visual artists, 4,337 film directors, and 20,040 scientists, Wang and his team discovered that hot streaks emerge from years of exploration (painstaking study of diverse topics and styles), followed by a period of exploitation (focus on a narrow area to develop deep expertise).



“Neither exploration nor exploitation alone in isolation is associated with a hot streak. It’s the sequence of them together,” explained Wang.&nbsp;



“Although exploration is considered a risk because it might not lead anywhere, it increases the likelihood of stumbling upon a great idea. By contrast, exploitation is typically viewed as a conservative strategy."&nbsp;



"If you exploit the same type of work over and over for a long period of time, it might stifle creativity. But, interestingly, exploration followed by exploitation appears to show consistent associations with the onset of hot streaks.”&nbsp;



According to co-author Jillian Chown, an assistant professor of management and organizations at the Kellogg School of Management, identifying this universal pattern across creative domains “can help individuals and organizations understand the different types of activities to engage in - such as exploring new domains or exploiting existing knowledge and competencies - and the optimal sequence to use in order to achieve the most significant impact.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts discover a pattern that drives artistic breakthroughs

A recent study published in the journal Nature Communications has...

Sea ice reduction in the Arctic caused by global warming diminishes the genetic diversity of polar bears, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>. By isolating polar bear groups from one another, sea ice melting forces the bears to inbreed, which gradually decreases their genetic differentiation.&nbsp;&nbsp;



A team of Norwegian researchers funded by the Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research and the World Wildlife Fund analyzed DNA samples from 622 polar bears in the archipelago of Svalbard in Norway. The experts discovered a 3 to 10 percent loss in their genetic diversity from 1995 to 2016. According to the scientists, this loss of diversity is caused by inbreeding. The shrinking of polar bears’ habitats due to sea ice melting is isolating different groups of bears, reducing thus their mating possibilities and forcing them to inbreed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The magnitude and rate of loss of genetic diversity and gene flow that we observed is alarming considering that polar bears have historically shown relatively little genetic differentiation even on a global scale, but now are facing increasingly strong climatic selective pressure,” the scientists reported.&nbsp;



The loss of genetic diversity within isolated populations of polar bears was accompanied by an almost 200 percent increase in genetic differentiation between regions, showing that polar bears are starting to form several genetic subpopulations which become increasingly different from one another.&nbsp;



In the future, the effects of climate change on polar bears’ populations may be even more drastic. Increased levels of isolation might ultimately cause a phenomenon called “inbreeding depression,” a significant reduction of the survival and fertility rates of offspring born from genetically related parents. Such a phenomenon can strongly endanger a population’s ability to survive and reproduce, bringing it to the brink of extinction.



Further research is needed to develop conservation strategies for endangered species such as these. “Our study shows that tracking of temporal population-genetic changes will become important for our understanding of how polar bears and other ice-dependent species may cope with rapid habitat fragmentation and loss in the Arctic and Antarctic,” concluded the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea ice loss forces polar bears to inbreed

Sea ice reduction in the Arctic caused by global warming...

The summer of 2021 is the hottest on record in the United States, according to the latest climate report from <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">NOAA</a>. The average temperature this summer in the contiguous U.S. was 74.0 degrees Fahrenheit, which is 2.6 degrees above average in the last 126 years of record keeping.



According to NOAA, this technically exceeds the record heat of the 1936 Dust Bowl Summer, but the difference is extremely small - less than 0.01 of a degree.



"A record 18.4 percent of the contiguous U.S. experienced record-warm temperatures. California, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon and Utah each reported their warmest summer on record, as 16 other states had a top-five warmest summer on record," states NOAA.



The news comes shortly after July 2021 was established as being the world's hottest month ever. Many states throughout the country experienced both record heat and rainfall.&nbsp;



Summer of 2021 will be remembered as a season of deadly extremes, including severe weather, flash flooding, record wildfires, and tropical cyclones.&nbsp;



"Devastating flash flooding and fatalities resulted from multiple events during August including Tropical Storm Fred in western North Carolina, convective flooding from a complex of storms across middle Tennessee, Hurricane Ida across Louisiana and portions of the Northeast in early September and from Tropical Storm Henri, also across parts of the Northeast. With 35 fatalities accounted for during August, it was the deadliest month for flooding across the U.S. since Hurricane Harvey in 2017," the report states.&nbsp;



"Wildfires continued to spread across the western U.S. during August as the Dixie Fire in north-central California became the second-largest fire in the state’s history. The Caldor Fire also in California grew rapidly during August, threatening South Lake Tahoe communities. Air quality remained a concern across the U.S. as ash and fine particulates from the many wildfires obscured the skies."



In June, NOAA and NASA released a study which found that Earth's atmosphere is trapping an "unprecedented" amount of heat - with the planet's energy imbalance approximately doubling from 2005 to 2019.



"Continued increases in concentrations of well-mixed greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere and the long time-scales time required for the ocean, cryosphere, and land to come to thermal equilibrium with those increases result in a net gain of energy, hence warming, on Earth," explained the study authors.



"Most of this excess energy (about 90 percent) warms the ocean, with the remainder heating the land, melting snow and ice, and warming the atmosphere."



The rapid changes are partially due to natural variability, but are primarily driven by human-caused global warming that is associated with greenhouse gas emissions. From the record heat wave that struck the Pacific Northwest in late June to the rapid intensification of Hurricane Ida, scientists warn that these trends will continue alongside human-caused global warming.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Summer 2021 was the hottest ever in the contiguous U.S.

The summer of 2021 is the hottest on record in...

The chief editors of 17 health journals based around the world have simultaneously published an editorial in 233 international journals to address the climate crisis.&nbsp;The report makes an urgent appeal to world leaders to limit rising temperatures, halt the destruction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/investing-in-nature-is-needed-to-avoid-the-next-pandemic/">nature</a>, and to restore biodiversity and protect health.



At a time when the world has been focused on dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic, the authors of the editorial warn that the health impacts of climate change combined with the consequences of extreme weather events and the widespread degradation of ecosystems could be far more severe than the current pandemic.&nbsp;



According to Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General of the World Health Organization, the risks posed by climate change could dwarf those of any single disease.&nbsp;



"The COVID-19 pandemic will end, but there is no vaccine for the climate crisis. The IPCC report shows that every fraction of a degree hotter endangers our health and future. Similarly, every action taken to limit emissions and warming brings us closer to a healthier and safer future," said Dr. Ghebreyesus.



This warning comes just prior to the UN General Assembly meeting which is one of the last international meetings to be held before the (COP26) climate conference in Glasgow, UK, in November. It is thus an appropriate time to urge the leaders of all countries to develop workable strategies to honor the goals of the Paris Agreement.&nbsp;



The editorial authors state that the greatest threat to global public health in the future is the continued failure of world leaders to take adequate action to keep the global temperature rise below 1.5°C.



While there have been some recent commitments to reduce emissions and protect biodiversity, these fall far short of what is needed. The editorial urges governments worldwide to develop credible short- and long-term plans to limit global warming and to invest in the transformation of societies and economies. For example, there needs to be significant redesign of transport systems, cities, production and distribution of food, markets for financial investments, and health systems. These changes would bring much needed jobs, cleaner air, better health for citizens, improved housing and better-quality food.



According to the authors of the editorial, the global action needed would only be realized if high-income countries were to reduce their own consumption and support the initiatives in less developed countries. Developed countries have an outstanding commitment to provide $100 billion a year which, if fulfilled, would increase climate funding for less-developed countries that often bear the brunt of climate change catastrophes.&nbsp;



The impacts of climate change are disproportionately felt by the most vulnerable of populations in less-developed countries, including children, the elderly, ethnic minorities, poverty-stricken communities and those with underlying health conditions. With this in mind, the editorial suggests that money should be provided to low-income countries in the form of grants, and that the debts of these countries should be relieved so that climate change organizations on the ground can operate without constraints.&nbsp;



Global warming affects all people on earth and the recent IPCC report shows that, until the world has reached net-zero greenhouse gases, the planet will continue to warm. It is the responsibility of governments to seize this opportunity to propose and plan ambitious climate goals in order to limit temperature rise and reduce the impact of a warming planet.



“As health professionals, we must do all we can to aid the transition to a sustainable, fairer, resilient, and healthier world,” wrote the experts. “We, as editors of health journals, call for governments and other leaders to act, marking 2021 as the year that the world finally changes course.”



Professor Lukoye Atwoli, Editor-in-Chief of the East Africa Medical Journal, and one of the co-authors of the editorial, noted that while low- and middle-income countries have historically contributed less to climate change, they bear an inordinate burden of the adverse effects, including on health. "We therefore call for equitable contributions whereby the world’s wealthier countries do more to offset the impact of their actions on the climate, beginning now, and continuing into the future.”



“Health professionals have been on the frontline of the COVID-19 crisis and they are united in warning that going above 1.5C and allowing the continued destruction of nature will bring the next, far deadlier crisis," said Dr Fiona Godlee, Editor-in-Chief of&nbsp;The BMJ. "Wealthier nations must act faster and do more to support those countries already suffering under higher temperatures. 2021 has to be the year the world changes course - our health depends on it.”



Seye Abimbola,&nbsp;Editor-in-Chief of&nbsp;BMJ Global Health, said:&nbsp;“What we must do to tackle pandemics, health inequities, and climate change is the same - global solidarity and action that recognize that, within and across nations, our destinies are inextricably linked, just as human health is inextricably linked to the health of the planet.”



HE Sheikh Hasina, Prime Minister of Bangladesh and Chair of the Climate Vulnerable Forum, emphasized that every country must pursue an ambitious target to curb greenhouse gas emissions to keep the global temperature-rise below 1.5ºC. "Developed nations should facilitate the green recovery of the CVF-V20 countries. Dedicated support is required for reducing the cost of capital and encouraging private sector participation. Strict implementation of the Paris Agreement is the only way to check global emissions and thereby global warming. The time to take action to save the planet is not tomorrow, but today."



The editorial has been published in medical, nursing and public health journals around the world. These include The BMJ,<a href="https://www.thelancet.com/">&nbsp;The Lancet</a>,&nbsp;the&nbsp;New England Journal of Medicine, the&nbsp;East African Medical Journal, the&nbsp;Chinese Science Bulletin, the&nbsp;National Medical Journal of India, the&nbsp;Medical Journal of Australia, and 50 BMJ specialist journals including&nbsp;BMJ Global Health&nbsp;and&nbsp;Thorax. Never before have so many journals joined forces to publish the same message.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate editorial calls for urgent action by world leaders

The chief editors of 17 health journals based around the...

Bodies of water are home to some of the most bizarre creatures that humans have studied, and many more are still yet to be discovered. A prime example of this is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-impact-of-fire-on-amazon-biodiversity/">Amazon</a> River basin, which provides a habitat for around 15 percent of all freshwater fish species currently known, with an estimated 40 percent of additional species yet to be named. One of the strangest of these lesser-studied fishes includes the appropriately named "vampire fish," a member of the catfish subfamily Vandellinae and known locally as "candiru."



These catfish earned their name for the way they attach themselves to other fish and suck their blood. However, researchers have now discovered that one vampire fish sub-species of the genus Paracanthopoma attaches itself to fish in a very unique way.



The research team conducted a sampling study of freshwater fauna in the Demeni River Basin, located on a left-bank tributary of the Negro River. The study identified candirus that were attached to the bodies of Doras phlyzakion, a species of Amazonian thorny catfish. Across each of the nine catfish that were studied, one or two candirus were found attached close to the lateral bone plates, as opposed to their normal preference of the gills.&nbsp;



Normally, vampire fish use their strong teeth and robust snouts to attach to the epidermis of their host and suck their blood, a process that causes significant damage to the prey. However, macroscopic analysis of the stomach contents of the studied sub-species showed that no blood, flesh, skin, or mucus was present.&nbsp;



“We believe the association between candiru and host, in this case, might be commensalistic, rather than parasitic, because the hosts were not badly harmed, and the candiru apparently derived no food benefit,” explained study lead author Chiara Lubich of the Federal University of Amazonas.



Ultimately, this means that this particular type of vampire fish is much less benign than its relations, which raises the question – why do they attach themselves to the thorny catfish? While the answer to this question is unknown, it could be possible that the attachment presents an opportunity to hide from predators due to their tiny size and transparent appearance.&nbsp;



However, it is also possible that as opposed to hiding from predators, the candirus are instead using the larger catfish as a transportation method to locate new food sources.



The research has been published in the journal <a href="https://aiep.pensoft.net/">Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:calumvaughan05@gmail.com">Calum Vaughan</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The vampire fish that doesn’t suck blood

Bodies of water are home to some of the most...

A new study has revealed that dogs become attached to the voice of their owners. The researchers found that the sound of an owner's voice generates brain activity in dogs similar to the neural responses of newborn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-have-reduced-pain-response-with-skin-to-skin-contact/">babies</a> while listening to their mother.



Among human infants, the reward center of the brain is activated by their mother’s voice. This response is associated with feelings of love, and is also linked to the reassurance that infants receive from their mothers in unfamiliar situations. The researchers set out to investigate whether dogs have the same kind of attachment to their owners.



“To study the brain mechanisms behind dog-owner attachment is particularly exciting, because it can help to understand how similar this unique bond between individuals of different species can be to other well-known relationships between conspecifics (e.g. infant-mother attachment),” explained study lead author Anna Gábor of <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd University</a>.



“Some years ago we discovered that dog brains are sensitive to verbal praises, but it remained unexplored how the relationship with the speaker affects this sensitivity."



The study was focused on the “Strange Situation Test, which has been used in the past to analyze how children respond to the absence of their caregivers. The experts also used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe the brain activity of dogs as they listened to praise or neutral speaking by their owner. The dogs also listened to a person who was familiar to them.



The analysis showed that the reward centers of the dogs' brains were more sensitive to the owner’s voice compared to that of a familiar person. The experts also determined that dogs who were more attached to their owners showed a greater neural response to their owner's voice, even when the dog was not being praised.&nbsp;



“The basic function of attachment is to keep the dependent individual (infant, dog) in the proximity of the caregiver,” said study co-author Márta Gácsi. “Our results point out that in dogs, just like in infants, not only positive interactions with the caregiver, but even listening to their neutral voice is rewarding.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/neuroimage">NeuroImage</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs become attached to their owner's voice

A new study has revealed that dogs become attached to...

Office air quality can affect employees’ cognitive functioning, measured in terms of response times and ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-exercises-improve-focus-in-children-with-adhd/">focus</a>, as well as their overall productivity, according to new research conducted at <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a>.



The longitudinal one-year study included over 300 participants from offices across six countries (China, India, Mexico, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States). The researchers discovered increased concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and high CO2 levels were associated with low ventilation rates and significantly decreased cognitive functioning.&nbsp;



To study the correlation between office air quality and cognitive functioning, the scientists monitored the concentrations of PM2.5 and CO2 in real time, as well as the temperature and humidity in participants’ offices. Each participant had a custom-designed app installed on their phones and was prompted to participate in cognitive tests and surveys at pre-established times or when sensors detected particularly high or low PM2.5 and CO2 levels.



The scientists discovered that as concentrations of pollutants increased, the participants performed worse at tests assessing cognitive speed, inhibitory control, and working memory.&nbsp;



“Our study adds to the emerging evidence that air pollution has an impact on our brain. The findings show that increases in PM2.5 levels were associated with&nbsp;acute&nbsp;reductions in cognitive function.&nbsp;It’s the first time we’ve seen&nbsp;these short-term effects among younger adults,” said study lead author Jose Guillermo Cedeño Laurent, a research fellow in the <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/environmental-health/">Department of Environmental Health</a>.



“The study also confirmed how low ventilation rates negatively impact cognitive function. Overall, the study suggests that poor indoor air quality affects health and productivity significantly more than we previously understood.”



According to senior co-author Professor Joseph Allen, the findings show that although the world is rightly focused (in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic) on improving office ventilation and filtration in order to slow indoor viral transmission, other health hazards associated with indoor pollutants must also be acknowledged.



“Our research consistently finds that the value proposition of these strategies extends to cognitive function and productivity of workers, making healthy buildings foundational to public health and business strategy moving forward,” concluded Professor Allen.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac1bd8">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Office air quality affects cognitive functioning and productivity

Office air quality can affect employees’ cognitive functioning, measured in...

Soil has traditionally been seen as the source of water and dissolved nutrients for plants. In a recent study, however, researchers at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> have questioned this assumption. They propose that the layer of weathered bedrock that lies under the soil is more important in terms of supplying water to the roots of trees in forests.&nbsp;



Weathered bedrock is in the process of breaking down and becoming soil, and has many cracks and pores where water can accumulate. Plant roots often grow through the soil and penetrate deep into the zone of weathered bedrock, which is known to store water for longer than the soil does. This means that water contained in bedrock may be an important reservoir for forest trees, potentially shifting the way that scientists understand forest ecosystem functioning and the threats of global climate change.



“With droughts intensifying, bedrock could be as key to understanding our forests as soils,” said study co-author Daniella Rempe, an assistant professor at the UT Jackson School of Geosciences.



For decades, scientists from around the world have documented the fact that tree roots penetrate below the layer of surface soil and into fissures in the underlying bedrock, but these accounts have tended to remain anecdotal. The extent of this phenomenon, and its relevance in the water cycle within ecosystems were not known. However, the importance of this overlooked layer between the soil and the groundwater may now become a prime focus for researchers as forests are exposed to the effects of global warming and climate change.&nbsp;



“It’s taken 100 years to come from this anecdotal evidence - oh wow, tree roots can actually go that deep - to understanding that this is probably, in many places, an important part of defining ecosystem dynamics,” said Susan Schwinning, a professor at Texas State University who was not directly involved with the research. She added that the study provides a huge leap in knowledge because it proves that what was once considered atypical behavior is actually essential.



The study made use of publicly available data, including rates of precipitation and evaporation in forests between 2003 and 2017. The researchers used these data to calculate a conservative estimate of the contribution of bedrock water to tree transpiration across the USA. Their results indicated that woody plants in many different biomes and climates routinely access bedrock moisture. In fact, the volume of bedrock water transpired by woody plants in California alone is equal to the capacity of all the water reservoirs in that state.&nbsp;



In addition, field studies from sites in California and Texas reveal that plants use more water from bedrock than they do from the soil. At six sites in California and two in central Texas, more than 50 percent of water transpired by trees came from the layer of weathered bedrock. &nbsp;At some of these sites the rocks held as much as 10 times more water than the soil did.&nbsp;



The researchers found that trees commonly tap bedrock to access the stored water. They detected this behavior in about 24 percent of forests and shrublands, which represents a total area that exceeds the size of Texas.&nbsp;



It is clear that water stored in rock under the soil is critical to the survival of trees and that this reservoir should not be ignored when analysing the water available to trees during both mild and drought conditions. However, according to study leader Erica McCormick, more research needs to be done in order to find out exactly how and when trees access this water in the bedrock.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We have much left to explore,” she said. “We have tools for investigating and describing soil processes, but we need data and experiments to tell us how to treat bedrock.”



The results of this study were published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bedrock may be secretly supplying trees with water

Soil has traditionally been seen as the source of water...

Large populations of wolves are currently expanding across Europe, prompting experts to search for solutions to build harmonious relationships between these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-can-become-disease-reservoirs-due-to-genetics/">carnivores</a> and human communities. A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> examined rural communities in Spain with wolf populations in their proximity to identify ways of peaceful coexistence.&nbsp;



Spain is home to one of Europe’s largest wolf populations, including almost 2,500 wolves. A research team led by doctoral student Hanna Pettersson from Leeds’ <a href="https://environment.leeds.ac.uk/sustainability-research-institute">Sustainability Research Institute</a> examined three village communities from Spain: one with a permanent presence of wolves, one where the wolves have recently returned, and one community where their return is expected within the following decade.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that the social, economic, and ecological conditions for coexistence in these communities varied considerably. For instance, guardian dogs trained to fend off wolf attacks were efficient in one location, but less feasible in another, due to factors such as topography or tourism.



“The main problem with wolves in areas where wolves and people shared space was often less about the wolves themselves, but about economic and social pressures that were threatening the livelihoods, cultures and autonomy of local communities,” explained Pettersson.&nbsp;



“Today, thanks to strict conservation laws, urbanization and improved habitat conditions, we are seeing a return and expansion of large carnivores, such as wolves, to many types of landscapes across Europe. This is a hopeful sign for the global nature restoration movement, which is a crucial part of dealing with the ongoing biodiversity and climate crises.”



Pettersson and her team identified several key conditions that are needed for the peaceful coexistence of people and wolves. First off, effective institutions that can tailor the demands of global conservation priorities to local conditions and communities are necessary. Such institutions must be able not only to ensure the long-term survival of wolf populations, but also to provide low levels of risk or vulnerability to human communities and their livestock.&nbsp;



Importantly, decision-making should be a collective endeavor, tailored to the needs of local communities. “We must ensure that solutions are built collectively and that decision-making is supported by a large part of society - especially by the people, entities and groups affected,” said Pettersson.



“Wolves are returning to places where they have been extinct for decades, sometimes centuries. The key challenge we face is preparing and supporting communities so that they can adapt and flourish, thanks to, or sometimes despite, their return,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2021.710218/full">Frontiers in Conservation Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wolf populations are expanding across Europe

Large populations of wolves are currently expanding across Europe, prompting...

The average person is quick to assign a personality to their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-over-50-got-pandemic-pets/">pets</a> and perhaps project this idea onto other non-human animals. Scientists, however, are historically reluctant to acknowledge personality in other animals. A new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> is the first to document individual personalities in gold-mantled ground squirrels. 



Although golden-mantled ground squirrels are not at risk of extinction, this study may pave the way toward broader conservation and management strategies. Traditionally, conservationists look at populations or species over individuals. 



Study author and PhD student Jaclyn Aliperti explained why individuals matter when it comes to wildlife conservation.



“This adds to the small but growing number of studies showing that individuals matter. Accounting for personality in wildlife management may be especially important when predicting wildlife responses to new conditions, such as changes or destruction of habitat due to human activity," said Aliperti.



Golden-mantled ground squirrels have been studied for 30 years at Colorado’s Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory. Drawing on the accumulated data, Aliperti conducted squirrel personality tests.&nbsp;



Squirrels were put through four simple tests while their behavior was observed. First, the squirrels were put in a novel environment - a box with grid lines and holes. Next, squirrels were presented with a mirror to see if they could recognize their own reflection.&nbsp;



In addition, the squirrels were slowly approached by researchers to see at what point they fled. Furthermore, the individuals were caught unharmed in a trap and briefly watched to determine their behavior. 



The study revealed that the squirrels exhibit four main personality traits: boldness, aggressiveness, activity level and sociability.



The research also looked at squirrel behavior in relation to their environments and found that bolder squirrels had larger territories and greater access to rocks and other desired perches.&nbsp;



Aliperti is hopeful that this research will resonate with the public in general and help generate interest in wildlife,



“Animal personality is a hard science, but if it makes you relate to animals more, maybe people will be more interested in conserving them,” said Aliperti.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ground squirrels found to be full of personality

The average person is quick to assign a personality to...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...